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Chapter 3 Notes

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11 views

Chapter 3 Notes

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ameenacandling
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture refers to a design model for computers where the
processing unit, memory, and input-output devices are interconnected
through a single, central system bus.

Features of Von Neumann Architecture:

1) CPU is the brain of the computer


2) Direct access between CPU and memory
3) Memory unit consist of programs and data
4) Stored programs are made up of sequentially written instructions.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

● Also known as microprocessor

Features of CPU:

● It is installed on an integrated circuit on microchip

● It is responsible for the processing and execution of all the instructions


in computer.

Components of CPU:

● ALU: Full form=Arithmetic Logic Unit

⮚ IT carries out the arithmetic and logical operations

⮚ A multi core computer have more than 1 ALU

⮚ It decodes the instructions during fetch decode execute


cycle.
● CU: Full form= Control Unit

⮚ It reads the instruction from memory

⮚ It ensures synchronization of data and instructions in


computer
⮚ It helps in fetch-decode-execute cycle

● Registers: small temporary holding places for data and instructions.

⮚ CIR= current instruction register holds the current instruction


being decoded and executed.
⮚ ACC= Accumulator temporarily holds data before and after
carrying out arithmetic and logical calculations.
⮚ MAR= Memory address register holds the address of memory
location currently being read from and written to.
⮚ MDR= Memory data register holds the data that has been
read from or ready to be written to the memory.
⮚ PC= Program counter holds the address where the next
instruction to be read is located.
● Buses: pathways that carries the data and instructions within the
computer.
⮚ Data bus:
🡪it is bi-directional
🡪carries the data between CPU and memory and to or from
the input and output devices.
⮚ Address Bus:

� It is uni-directional

� It carries the address of data or instructions from CPU to


memory.
⮚ Control Bus:

� It is bi-directional
� It carries the control signals from the control unit to other
components of computer.

Fetch Execute Decode Cycle


● The program counter(PC) contains the address of the next instruction
to be fetched.
● The address contained in PC is copied to the memory address
register(MAR) through the address bus.
● Control unit sends signals through the control bus.

● The instruction contained in the memory address present in the MAR is


placed in the memory data register(MDR) through data bus.
● The entire instruction is copied from MDR and placed in Current
Instruction register(CIR).
● Control unit again sends signals to manage the process.

● The value in PC is then incremented so that it points to the next


instruction to be fetched.
● The address part of the instruction is placed in the MAR.

● The instruction is finally decoded and is then executed.

Cores

● It is a combination of ALU, control unit and registers.

● CPU can have multiple cores.

● A dual-core processor has two cores

● A quad-core processor has four cores

● Each core runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently


from one another and at the same time (simultaneously).
● Multiple cores enables multitasking (running more than one program at
the same time)
● Some programs cannot be split between cores

● The more cores a computer has the more instructions that can be
executed per second resulting in better performance.

Cache
● Cache is a small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU
with very fast read/write speeds
● It is used for storing frequently used instructions/data, recently used
instructions, and instructions that are to be fetched and executed next
in a process.
● The impact of increasing the amount of cache is that more data can be
stored there and accessed faster than if it was in RAM …which
improves the performance of the CPU.

System Clock
● Clock synchronises all computer operations.

● Each core has a clock speed

● The clock speed is how many instructions the core can execute each
second
● The clock speed is measured in Hertz

● Modern cores can execute billions of instructions per second

● A gigahertz (GHz) is a billion instructions per second

● A megahertz (MHz) is a million instructions per second

● A CPU core with a clock speed of 3.4GHz can execute 3.4 billion
instructions per second

Factors affecting Computer Processing:

● Increasing the width of address bus and data bus.

● Increasing the clock speed.


● Using multiple cores in CPU.

● Using cache memories.

Instruction Set
● An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by
a CPU
● Each command has a unique binary code.

● Opcode determines the operation to be performed.

● Operand is the data or register in memory on which the action is to be


taken.

Embedded System
● An embedded system is a computer systems with a either one function
or limited specific functions built within a larger mechanical device
● Its purpose is to control the device and allow a user to interact with it

● It runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals

● An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer system


like a laptop or desktop computer which can be used to perform many
different tasks
● It uses microprocessors.

● Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of


an integrated circuit with built in memory.

Advantages of Embedded System:

● low power consumption

● small physical size

● low cost to manufacturer


● they can be controlled remotely

● can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly

● efficient since they are dedicated to one task.

Disadvantages of Embedded System:

● Difficult to upgrade.

● Troubleshooting problems is only limited to technicians.

● Once accessed via internet it becomes prone to hackers

● Preferred to be thrown away rather than repaired due to lack of


technical education.

Applications:

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