Hardware

Store Programs: The Von Neumann Model

▪ Von Neumann computers process data using a stored
program concept

What is Stored program concept?

▪ The instruction and data are stored in main memory Fetch Main Memory
CPU (instruction &
▪ Thus, CPU runs a program by accessing main memory data)
using fetch-decode-execute cycle.
 CPU :Hardware Component of a Computer
• is the electronic circuit responsible for executing or processing of all the
instructions and data in a computer application.
• Is also called processor or microprocessor
• Consists of
• CU
• ALU
• Clock
• Register
• Bus
 CPU :Hardware Component of a Computer
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
ALU perform arithmetic (+,- and shifting) and
logic operations.
Multiplication and division are carried out by a
sequence of addition, subtraction and left or
right shift
Control Unit (CU)
CU is the part of CPU that control the flow of
data and the interaction between different part
of CPU.

Clock
An electronic device inside a CPU that produce
timing signals on the control bus to ensure this
vital synchronization takes places – without the
clock the computer would simply crash.
 CPU :Hardware Component of a Computer
Register
A storage area inside the CPU used to hold an instruction, an address or data.

▪ Memory Address Register (MAR): This stores the address of the memory location
currently being read or written to

▪ Memory Data Register (MDR): This is stores data that is being stored to or retrieved
from memory

▪ Accumulator (ACC) : This hold the results of calculations performed by ALU. All input
and output from the CPU pass through the accumulator

▪ Program Counter (PC) : This holds the memory address of the next instruction to be
fetched.

▪ Current instruction Register (CIR): This holds the instruction currently being executed.
 CPU :Hardware Component of a Computer
Bus
▪ The bus that connect the CPU to other devices.
▪ System bus are used in computers as parallel
transmission

▪ Address bus
▪ Unidirectional
▪ This carries memory address between the CPU
and Memory or Input/output devices

▪ Data Bus
▪ Control Bus
▪ Bidirectional
▪ Bidirectional
▪ This carries data value to be read from or written
▪ This carries the control signals from
to memory or Input/output devices
CU to other computer components.
 CPU :Hardware Component of a Computer
Bus width
▪ The number of wires that make up a bus. This determines the range of binary
numbers that can be communicated
▪ The wider the address bus , the more memory locations that can be directly
addressed at any given time.
▪ The wider the data bus, the larger the word length that can be transported

Eg a bus width 16 bits can address 216 (65536) memory

locations whereas a bus width of 32 bits allow 2 32 memory
location

NOTE : A word is a group of bits ( eg 16 bits, 32 bits)

1
2
3
 System bus and Memory
Address Contents
0000 0000 1100 1010
• Memory (RAM) is split into a number of partitions to store
data. 0000 0001 1011 0001
• Each partition consists of an unique ADDRESS and its 0000 0010 1111 1011
CONTENTS (data)(both in binary form)
.
• Use two register to read/write the data in memory. .
• Memory Address Register : store the address
1111 1110 0001 0010
• Memory Data Register : store the contents/ data
1111 1111 0111 1011
Memory
Address (RAM)
The location of where
data can be stored in
a computer memory
 System bus and Memory
• Read Operation
• Read 0000 0010 (instruction) Address Contents/Data
0000 0000 1100 1010
Step 1: The address is written in MAR.
MAR 0000 0001 1011 0001
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0000 0010 1111 1011
.
Step 2: The read signal is sent to the .
memory via the control bus
1111 1110 0001 0010
1111 1111 0111 1011
Step 3: The content of address in MAR
are written in MDR

MDR
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
System bus and Memory
• Write Operation Address Contents
• Write 0001 0010 to 1111 1111
0000 0000 1100 1010
Data ADD
Step 1: The data is written in MDR. 0000 0001 1011 0001
MDR 0000 0010 1111 1011
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
.
Step 2: The address of location is .
written in MAR
1111 1110 0001 0010
MAR
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1111 1111 0001
0111 1011
0010
Step 3: The write signal is sent to the
memory via the control bus
 Fetch – Decode- Execute cycle

• In store program concept, the data and instructions are stored in the same
memory (RAM)
• To carry out a set of instructions, the processor first of all FETCHES some
data and instructions from memory and store in register.
• Each instruction needs to be decoded before finally being EXECUTED.
• This is all known as the FETCH–EXECUTE CYCLE
 Fetch – Decode- Execute cycle
PC
3004
3003 Memory (RAM)
3001 5
MAR
3002
3003
3001
3003 Read 3001
MDR 3004 Write …..
Read 3001

CIR
Read 3001
Fetch – Decode- Execute cycle
The PC contain the address of the next
instruction to be fetched

This address is copied to MAR via the

address bus

The instruction at the address is copied

into MDR temporarily

The instruction in MDR is then placed in

CIR

If the instruction contain an address, it is

placed in MAR

The value in PC is incremented, pointed

to the next instruction to be fetched

The instruction is decoded and executed

 Fetch – Decode- Execute cycle
Fetch
▪ The CU places the memory address of next instruction
on the address bus and send the control signal
requesting to read from memory
▪ The memory receives the signal and look up that Address
RAM
memory address. Control
▪ The data in the memory is copied on to the data bus CU
▪ The CPU copies this data into a CIR Data
Decode
▪ The CU decode the contents of CIR and send the
signal to other parts of the CPU telling them what to do
Execute
▪ The instruction is completed by the CPU
 Factors that Affect CPU Performance
Clock Speed
▪ The clock define the clock cycle that synchronizes all computer operation
▪ The rate at which instruction are processed by the CPU is controlled by clock speed.
▪ The faster the clock speed, the faster the rate of processing.
▪ Clock speed of CPU 3.5 GHZ which means 3.5 million clock cycles a second
▪ However, increasing the clock speed to increase processing speed has disadvantages
✔ The instruction are processed by transistors and the rate at which they operate is limited
✔ Execution of instructions outside design limits can lead to seriously unsynchronized
operations – the computer would frequently crash and become unstable.
✔ The processor generates a large amount of head and this increase as the clock speed
increase. A fan and head sink help to get ride of excess heat and prevent if from even
melting
✔ Processor with clock speeds of 9 GHz require cooling by liquid nitrogen.
 Factors that Affect CPU Performance
Bus width
• The width of address bus and data bus can also affect computer performance
• Increasing bus width ( address and data ) increases the performance and speed of a system
 Factors that Affect CPU Performance
Number of Processor core
▪ Multicore processor increase the processor
speed
▪ Multicore processor has more than one
processor
▪ The advantages of multicore processor over
single-core processor
✔ Together on the same program- this is called
parallel processing
✔ On different programs at the same time- This
is called multitasking
▪ However, not all program will run at twice speed
with dual-core processor.
▪ The tasks required might not able to be carried
out in parallel.
1 2

3 4
 Factors that Affect CPU Performance
Size of Cache
▪ In fetch- execute cycle, the bottleneck is caused
by main memory because the RAM is slower
than the CPU.
▪ The speed of processing is limited by RAM, CPU Low speed RAM
which supplies the instructions regardless of how c
much clock speed is increased or how many
cores are used.
▪ The solution to bottleneck is to use faster
memory (cache) within CPU
▪ This memory is used to stored frequently used
data High Low
speed speed
▪ Thus CPU check the fast cache for the data need
▪ CPU does not have to wait for to be fetched from CPU Cache RAM
the main memory
▪ With a larger cache that the instruction or data to
be fetched is in the cache and so the RAM need
to be accessed. This will speed up processing
 Instruction Set

• Instruction are a set of operation.

• Each operation will instruct the ALU and CU
• An operation is made up of opcode and operand
add 2,3
Opcode identifies what action Operand identifies what data is
the CPU has to perform to be used.

• Since the computer need to understand the operation to be carried out , there are actually a limited
number of opcodes that can be used; it is known as instruction set.

Instruction set : A complete set of machine code instruction used a particular

microprocessor
 Component of Von Neumann Model

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Clock Control Unit (CU)

Arithmetic/logic Unit(ALU)

Input Device PC CIR

Output Device
Register
MAR MDR AC

Cache Memory

Main Memory (RAM)

 Input Device

• is any hardware devices that send data and commands to

computer, allowing to interact and control it.

ABC Input Devices

User

Data
 Input Device

• The input devices include:

Scanner
Barcode Reader QR Code Reader

Digital Cameras
Keyboards Mouse (Pointing
Devices)

Microphones
Touchscreens Sensors

Interactive Whiteboards
 Output Device

• show the results of computer processing in a humanly understandable

form (e.g. printers, monitors and loudspeakers, projector).

Output
Device
 Storage Device
• Memory and storage devices can be split up into two distinct groups:
• primary memory
• secondary storage
 Storage Device : Primary Memory
• A unit of memory in computer that is accessed directly by CPU
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Primary Memory :Hardware Component of a Computer

Primary Memory can be directly accessed by CPU.

Random Access Memory (RAM) Read Only Memory (ROM)

It can be written to, read from or It can only read from. Its contents are
erased. Its contents are temporary. permanent
RAM is volatile. It lose its contents ROM is non-volatile. Its retain
when power is switched off contents when the power is switched
off
RAM hold the operating system, ROM holds firmware ( BIOS) and
running programs and data for other data need to start up
processing
RAM can be increased in size to ROM tends to be much smaller in
improve operational speed of a capacity.
computer
 Primary Memory :Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• consists of a number of transistors and capacitors

• capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
• transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
• Has to be refreshed continuously every 15 microseconds otherwise it will lose
its value.
• DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:
• less expensive than SRAM
• consume less power than SRAM
• have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.
 Primary Memory :Static RAM (SRAM)

• doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed.

• use ‘flip flops’ to hold each bit (data) of memory.
• much faster than DRAM
• CPU memory cache make use of SRAM
• Cache memory is a high-speed portion of the memory
• By keeping the most frequently used data and instruction in SRAM (cache),
the computer avoids having to access the slower DRAM
 Secondary Storage (and off-line)
Secondary Storage
▪ Secondary storage is needed for
✔ Storage of data and program when power is turn off
✔ Storage of data that can change
✔ Backup of data file
What is Secondary storage
✔ Secondary (and off-line) storage includes storage devices that are not directly addressable by the CPU.
✔ They are non-volatile devices that allow data to be stored as long as required by the user.
✔ This type of storage can store more data than primary memory, but data access time is considerably longer than with
RAM or ROM.
✔ It can store all application, OS, device driver and general data file.
▪ There are three type of secondary storage device
✔ Magnetic storage
✔ Solid-state storage
✔ Optical Storage
 Secondary Storage
Magnetic Secondary Storage When data is read
▪ This is used in hard disk drive and magnetic tape ▪ The arm move across to be above the right track
▪ Use the magnets, north pole (N-S) and south poles ▪ The required sector comes around under the
(S-N) can represent the 1s and 0s of data head
When data is written
▪ The surface behaving like a magnet causes a tiny
▪ Data is stored on the magnetic surfaces of the current in the head
disks (or platters)
▪ The disk controller translates this into 1 and 0
▪ Data is record on each disk along circular tracks,
each split into smaller part called sectors
▪ As the disk is spinning, a read/write head moves
across its surface.
▪ To write data, the head magnetizes a section of the
disk that is spinning under it.
 Secondary Storage

Magnetic Secondary Storage

Advantages Drawbacks
❑ Cheaper data per unit ❑ Due to the nature of its moving parts, they will
❑ Fast read and write speeds eventually wear and break
❑ Reliable technology ❑ Although very fast, waiting for the moving parts means

Typical applications it will never perform as fast as solid state drives

❑ Desktop computers ❑ More fragile and less robust than a solid state drive
❑ Laptop computers ❑ Higher power consumption than a SSD
❑ Servers and mainframes ❑ Some noise is created by the moving parts
 Secondary Storage
Solid-state storage
▪ Use chips( called NAND flash) made of special kinds
of transistor that can trap electrons in a pool.
▪ Electrons in a pool represents the 0’s of data, while
empty pools represent 1.
How SSD store data:
• NAND flash has transistors arranged in a grid with
columns and rows.
• One of the transistors is known as a control gate, the
other as a floating gate.
• When current reaches the control gate, electrons flow
onto the floating gate, creating a net positive charge
that interrupts current flow.
• If a chain of transistors conducts current, it has the
value of 1. If it doesn't conduct current, it's 0.
• By applying precise voltages to the transistors, a
unique pattern of 1s and 0s emerges.
 Secondary Storage

Solid-state storage

Advantages Drawbacks
❑ Extremely fast read/write speeds ❑ Expensive to buy (per GB)
❑ Small in size and very light, ideal for portable devices ❑ Limited in capacity due to the expense
❑ No moving parts to wear, fail or get damaged – ideal for ❑ Limited amount of writes
making portable computers and devices more reliable
Application
and durable ❑ Smartphones and Tablet computers
❑ Uses less power than a HDD, increasing battery life ❑ High-end laptops and Two drive desktop
time solutions
❑ Generates less heat ❑ Portable drives are used in video cameras
 Secondary Storage
Optical Secondary Storage When data is read :
▪ is used by CDs and DVDs ▪ The disk spins in the drive to ensure all data can
▪ Data is written along a single track that moves out from be read
the center of the disk ▪ The tracking mechanism move the laser into the
▪ Player used two laser beam : one to write and other to correct position over the disk
read ▪ The laser shine onto the disk and is reflected
▪ Shiner or more reflective parts of the disk represent the back on to a light sensor.
1 or 0 ▪ Signals from the sensor are translated into 1 and
How it store data 0

▪ The disc is rotated/spun and Laser beam is used to

R/W data
▪ The data is written in a spiral/concentric tracks
▪ The laser beam makes indentations on the surface of
the disc/pits and bumps or lands
▪ The pits and lands represent binary values 0 and 1
 Secondary Storage

Optical Secondary Storage

Advantages Drawbacks
❑ Low cost per data ❑ Some Traditional PCs are
not able to read these disk.
❑ Light weight
❑ Easy to transport because it removable
devices
❑ Best Durability
Secondary Storage
There are three types of secondary storage

Magnetic Storage HDD (secondary storage)

Solid State

SSD (secondary Stick/USB

storage) flash memory

Optical Device
Exercise
1. Julia inputs personal data into her computer. She can stores three copies of
the data using a magnetic, a solid state drive (SSD) and optical storage.
(a) Identify three devices Julia can use to input personal data into her
computer.
Device 1 …………………………………………………….
Device 2………………………………………………………
Device 3………………………………………………………[3]
(b) Six statements are shown about magnetic, SSDs and Optical storage device
Tick (√) to show if the statement applies to magnetic, solid state or optical storage. Some statements may
apply to more than one type of storage. [6]

Statement HDD SSD Optical

pits and lands are used to store data
data is stored on platters
flash memory is used to store data
parts are rotated to store data
data can be stored permanently
No moving are used to store data
(c) Identify which type of storage would be the most suitable for use in a web server and
justify your choice.
Type of storage
…………………………………………………………………………………
Justification
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….. [3]
(d) Describe how magnetic stores data.
………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………….[3]
Off-line storage
refers to any storage medium that must be physically inserted into a system every
time a users wants to access or edit data.
CD/DVD/DVD-RAM (optical storage systems)
Blu-ray disks (optical storage systems)
USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards (solid state storage systems)
removable/external hard disk drives (magnetic storage systems).
The differences between Blu-ray, CDs and
DVDs:
The differences between Blu-ray, CDs and
DVDs:
CD DVD Blu-ray
Storage Capacity 700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB – 128 GB
Application Audio and small Standard definition HD video and large
amounts of data movies and data(file amounts of data
(file and application) and application)
The differences between Blu-ray, CDs and
DVDs:
CD, DVD and blu-ray store data in spiral track.
CD and DVD use red laser to read and write data while blu-ray disks use blue laser
Blu-ray wavelengths are the shortest (405 nanometres)which means that more
data can be stored
Blu-ray uses a single 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate disk while normal DVDs use a
sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks.
using two sandwiched layers can cause birefringence (light is refracted into two
separate beams causing reading error) but blu-ray cannot suffer from
birefringence.
Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to
prevent privacy and copyright
DVD-RAM
uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs.
Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number
of concentric tracks
allows simultaneous read and write operations to
take place
allow numerous read and write operations (up to
100 000 times) and have great longevity (over 30
years)
USB Flash Memory
are non-volatile solid state storage devices which use NAND flash memories
to store data.
allows users to plug the device into the USB port of a computer.
Memory Stick/ Flash Memory
use solid-state technology
connect to a computer through the USB port
Used to transfer document between computer
Advantages of Flash Memory
Portable, small and lightweight
Durability, flash has no moving parts to damage
Range of capacities available
Fast speeds, with no moving parts of boot up time
USB Flash Memory
DONGLE
Complex or expensive software often uses memory stick as dongle
contains additional files which are needed to run the software
Without this dongle, the software won’t work properly.
prevents illegal or unauthorized use of the software and copying of
software.

XD (eXtreme Digital) or SD (Secure Digital) cards

Used in digital camera and its technology same as memory stick
Allow photos to be transferred from camera to computer via the USB port.
Can be directly read by computer and printer as computer and printer
have card slot.
Removable hard disk drives
are essentially HDD but can be connected to the computer
using one of the USB ports.
can be used as a back-up device or as another way of
transferring files between computers.
 Memory :Hardware Component of a Computer
Virtual Memory
▪ When the computer is running the operating system and several
application at the same time, the RAM become full.
▪ Instead of closing program, the memory manger of OS will use
virtual memory to store some data on the hard disk drive.
It works like that:
▪ A process running on the computer may need to store data in the
physical memory (RAM).
▪ If there is no free memory, the memory manger will swap out the Process RAM
least recently used data stored in RAM to the swap area on the
hard disk drive. 0 0
▪ Then it will swap in the requested data into the now free area. 1 1
▪ Paging is used by memory management to store and retrieve data from 2 2
HDD/SSD and copy it into RAM
3

Virtual memory = RAM + Swap space on the HDD or SSD HDD

 Memory :Hardware Component of a Computer
Virtual Memory
There are advantages of using virtual memory: There are disadvantages of using virtual
• Program can be larger than physical memory(RAM) and memory:
still be executed • If the system has to rely too heavily on virtual
memory, there will be a significant drop in
performance as the read/write speed of a hard
• It reduce the need to buy and install more expensive drive is much slower than RAM
RAM memory.

• Often OS has to constantly swap information

back and forth between RAM and the hard disk
drive, which operate all of the time. The disk
thrashing occur and it slows down the
execution of the programs.
 Cloud Storage
Cloud Storage
▪ Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote sever (
Internet).
▪ The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair,
allowing client to access data at any time. This is known as data redundancy
▪ As long as the user has access to an internet connection, they can edit, create and share
data files from any location
▪ Public cloud : this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
service provider are different
▪ Private cloud : this is a storage provided by a dedicated environment behind
company firewall
▪ Hybrid cloud : this a combination of two environment. Some data resides on private
cloud and less sensitive data can be accessed from a public cloud.
 Cloud Storage
Advantages Disadvantages
▪ The data file stored on the cloud can be ▪ If the user has a slow or unstable internet
accessed from anywhere on many device connection, the user have many problem
using web browser
accessing data files
▪ There is no need for user to carry an
external storage device and even use the ▪ Cost can be high if large storage capacity is
same computer to write or read data required.
▪ The data is securely backed up by the ▪ The potential failure of the cloud storage
company providing the storage service company is possible
▪ The cloud storage offers unlimited storage
capacity
Network Hardware
 Network Interface Card
• Network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component (circuit board or chip) that is required to
allow a device to connect to a network, such as internet.
• NIC contains Media Access Control (MAC) address generated at the manufacturing stage.

• Wireless network interface cards (WNIC) are the same as NIC.

• WNIC use wireless connectivity utilizing an antenna to communicate with network via microwave.
• WNIC plug into the USB port or be part of an internal integrated circuit.
 Media Access Control (MAC)
• MAC address is unique identifier which acts as a network address for a device.
• MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the
formal :
NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD
Where NN is manufacturer code and DD is the device code
• There are two type of MAC address :
1. Universally Administered MAC address
2. Locally Administered MAC address
 Media Access Control (MAC)
Universally Administered MAC address
• UAA is the most used type of MAC address and the one set by the manufacturer at the factory.
• It is rare for a user to want to change this MAC address

Locally Administered MAC address

• LAA is an address that changes the MAC address of the device
• There are few reasons why the MAC address needs to be changed using LAA
Certain software used on mainframe software need all the MAC address of devices to fall into a strict
format
It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on firewall only MAC address with certain formal are
allowed . Otherwise the devices will be blocked
 Internet Protocol (IP) address
• An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device
on the internet or a local network.
• When a device connects to a private network, a router
assigns a private IP address to it.
• That IP address is unique on that network, but might be
the same as an IP address on a separate network.
• However, when a router connects to the internet it is
given a unique public IP address by the internet service
provider (ISP).
• There are two version of IP:
1. IPv4
2. IPv6

Protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and

receivers of data communicating through the internet.

Internet service provider (ISP) is a company or organization that

provide internet service for user.
 Internet Protocol (IP) address
IPv4
IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as four groups of eight bits (shown in denary
format);
254.25.28.77
Because the use of only 32 bits considerably reduces the potential number of devices and
routers used on the internet at any one time

IPv6
This uses 128-bit addresses that take the form of eight groups of hex digits
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and
potential increase in the amount of data traffic.
The main advantages of IPv6 compared to IPv4 are:
▪ removes the risk of IP address collisions
▪ has built-in authentication checks
▪ allows for more efficient packet routes.
 Internet Protocol (IP) address
• IP addresses can be either static (don’t change) or dynamic (change every time a device connects to the
internet).
Static IP address
are permanently assigned to a device by the internet service provider (ISP); they don’t change each time a
device logs onto the internet.
Static IP addresses are usually assigned to:
▪ remote servers which are hosting a website
▪ an online database
▪ a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files need to be transferred to
various computers throughout the network.
Dynamic IP addresses
are assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto the internet.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, is used by the ISP to automatically assign an IP
address to a device.
could be different every time a device connects to the internet.
Internet Protocol (IP) address
IP address and MAC address
 Router
• Routers enable data packets to be routed between different
networks, for example, to join a LAN to a WAN.
• The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network
and converts the data to a protocol and format understood by
another network, thereby allowing them to communicate.
The Function of Router
• The router’s main function is to transmit internet and
transmission protocols between two networks and also allow
private networks to be connected together.
• Routers inspect the data package sent to it from any computer
on any of the networks connected to it.
• Since every computer on the same network has the same part of
an internet protocol (IP) address, the router is able to send the
data packet to the appropriate switch, and the data will then be
delivered to the correct device using the MAC destination
address.
• If the MAC address doesn’t match any device connected to the
switch, it passes on to another switch on the same network