COMPUTER HARDWARE - PROCESSING DEVICES

When a computer receives data from an input device (e.g., keyboard or mouse), the data must go through
an intermediate stage before it can be sent to an output device (e.g., monitor or printer). A processing
device is any device in a computer that handles this intermediate stage. For example, the Central Processing
Unit.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
CPU, the brain of the computer is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.

COMPONENTS OF A CPU
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations. ALUs are capable of
calculating the results of a wide variety of basic arithmetical computations. The ALU can perform
4- kinds of arithmetic operations (mathematical operations) that is addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. The ALU also performs logical operations such as Equal-to (=)
conditions, Less-than (<) conditions, Greater-than (>) conditions, which is usually a comparison of
letters, numbers or special characters.
2. Control Unit (CU): CU extracts instructions from memory, decodes, and executes them, calling on
the ALU when necessary. Control Unit controls the fetching (from memory) and execution of
instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.
3. Register: Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data, that offer the advantage
of speed.Registers work under the direction of the CU to accept, hold, and transfer instructions
or data. The are many registers including;
 Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address of a location in memory.
 Memory Data Register (MDR): Holds data just read from or to be written to memory.
 Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instructions to be fetched.
 Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed.
 Accumulator: Holds the results of executed instructions
 General Purpose Registers: Can be used by programmers.
NB: The more registers a CPU has available, the faster it works.
4. Memory Unit: the area of storage in a computer that maintains information for instant retrieval
and processing, as distinct from disk storage. The Memory buffer that temporarily stores data the
processor needs, allowing the processor to retrieve the data faster than if it came from main
memory.
It holds random data, usually on first in first out, or first in last out basis.

MACHINE CYCLE
Machine Cycle is a series of steps CPU takes to execute an instruction. The machine cycle is a 4-process
cycle that includes reading and interpreting the machine language, executing the code and then storing
that code.
Four steps of Machine cycle:
1. Fetch: Retrieve an instruction from the memory. Before the CPU can execute an instruction, the
control unit must retrieve or fetch a command or data from the computer's memory.
2. Decode: Translate the retrieved instruction into a series of computer commands. Before a
command can be executed, the control unit must decode the command into instruction set into
form the ALU can understand.
3. Execute: Execute the computer commands. When the command is executed, the CPU carried out
the instructions in order by converting them into macrocode.
4. Store: Send and write the results back in memory. The CPU may be required to store the result of
an instruction in memory.
Simplified
Control Unit fetches the data from the RAM and places it in the data registers, and fetches the
instruction and places it in an instruction register.
Control Unit decodes the instruction to determine what needs to happen and tells the ALU.
ALU executes the instruction and places the result in a result register (accumulator).
Control Unit orders the data in the result register to exit the CPU, where it is stored in memory.

WHEN YOU DOUBLE CLICK ON AN ICON TO RUN A PROGRAM, HERE IS WHAT HAPPENS:
1. The program, which is stored inside the hard disk drive, is transferred to the RAM memory.
2. The CPU, using a circuit called memory controller, loads the program data from the RAM memory.
3. The data, now inside the CPU, decoded and given to the ALU to work on (processing).
4. The CPU could continue to load and executing the program, depending on the program
(instructions).
5. It is then sent back to the main memory for temporal storage before giving it out as information
(displaying something on the screen).
NB: A program is a series of instructions to the CPU.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE WORKINGS OF CPU

 Main memory and addresses:

 Address bus and address space
 Data bus and word length
 The instruction set
 Processor speed

Memory: Memory is the

physical storage space in
computer where data is
processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. Memory is a collection of cells, each with a
uniquephysical/memory address. Each cell can hold one byte or 8 bits
Memory Address: A memory address is a unique identifier used by a device or CPU for data
tracking. It is a reference to a specific memory location (memory cell)
Computer Bus: A computer bus is a pathway through which the processor communicates with
the internaland external devices attached to the computer. It connects all internal computer
components to the main memory and the central processing unit.
Address Bus: It is the set of wires that carry the addressing information used to describe the
memory location to which the data is being sent or from which data is being retrieved. When
the computer processor needs to read or write from or to the memory, it uses the address bus
to specify the physical address of the individual memory block it needs to access (the actual
data is sent along the data bus).
Address Space: It is the range of discrete addresses, each of which may correspond to a network
host, peripheral device, disk sector, a memory cell or other logical or physical entity. Address
spaces are createdby combining enough uniquely identified qualifiers to make an address plain
within the address space.
For a person's physical address, the address space would be a combination of locations, such as
aneighborhood, town, city, or country.
Data Bus: A data bus simply carries data. The same data bus is used for both read/write
operations. Thedata bus consists of 8, 16, or 32 parallel lines. The data bus is a bidirectional bus,
means the data can be transferred from CPU to main memory and vice versa.
NB: A data bus carries data while an address bus carries instructions.
Word length: Refers to the maximum number of bits the CPU can take as input. Word length is
also the number of bits a computer can process in a single operation. ie 32 or 64 bit processors
Instruction Set: is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language. The instruction set
provides commands to the processor, to tell it what it needs to do.

Processor Speed: This refers to the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions. This
is usuallymeasured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). Processor speed is more important
because the CPU is the driving force and brain of your computer. A Processor works by
performing instructions from its instruction set. A GHz means one billion hertz or cycles per
second.
The rate at which the CPU executes instructions is dependent on the system clock (clock rate).
System Clock/Clock Rate: Is an internal clock that regulates the rate which the instructions are
executedand synchronises all the various computer components. The system clock is measured
in Hertz, Megahertz, Gigahertz, etc.
NB: Processor speed is the same as clock speed of a CPU. The clock speed of a CPU is the
frequency at which the processor executes instructions or data are processed.
Simple analysis:

 Machine A: 1.3 GHz Pentium 4 with 4gigs of ram

 Machine B: 2.2 GHz Core 2 duo with 2gigs of ram
 Machine B will run faster as it’s a dual core CPU with higher clock speed and
it will better utilizethe 2gigs of ram. Even if both machines had 2gigs of ram,
machine B would still run faster and more efficient.

32 BIT vs. 64-BIT PROCESSORS

In computing, there exist two type processor i.e., 32-bit and 64-bit. This processor tells us how
much memory a processor can have access from a CPU register. For instance,

 A 32-bit system can access 232 memory addresses, i.e., 4 GB of RAM or physical memory.
 A 64-bit system can access 264 memory addresses, i.e., actually 18-Quintillion GB of
RAM. In short,any amount of memory greater than 4 GB can be easily handled by it.