UNITWISE NOTES

HIGH

SPEED

NETWORKS

PARTEEK BISHNOI
UNIT 1 – PAGE NO. 01 TO 21
UNIT 2 – PAGE NO. 22 TO 32
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 UNIT 1
Gigabit Ethernet:
Overview of fast Ethernet
In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data traffic at 100
Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was launched as the IEEE 802.3u
standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 100
Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used, which is TX or
FX.

Varieties of Fast Ethernet

The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-Base-T4.

 100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-directional
and the other two are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data
transmission.
o Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud
data. Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data.
o It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5
wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1 wires. One pair
transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device to
hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub
to the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.

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Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 802.3. The fields in the frame are:
 Preamble − It is a 7 bytes star ng field that provides alert and ming pulse for
transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field that contains an alternating pattern
of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of des na on
stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Length − It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of
46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detec on
information.

Gigabit Ethernet – overview

In computer networks, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is the family of Ethernet technologies that achieve
theoretical data rates of 1 gigabit per second (1 Gbps). It was introduced in 1999 and was defined by
the IEEE 802.3ab standard.

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Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T and 1000Base-CX.

1000BASE-CX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet
 Uses shielded twisted pair cables with DE-9 or 8P8C connector
 Maximum segment length is 25 metres
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/6B block encoding

1000BASE-SX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a shorter wavelength having 770 – 860 nm
diameter
 The maximum segment length varies from 220 – 550 metres depending upon the
fiber properties.
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

1000BASE-LX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a longer wavelength having 1270 – 1355 nm
diameter
 Maximum segment length is 500 metres
 Can cover distances up to 5 km
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

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1000BASE-T

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ab standard

 Uses a pair four lanes of twisted-pair cables (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7)
 Maximum segment length is 100 metres
 Uses trellis code modulation technique

Advantages of Gigabit Ethernet:

1. You can acquire the services with low cost.
2. Easily large amount of data can be transferred across network.
3. It offers full-duplex capacity, so bandwidth can be virtually doubled.
4. It reduces bottleneck problems and enhances performances.
Disadvantages of Gigabit Ethernet:
1. Full duplex mode is not supported in 1000Base-T
2. 4 pairs of wiring are required in 1000Base-T to transfer data.

Specifica ons for Gigabit Ethernet

Interface Connector:

 Ethernet (10Base-T, 100Base-TX, 1000Base-T)

Data Transmission Speed:

 Ethernet: 1000 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 10 Mbps

Protocol:

TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, AppleTalk

Distance Between Devices:

 Ethernet: 100 m

Layered protocol Architecture

The various layers of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol architecture are shown in Fig. 3. The GMII is the
interface between the MAC layer and the Physical layer. It allows any physical layer to be used with
the MAC layer. It is an extension of the MII ( Media Independent Interface ) used in Fast Ethernet. It
uses the same management interface as MII. It supports 10, 100 and 1000 Mbps data rates. It
provides separate 8-bit wide receive and transmit data paths, so it can support both full-duplex as
well as half-duplex opera on.

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The GMII provides 2 media status signals : one indicates presence of the carrier, and the other
indicates absence of collision. The Reconciliation Sublayer (RS) maps these signals to Physical
Signalling (PLS) primitives understood by the existing MAC sublayer. With the GMII, it is possible to
connect various media types such as shielded and unshielded twisted pair, and single-mode and
multi mode optical fibre, while using the same MAC controller.

The GMII is divided into three sublayers : PCS, PMA and PMD.

4.1 PCS (Physical Coding Sublayer)

This is the GMII sublayer which provides a uniform interface to the Reconcilia on layer for all
physical media. It uses 8B/10B coding like Fibre Channel. In this type of coding, groups of 8 bits are
represented by 10 bit "code groups". Some code groups represent 8 bit data symbols. Others are
control symbols. The extension symbols used in Carrier Extension are an example of control symbols.

Carrier Sense and Collision Detect indications are generated by this sublayer. It also manages the
auto-negotiation process by which the NIC (Network Interface) communicates with the network to
determine the network speed (10,100 or 1000 Mbps) and mode of operation (half-duplex or full-
duplex).

4.2 PMA (Physical Medium A achment)

This sublayer provides a medium-independent means for the PCS to support various serial bit-
oriented physical media. This layer serializes code groups for transmission and deserializes bits
received from the medium into code groups.

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4.3 PMD (Physical Medium Dependent)
This sublayer maps the physical medium to the PCS. This layer defines the physical layer signalling
used for various media. The MDI ( Medium Dependent Interface), which is a part of PMD is the
actual physical layer interface. This layer defines the actual physical a achment, such as connectors,
for different media types.

Frame Format:

1. PREAMBLE – Ethernet frame starts with a 7-Bytes Preamble. This is a pa ern of

alterna ve 0’s and 1’s which indicates star ng of the frame and allow sender and
receiver to establish bit synchroniza on. Ini ally, PRE (Preamble) was introduced to allow
for the loss of a few bits due to signal delays. But today’s high-speed Ethernet doesn’t
need Preamble to protect the frame bits. PRE (Preamble) indicates the receiver that
frame is coming and allow the receiver to lock onto the data stream before the actual
frame begins.
2. Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field that is always set to 10101011. SFD
indicates that upcoming bits are star ng the frame, which is the des na on address.
Some mes SFD is considered part of PRE, this is the reason Preamble is described as 8
Bytes in many places. The SFD warns sta on or sta ons that this is the last chance for
synchroniza on.
3. Des na on Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the
machine for which data is des ned.
4. Source Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the source
machine. As Source Address is always an individual address (Unicast), the least
significant bit of the first byte is always 0.
5. Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of the en re Ethernet frame.
This 16-bit field can hold a length value between 0 to 65534, but length cannot be larger
than 1500 Bytes because of some own limita ons of Ethernet.
6. Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted, also known as Payload. Both IP
header and data will be inserted here if Internet Protocol is used over Ethernet. The
maximum data present may be as long as 1500 Bytes. In case data length is less than
minimum length i.e. 46 bytes, then padding 0’s is added to meet the minimum possible
length.
7. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – CRC is 4 Byte field. This field contains a 32-bits hash
code of data, which is generated over the Des na on Address, Source Address, Length,
and Data field. If the checksum computed by des na on is not the same as sent
checksum value, data received is corrupted.
8. VLAN Tagging – The Ethernet frame can also include a VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)
tag, which is a 4-byte field inserted a er the source address and before the EtherType
field. This tag allows network administrators to logically separate a physical network into
mul ple virtual networks, each with its own VLAN ID.

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 9. Jumbo Frames – In addi on to the standard Ethernet frame size of 1518 bytes, some
network devices support Jumbo Frames, which are frames with a payload larger than
1500 bytes. Jumbo Frames can increase network throughput by reducing the overhead
associated with transmi ng a large number of small frames.
10. Ether Type Field – The EtherType field in the Ethernet frame header iden fies the
protocol carried in the payload of the frame. For example, a value of 0x0800 indicates
that the payload is an IP packet, while a value of 0x0806 indicates that the payload is an
ARP (Address Resolu on Protocol) packet.
11. Mul cast and Broadcast Frames – In addi on to Unicast frames (which are sent to a
specific des na on MAC address), Ethernet also supports Mul cast and Broadcast
frames. Mul cast frames are sent to a specific group of devices that have joined a
mul cast group, while Broadcast frames are sent to all devices on the network.
12. Collision Detec on – In half-duplex Ethernet networks, collisions can occur when two
devices a empt to transmit data at the same me. To detect collisions, Ethernet uses a
Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision Detec on (CSMA/CD) protocol, which listens
for ac vity on the network before transmi ng data and backs off if a collision is
detected.
Note: Size of frame of Ethernet IEEE 802.3 varies 64 bytes to 1518 bytes including data length (46
to 1500 bytes).

Network design using Gigabit Ethernet

This sec on discusses the various topologies in which Gigabit Ethernet may be used. Gigabit Ethernet
is essen ally a "campus technology", that is , for use as a backbone in a campus-wide network. It will
be used between routers, switches and hubs. It can also be used to connect servers, server farms ( a
number of server machines bundled together), and powerful worksta ons.

Essentially, four types of hardware are needed to upgrade an exiting Ethernet/Fast Ethernet network
to Gigabit Ethernet :

 Gigabit Ethernet Network Interface Cards (NICs)

 Aggrega ng switches that connect a number of Fast Ethernet segments to Gigabit Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet switches
 Gigabit Ethernet repeaters ( or Buffered Distributors)

The five most likely upgrade scenarios are given below :

6.1 Upgrading server-switch connec ons
Most networks have centralized file servers and compute servers A server gets requests from a large
number of clients. Therefore, it needs more bandwidth. Connec ng servers to switches with Gigabit
Ethernet will help achieve high speed access to servers. . This is perhaps the simplest way of taking
advantage of Gigabit Ethernet.

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6.2 Upgrading switch-switch connec ons
Another simple upgrade involves upgrading links between Fast Ethernet switches to Gigabit Ethernet
links between 100/1000 Mbps switches.

6.3 Upgrading a Fast Ethernet backbone

A Fast Ethernet backbone switch aggregates mul ple 10/100 Mbps switches. It can be upgraded to a
Gigabit Ethernet switch which supports mul ple 100/1000 Mbps switches as well as routers and
hubs which have Gigabit Ethernet interfaces. Once the backbone has been upgraded, high
performance servers can be connected directly to the backbone. This will substan ally increase
throughput for applica ons which require high bandwidth.

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6.4 Upgrading a Shared FDDI Backbone
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a common campus or building backbone technology. An
FDDI backbone can be upgraded by replacing FDDI concentrators or Ethernet-to-FDDI routers by a
Gigabit Ethernet switch or repeater.

6.5 Upgrading High Performance Worksta ons

As worksta ons get more and more powerful, higher bandwidth network connec ons are required
for the worksta ons. Current high-end PCs have buses which can pump out more than 1000 Mbps.
Gigabit Ethernet can be used to connect such high speed machines.

Applications
The applications of Ethernet protocol include the following.

 It is simply used for connecting several devices within a network through each
other.
 It is also used for connecting Wi-Fi router to the entry port of an internet otherwise
telephone line.
 It can also be used to connect devices wirelessly that need a network or internet
to work like laptops, TV, electronic gadgets, etc.
 These are used in different organizations like hospitals. Companies, schools, etc
 These are very famous due to their security, dependability & speed.

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10-Gigabit Ethernet
In computer networks, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is the family of Ethernet technologies that achieve
maximum rates up to 10 gigabits per second (10 Gbps). It is also known as 10GE, 10GbE or 10 GigE. It
is defined by the IEEE 802.3ae-2002 standard.
10GE is a thousand times faster than standard Ethernet and supports only full-duplex communication.
Multimode fiber having 0.85μ frequency is used for medium distances and single-mode fiber having
1.5μ frequency is used for long distances.

Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T and 1000Base-CX.

10GBase-SR

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard

 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 300 m
 Deployed using multimode fibers having 0.85μ frequency

10GBase-LR

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard

 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 10 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.3μ frequency

10GBase-ER

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard

 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 40 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.5μ frequency

10GBase-CX4

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ak standard

 Uses 4 pairs of twin-axial cables
 Maximum segment length is 15 m
 Uses 8B/10B coding

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10GBase-T

 Defined by IEEE 802.3an standard

 Uses 4 pairs of unshielded twisted pair cables
 Maximum segment length is 100 m
 Uses low-density parity-check code (LPDC code)

It is usually used at:

 Small and Medium Businesses/Organizations
 Enterprise networks
 Home networks
 Data center networks
 Studio networks and many more.
Advantages of 10G Ethernet:
1. Provides reliable superfast speed
2. Prevent data bottlenecks
3. Provides reliable security
4. Expands server capabilities
5. Provides greater scalability
Disadvantages of 10G Ethernet:
1. Not for personal use
2. Setup may be difficult
3. Requires higher power input
4. Cost may be a little high
5. No Mobility

Layered Protocol Architecture

The Ethernet protocol basically implements the bo om two layers of the Open Systems
Interconnec on (OSI) 7-layer model, i.e., the data link and physical sublayers. Figure 1 depicts the
typical Ethernet protocol stack and the rela onship to the OSI model.

Figure 1.Ethernet Protocol Layer

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Medium Access Control (MAC)

The media access control sublayer provides a logical connection between the MAC clients of itself
and its peer station. It main responsibility is to initialize, control, and manage the connection with
the peer station.

Reconciliation Sublayer

The reconciliation sublayer acts as a command translator. It maps the terminology and commands
used in the MAC layer into electrical formats appropriate for the physical layer entities.

10GMII (10-Gigabit Media Independent Interface)

10GMII provides a standard interface between the MAC layer and the physical layer. It isolates the
MAC layer and the physical layer, enabling the MAC layer to be used with various implementations
of the physical layer.

PCS (Physical Coding Sublayer)

The PCS sublayer is responsible for coding and encoding data stream to and from the MAC layer.
The default coding technique has not been defined. Several coding techniques will be discussed later
in the paper.

PMA (Physical Medium Attachment)

The PMA sublayer is responsible for serialize code groups into bit stream suitable for serial bit-
oriented physical devices and vice versa. Synchronization is also done for proper data decoding in
this sublayer.

PMD (Physical Medium Dependent)

The PMD sublayer is responsible for signal transmission. The typical PMD functionality includes
amplifier, modulation, and wave shaping. Different PMD devices may support different media.

MDI (Medium Dependent Interface)

MDI is referred a connector. It defines different connector types for different physical media and
PMD devices.

Frame Format
The key purpose the developing 10-Gigabit Ethernet standard is to use the same MAC frame format
as specified in the preceding Ethernet standards. This will allow a seamless integra on of the 10-
Gigabit Ethernet with the exis ng Ethernet networks. There is no need for
fragmenta on/reassembling and address transla on, implying faster switching. Since the full-duplex
opera on is used, the link distance does not affect the MAC frame size. The minimum MAC frame
size will be made equal to 64 octets as specified in the previous Ethernet standards. Carrier extension
is not needed. The MAC frame format is depicted in Figure 2.

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 Figure 2.Ethernet Frame Format

The Ethernet frame format consists of the following fields:

 Preamble. A 7-octet a preamble pa ern of alterna ng 0's and 1's that is used to allow
receiver ming synchroniza on to reach a steady state.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD).The SFD field is the sequence 10101011, used to indicate a start
of frame.
 Address fields. Each MAC frame contains .the des na on and source addresses. Each
address is 48 bits long. The first of which is used to iden fy the address as an individual
address (0) or a group address (1). The second of which is used to indicate whether the
address is locally (1) or globally (0) defined.
 Length/TypeIf the number is less than the maximum valid frame size, it indicates the length
of the MAC client data. If the number is greater than or equal to 1536 decimal, it represents
the type of the MAC client protocol.
 Data and padding. Padding is op onal. It is only necessary when the data packet is smaller
than 38 octets to ensure the minimum frame size of 64 octets as specified in the exis ng
standards.
 Frame checking sequence (FCS). The FCS field contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) value computed from all fields except the preamble, SFD, and CRC. The encoding is
defined by the following genera ng polynomial:

G(x) = x^32+x^26+x^23+x^22+x^16+x^12+x^11+x^10+x^8+x^7+x^5+x^4+x^2 x + 1

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Fibre channel – overview
Fibre Channel is a high-speed network technology used to connect server to data storage area
network. It handles high performance of disk storage for applications on many corporate
networks. It supports data backup and replication.
Fibre Channel is needed, as it is very flexible and enables the transfer of data at a faster speed.

The topologies, that bring about the flexibility in the fibre channel are –
1. Point to point topology.
2. Fibre channel arbitrated loop.
3. Switched fabric topology.
NOTE –
Topology refers to the physical/logical arrangement of nodes or other devices in a network.
Basic port details, to know to understand the mentioned topologies –

Port Type Associated Topology

N_port Node Point to point or Fabric.

NL_port Node Node connected to an arbitrated loop.

F_port Fabric Fabric port.

FL_port Fabric Fabric connected to an arbitrated loop.

L_port Loop Hub port on an arbitrated loop.

Link Control Facility [L_C_F] is a hardware facility that binds to each end
L_C_F Loop
of the link and governs transmission and reception of information.

This inter-switch expansion port is used to connect to an E_port of

E_port Node
another switch to build a larger fabric.

FC_switch Switch A network switch that interconnects servers and storage ports.

Point to point topology :

 A single link connects two ports in this topology.

 This topology is inexpensive but it doesn’t require a hub.
 To create point to point configuration, you can provide multiple ‘N’ ports on each
node.
 Each point to point connection provides the full bandwidth supported by ‘N’ ports.
Depending on the type of the link (multi-mode or single-mode fiber), the two nodes
can be separated by up to 500m ( multi-mode fiber ) or 10km (single-mode fiber).

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Fibre channel arbitrated loop topology [FC-AL] :

 It is a high-speed fibre channel [FC] topology in which fibre channel ports/hubs use
arbitration to establish a point-to-point circuit and prevent multiple ports/hubs from
sending frames at the same time.
 Here devices are connected in a one-way ring. So, when ports/hubs in a loop topology
have information to transmit, they must send out an arbitration signal to decide,
which port/hub can use the channel. The port in control of the channel then sends an
‘open’ arbitrated signal to the destination port and transmits its information. Since all
the ports in the loop are connected, every port will see and pass along the data, but
ignore the data unless it is addressed to that particular port.
 FC-AL can join up to 126 ports on one controller.
 It is still used internally in many fibre channel switches but rarely to connect hosts to
storage these days.
 FC- hubs provide bypass circuits that prevent the loop from breaking if one device fails
or is removed.
NOTE –
A bypass circuit bypasses high-frequency components of power supply.
Switched Fabric Topology :

 This is the topology, that is very much in use nowadays.

 The network of switches in a fibre channel habitat is referred to as a fabric.
 Ports on one node can communicate with ports on other nodes attached to the same
fabric. With the fabric topology, many connections can be alert at a time.
 The any-to-any connection service and peer-peer communication service provided by
a fabric is fundamental to fibre channel architecture. Fibre channel can hold-up both
channel and network protocol simultaneously.

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Fibre Channel Layered protocol architecture
Fibre channel is a layered architecture with five layers: FC-0, FC-1, FC-2, FC-3, and FC-4. Figure 2-
3 diagrams the relationship between FC layers and OSI layers.

Figure 2-3. Fibre Channel Layers and OSI Layers

FC-PH is the FC physical and signaling interface, revision 4.1, defined in the FC-PH standard (ANSI
X4.3). FC-PH is made up of FC-0, FC-1, and FC-2. Each FC layer is described and explained in the
following separate sections:

 “FC-0”
 “FC-1”
 “FC-2”
 “FC-3”
 “FC-4”

FC-0

FC-0 defines the physical interface (media), or link, encompassing a wide variety of media, speed,
and distance combinations. It defines the physical link in the system, including the fibre, connectors,
and optical and electrical parameters for a variety of data rates. Table 2-1 summarizes the Silicon
Graphics implementation for FC-0.

FC-1

FC-1 defines the transmission protocol, including serial encoding and decoding rules, special
characters, and error control. The information transmitted over a fiber is encoded 8 bits at a time
into a 10-bit transmission character. The transmission code, which must be DC balanced to support
the electrical requirements of the receiving units, improves the transmission characteristic of
information. The transmission characters ensure that short-run lengths and enough transitions are
present in the serial bitstream to make clock recovery possible.

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FC-2

FC-2, the signaling protocol, is the transport mechanism of fibre channel. It defines the framing rules
of the data to be transferred between ports, the different mechanisms for controlling service
classes, and the means of managing the sequence of a data transfer.

FC-3

FC-3 defines the common services provided by FC-PH to the ULPs. These services, which include
striping, hunt groups, and multicast, are not yet implemented.

FC-4

FC-4, the upper-layer protocol (ULP) interface, defines the ULP-specific mapping protocols that
provide interfaces between FC-PH and the ULPs. Silicon Graphics FC supports only the SCSI-3
packetized protocol for SCSI.

[2]
Silicon Graphics host systems support a specific subset of available fibre channel technology.

Frame Structure
The basic building blocks of an FC connection are the Frames. The Frames contain the information to
be transmitted (Payload), the address of the source and destination ports and link control
information. Frames are broadly categorized as Data frames and Link_control frames. Data frames
may be used as Link_Data frames and Device_Data frames, link control frames are classified as
Acknowledge (ACK) and Link_Response (Busy and Reject) frames. The primary function of the Fabric
is, to receive the Frames from the source port and route them to the destination port. It is the FC-2
layer's responsibility to break the data to be transmitted into Frame size, and reassemble the
Frames.

Each Frame begins and ends with a Frame Delimiter (Figure 4) The Frame Header immediately
follows the SOF delimiter. The Frame Header is used to control link applications, control device
protocol transfers, and detect missing or out of order Frames. An optional header may contain
further link control information. A maximum 2112 byte long field (payload) contains the information
to be transferred from a source N_Port to a destination N_Port. The 4 bytes Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) precedes the EOF delimiter. The CRC is used to detect transmission errors. [1] [2]

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Classes of service
Applications might require different levels of service and guarantees regarding delivery, connectivity,
and bandwidth.

Some applications need to have a bandwidth that is dedicated to them during the data exchange like
Tape backup and some applications might be busty and not require a dedicated connection, but they
might require an acknowledgment for each packet it sent.

The Fibre Channel standards provide different classes of service to accommodate different
application needs.

In fabric terminology if two N Ports can communicate or if an N Port is successfully able to log into a
Fabric, there must be at least 1 common Class of service supported between them, since Sequences
and Exchanges must take place using a single Class of service. This information is exchanged during
Fabric Login (F-logi) and N-Port Login.
Fibre channel provides a different class of services to make communication between devices or N
ports. They are

 Class 1
 Class 2
 Class 3
 Class 4
 Class 6
 Class F
A brief description of each class is mentioned in the below table

Brocade
Class Descrip on Acknowledgement supported

Dedicated connec on allocates full bandwidth

1 Yes No
between ports.

Connec onless switch to switch communica on

2 Yes Yes
for frame transfer and delivery

Connec onless switch to switch communica on

3 No Yes
for frame transfer and delivery

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 Dedicated connec on with a frac on of
4 bandwidth between Ports by using virtual Yes No
circuits.

6 Dedicated connec on for mul cast. Yes No

F Switch to switch communica on. Yes Yes

Class 1
In class 1 service, a dedicated connection between source and destination is established through the
fabric during the transmission with acknowledgment.

This class reserves full bandwidth (100%) dedicated connection between the two devices, so it does
not need buffer-to-buffer credit flow control. It uses only end-to-end credit flow control.

This class of service ensures that the frames are received by the destination device in the same order
in which they are sent. It is called in-order delivery.

Class 1 can be used when the data needs to be continuous and time critical, such as voice or video.

It does not provide for a good utilization of the available bandwidth, since it is restricting bandwidth
for one connection. Because of this restriction, class 1 is rarely used.

Class 2
Class 2 is a connectionless, acknowledged service.

Since no dedicated connection between two N Ports, multiple ports can transmit and receive frames
in available bandwidth. As a result, the N Ports share the bandwidth of the links with other network
traffic. It makes better use of available bandwidth.

In Class 2 service, frames travel in different routes in fabric. So it does not guarantee in-order
delivery. So class 2 relies on upper layer protocols to take care of frame sequence.

Class 2 service uses both buffer-to-buffer and end-to-end credit flow control.

It is used where the order and timeliness of delivery are not so important

The use of acknowledgments reduces available bandwidth, which needs to be considered in large-
scale busy networks.

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Class 3
There is no dedicated connection in class 3 and the received frames are not acknowledged.

Class 3 is similar to Class 2. The only exception is that it only uses buffer-to-buffer credit flow control
and does not use end-to-end credit flow control.

Class 3 is also called datagram connectionless service. It optimizes the use of fabric resources, but it
is now up to the upper layer protocol to ensure that all frames are received in the correct order.

Class 3 is well suited for SCSI and a commonly used class of service in Fibre Channel networks

Class 4
Class 4 is a connection-oriented service like class 1. The main difference is that class 4 allocates only
a fraction of the available bandwidth of the path through the fabric that connects two N Ports.

In class 4 Virtual circuits (VCs) are established between two N Ports with guaranteed quality of
service (QoS), including bandwidth and latency.

Like class 1, class 4 guarantees in-order delivery of frames and provides acknowledgment of
delivered frames. However, now the fabric is responsible for multiplexing frames of different VCs.

Class 4 uses only end-to-end credit flow control.

Class 4 service is intended for multimedia applications such as video and for applications that
allocate an established bandwidth by department within the enterprise.

Class 5
Class 5 is called isochronous service, and is intended for applications that require immediate delivery
of the data as it arrives, with no buffering. However, it is still undefined, and possibly scrapped
altogether. It is not mentioned in any of the FC-PH documents.

Class 6
Class 6 is a variant of class 1, and is known as a multicast class of service. It provides dedicated
connections for a reliable multicast.

If a N Port requested a class 6 connection for one or more destinations, A multicast server (FFFFF5)
in the fabric establishes the connections from the source N port to all destination N ports and gets
acknowledgment from all the destination Ports, and sends it back to the originator.

20
When a connection is established, it is retained and guaranteed by the fabric until the initiator ends
the connection.

Class 6 was designed for applications like audio and video that require multicast functionality. It is
included in the FC-PH-3 standard.

Class 6 service uses end-end-end flow control between N ports.

Class F
Class F is used for switch to switch communication through inter-switch links (ISLs).

It is a connectionless service with notification of non-delivery between E Ports that are used for
control, coordination, and configuration of the fabric.

Class F is similar to class 2. The main difference is that class 2 deals with N Ports that send data
frames, while class F is used by E Ports for control and management of the fabric.

Class F service is defined in the Fibre Channel Switched Fabric (FC-SW) and the FC-SW-2 standard.

21
 UNIT 2
Frame Relay:
Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is designed to work at the data link layer
of the network. It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and transmit data across Wide
Area Networks (WANs). It is a better alternative to a point-to-point network for connecting
multiple nodes that require separate dedicated links to be established between each pair of
nodes. It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic bandwidth allocation. Also, it
provides a congestion control mechanism to reduce the network overheads due to congestion. It
does not have an error control and flow management mechanism.

Frame Relay Network

Types
1. Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) –
These are the permanent connections between frame relay nodes that exist for long durations.
They are always available for communication even if they are not in use. These connections are
static and do not change with time.
2. Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) –
These are the temporary connections between frame relay nodes that exist for the duration for
which nodes are communicating with each other and are closed/ discarded after the
communication. These connections are dynamically established as per the requirements.

Advantages
1. High speed
2. Scalable
3. Reduced network congestion
4. Cost-efficient
5. Secured connection

Disadvantages
1. Lacks error control mechanism
2. Delay in packet transfer
3. Less reliable

22
Frame relay architecture:

• Frame relay can provide two types of virtual circuits.

1. Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC).
2. Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC).
• Fig. Shows the frame relay network connected to internet. The routers connect LANs and WANs in
the Internet.

Virtual Circuits:
The virtual circuits in frame relay are called as Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI).
This is actually a number which identifies a virtual circuit in frame relay.
Switches:
• The switches in frame relay are supposed to route frames. For this each switch has a table.
• The routing procedure is same as that in the data transfer mode except for one change. VCIs are
replaced by DLCIs.
Frame format of Frame Relay?

Fig. Shows the frame relay frame format. This frame is very similar to the HDLC frame except for the
missing control field here.

23
• The control field is not needed because flow and error control are not needed.

• The Flag, FCS and information fields are same as those of HDLC.

• The address field defines the DLCI along with some other bits required for congestion control and
traffic control.

• Their description is as follows:

1. DLCI field:

The first part of DLCI is of 6 bits and the second part is of 4 bits. They together form a 10 bit data link
connection identifier.

2. Command / Response (C / R):

The C/R bit allows the upper layers to identify a frame as either a command or response. It is not
used by the frame relay protocol.

3. Extended Address (EA):

• This bit indicates whether the current byte is the final byte of the address.

• If EA = 1 it indicates that the current byte is the final one but if EA = 0, then it tells that another
address byte is going to follow.

4. Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN):

• This bit can be set by any switch to indicate that traffic is congested in the direction of travel of the
frame.

• The destination is informed about the congestion via this bit.

5. Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN):

• This bit indicates the congestion in the direction opposite to the direction of frame travel.

• It informs the sender about the congestion.

6. Discard Eligibility (DE):

• The DE bit indicates the priority level of the frame. In the overload situations a frame may have to
be discarded.

• If DE = 1 then that frame can be discarded in the event of congestion.

• DE bit can be set by the sender or by any switch in the network.

24
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISDN is a set of protocols that is based on high-speed fully digitized telephone service. The main aim
of ISDN is to provide a fully integrated digital service to the users.

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet-switched
networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better voice
or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched connection for data
in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and
downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN
B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.

ISDN CHANNELS:

ISDN structure have a central ISDN office in which all the users are linked to this through a digital pipe.
This digital pipe have different capacities and have a different data transfer rates and these are
organized into multiple channels of different sizes.

ISDN standard have the following three types of channels:

B Channel:

It stands for Bearer channel. It has a 64 kbps standard data rate. It is a basic user channel and can carry
any digital information in full-duplex mode. In this transmission rate does not exceed 64 kbps. It can
carry digital voice, digital data, and any other low data rate information.

AD

D Channel:

It stands for Data Channel. This channel carry control signal for bearer services. This channel is
required for signaling or packet-switched data and all-controlling signals such as establishing calls,
ringing, call interrupt, etc.

H Channel:

It stands for Hybrid Channel. It provides user information at higher bit rates.

There are 3 types of Hybrid Channel depending on the data rates. Following are the hybrid channels
types:

o Hybrid Channel 0 with 384 kbps data rate.

o Hybrid Channel 11 with 1536 kbps data rate.
o Hybrid Channel 12 with 1920 kbps data rate.

25
ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’
channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B channels operate at a maximum of 64
Kbps while the D channel operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are
independent of each other. For example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection
to a location while the other channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In
iSeries ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels of 64
Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition,
the BRl service itself requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital
pipe of 192 Kbps is required.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B channels
depending on the country you are in. PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe
with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate
Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps
equals 1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.

3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current communications
infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies
mainly on the evolution of fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as
‘a service requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the
primary rate.

Addressing Structure: The ISDN address structure is demonstrated in figure. ISDN number part has a
maximum of 15 digits and the ISDN sub address part a maximum of 40 digits. National destination
code is as an area code in telephony network and is of variable length. Subscriber number of ISDN is
the one usually listed in the directories. This is the number to be dialed to reach a subscriber in similar
numbering area. An ISDN number is a unique worldwide address and unambiguously specifies an end
point connection. Such end point may be:

4. 1. Single S or T reference point,

5. 2. One for many T reference points at similar site, and

6. 3. One of many S reference points by using direct inward dialing feature.

7. A single S or signal T reference point may also be addressed through multiple ISDN numbers.
This characteristic is usually used in internetworking.

26
 8.

9. FIG - ISDN Address Structure

ISDN Protocol Architecture

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is simply considered as general-purpose digital network
that is being capable of highly and fully supporting wide range of services like voice, data, text, and
image with the help of very small set of standard multipurpose user-network interfaces. It is also
useful in providing very useful framework for development and establishment of future
telecommunications networks and services.
Previously, it is known as Integrated Digital Network (IDN) which is basically standardization digital
technique for switching and transmission. ISDN also supports two types of switching operations i.e.,
circuit-switched operations and packet-switched operations. ISDN protocol architecture takes care
of both of these switching operations. Circuit Switching is provided at the very nominal bit rate of 64
kbps whereas packet switching is provided for wide range of bit rates up to 64 kbps.

27
ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into 3 categories-
bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services.

1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users without the network
manipulating the content of that information is provided by the bearer network. There
is no need for the network to process the information and therefore does not change
the content. Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model. They are
well defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched,
packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.

2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services
correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices rely on the facilities of the
bearer services and are designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need
not be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex,
telefax, videotex, telex, and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services
by name yet they have not yet become standards.

3. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are provided by
supplementary services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling are
examples of supplementary services which are all familiar with today’s telephone
company services.

28
BISDN
The B-ISDN (broadband integrated services digital network) is a virtual circuit-switched network that
can use high-speed packet switching services. The B-ISDN will use a flexible multiplexing format called
ATM (asynchronous transfer mode).
BISDN is an extension of ISDN, that is, it has narrowband capability of ISDN but also the broadband
capability.
The purpose of BISDN is to achieve complete integration of services, ranging from low-bit- rate burst
signals to high-bit-rate continuous real-time signals.
The key technology developments for B-ISDN are as follows −
 Optical fiber transmission systems that can offer low-cost, high-data rate transmission
channels for network trunks and subscriber lines.
 The Microelectronic circuits which offer high-speed, low-cost building blocks for
switching, transmission, and subscriber equipment.
 High-quality video monitors and cameras that have sufficient production quantities
are offered at low cost.

B-ISDN Architecture

The B-ISDN architecture is shown in the diagram below −

The architecture of the B-ISDN includes low Layer capabilities and high Layer capabilities. These
capabilities support the services within the B-ISDN and other networks by means of interworking B-
ISDN with those networks.

Low Layer capabilities

The low layer capabilities of B-ISDN architecture are explained below −

 From the functional capabilities of the B-ISDN, as shown in Figure, the information
transfer capabilities require further description.
 Broadband information transfer is provided by an ATM at the B-ISDN user-network
interface (UNI) and at switching entities inside the network.

High Layer capabilities

The high layer capabilities of B-ISDN architecture are explained below −

 Normally, the high Layer functional capabilities are involved only in the terminal
equipment.
 The support of some services, provision of high layer functions could be made through
special nodes in the B-ISDN belonging to the public network or to centres operated by
other organizations and accessed via B-ISDN user-network or network node interfaces
(NNIs).

29
B-ISDN Services

There are two types of B-ISDN services which are as follows −

 Interactive Services − Two-way exchange of information (other than control signalling
information) between two subscribers or between a subscriber and a service provider.
 Distribution Services − Primarily one way transfer of information, from service
provider to B-ISDN subscriber.
These services are shown in the diagram format below −

ATM
ATM stands for Asynchronous transfer mode. It is a switching technique used by telecommunication
networks that uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized
cells. ATMs can be used for efficient data transfer over highspeed data networks. ATM provides real-
time and non-real-time services.

Services

The services provided by ATM are as follows−

 Available Bit Rate: It provides a guaranteed minimum capacity, but data can be burst
to higher capaci es when network traffic is lower.
 Constant Bit Rate: It is used to specify a fixed bit rate so that data is sent in a steady
stream. This is analogous to a leased line.
 Unspecified Bit Rate: This doesn't assure any throughput level and is used for
applica ons, including file share that can tolerate delays.
 Variable Bit Rate (VBR): It can provide a determining throughput, but data is not
transmi ed evenly. This makes it a famous choice for voice and video conferencing.

ATM virtual circuit

o ATM is a "virtual circuit" based: Here, the path is reserved before transmission. While
Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless, end-to-end resource reservations are impossible.
RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the internet.
o ATM Cells: Fixed or small, and the Tradeoff is between voice or data. At the same time, IP
packets are of variable size.

30
 o Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit locally assigned
labels in cells. At the same time, IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets

Cell Switching (ATM)

Cell switching is associated with Asynchronous Transmission Mode (ATM) which is considered to be
a high speed switching technology that attempted to overcome the speed problems faced by the
shared media like Ethernet and FDDI. Cell switching uses a connection-oriented packet-switched
network.
When a connection is established it is known as signaling. It is called cell switching because this
methodology uses a fixed length of packets of 53 bytes out of which 5 bytes are reserved for header.
Unlike cell technology, packet switching technology uses variable length packets. Even though cell
switching closely resembles packet switching because cell switching also breaks the information into
smaller packets of fixed length and thereby ensuring guaranteed delays.

Cell switching has many advantages. High performance, common LAN/WAN architecture multimedia
support, dynamic bandwidth, and scalability. High performance is achieved because this technology
uses hardware switches. Cell switching uses virtual circuit rather than physical circuit, therefore it is
not necessary to reserve network resources for a particular connection. Also, once a virtual circuit is
established switching time is minimized, which ensures higher network throughputs.
The cell has a fixed length of 53 bytes out of which 48 bytes are reserved for payloads and 5 bytes
act as header. The header contains payload-type information, virtual-circuit identifiers, and header
error check.
Cell switching has features of circuit switching, as .it is a connection-oriented service where each
connection during its set up phase creates a virtual circuit. The connection, oriented virtual circuits
for each phase allocates specified resources for different streams of traffic. This makes cell switching
a cost effective service.

ATM Reference Model

ATM Adapta on Layer (AAL)

It is a layer for isolation of Higher layer protocols and ATM processes details and user data prepared
by it for converting it into cells and for converting segments into cell payload of 48 bytes.
Transmission coming upper layer services is accepted by the AAL protocol and helps in application
mapping, e.g voice, and data to the ATM cells.

31
Physical Layer

Medium-dependent transmission is managed by it. The transmission convergence sublayer and

physical medium-dependent sublayer are two divisions of this layer. The main functions of this layer
are given below:

 Cells are converted into a bit stream by it

 In the physical medium transmission and receipt of bits are controlled by it.
 ATM cell boundaries can also be tracked by it.
 It looks for cell packaging into proper frame types.

ATM Layer

Transmission, congestion, sequential delivery, switching, control, cell header processing, etc., is
handled by it. And it is also responsible for simultaneously cell multiplexing and cell relay. Cell
multiplexing is sharing of the virtual circuit on the physical link. And the transmission of cells over an
Asynchronous Transfer Mode network is known as cell relay and VPI and VCI information present in
the cell Header is used.

ATM Traffic Management

The result of successful ATM traffic management is the efficient transport of traffic through the
network with minimization of congestion, while providing fair and sufficient bandwidth access for all
service categories when needed.

To efficiently transport mixed traffic through an ATM network, the challenge lies in meeting the
following design objectives over the network:

• Prevent congestion on the network by creating a more consistent flow of traffic at the edge
device—this is known as traffic shaping.

• Control cell delay and cell loss while satisfying the transmission requirements of the different
traffic types—this is the basis of QoS for ATM.

• Maximize the use of network bandwidth to fulfill the traffic contract, but prevent a particular
application or location from monopolizing the bandwidth—this is part of queue management on
the Cisco 7200 edge device; and, on the ATM network, the enforcement of bandwidth usage is
known as traffic policing.

32
 UNIT 3
Wireless Networks:
Wireless networks have become an integral part of high-speed networks, providing flexible and
convenient connec vity in various se ngs. Here are some key aspects of wireless networks in high-speed
environments:

1. Wi-Fi Standards: High-speed wireless networks o en u lize the Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) technology,
which has evolved over the years. The most commonly used Wi-Fi standards include 802.11n, 802.11ac,
and the latest 802.11ax (also known as Wi-Fi 6). These standards offer higher data rates, improved
capacity, and be er performance in high-density environments.

2. Wireless Access Points (WAPs): In high-speed wireless networks, mul ple wireless access points are
strategically deployed to provide seamless coverage and capacity. These access points act as hubs for
connec ng wireless devices to the network infrastructure. They are typically connected to wired
networks, enabling data transfer between wired and wireless devices.

3. Channel Bonding and MIMO: To achieve higher data rates, high-speed wireless networks u lize
techniques like channel bonding and Mul ple-Input Mul ple-Output (MIMO). Channel bonding combines
mul ple wireless channels to create a wider channel, increasing the available bandwidth. MIMO
technology uses mul ple antennas to transmit and receive data simultaneously, enhancing data
throughput and overall network capacity.

4. Beamforming: Beamforming is another technique employed in high-speed wireless networks. It focuses

the wireless signal in a specific direc on towards the intended receiver, instead of broadcas ng it in all
direc ons. This improves signal strength, coverage, and reduces interference, resul ng in be er
performance and higher speeds.

5. Frequency Bands: Wireless networks operate in various frequency bands, including 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.
The 2.4 GHz band offers wider coverage but lower data rates, while the 5 GHz band provides faster speeds
but over shorter distances. In high-speed networks, the 5 GHz band is o en preferred due to its higher
capacity and reduced interference from other devices.

6. Security: Security is a crucial aspect of wireless networks. High-speed networks employ encryp on
protocols like WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2) or WPA3 to secure wireless communica on. Addi onally,
advanced authen ca on mechanisms such as 802.1X and EAP (Extensible Authen ca on Protocol) are
used to ensure authorized access to the network.

7. Quality of Service (QoS): High-speed wireless networks priori ze data traffic based on QoS
mechanisms. This allows different types of data, such as voice, video, or real- me applica ons, to receive
appropriate bandwidth and ensure smooth opera on without significant delays or interrup ons.

8. Backhaul Connec vity: To connect wireless access points to the wired network infrastructure, high-
speed wireless networks require reliable backhaul connec vity. This can be achieved through various
means, including fiber op c cables, point-to-point microwave links, or other high-capacity wired
connec ons.

Overall, wireless networks play a vital role in high-speed network environments, providing flexible
connec vity op ons and enabling the prolifera on of mobile devices and applica ons in both residen al
and enterprise se ngs.

33
Exis ng and emerging standards
Exis ng Standards of Wireless Networks:

1. 802.11a: This standard was introduced in 1999 and operates in the 5 GHz frequency band, offering
data rates up to 54 Mbps. It provides faster speeds compared to its predecessor, 802.11b, but has
shorter range and weaker wall penetra on.

2. 802.11b: Introduced in 1999, this standard operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and provides
data rates up to 11 Mbps. It offers be er range but slower speeds compared to 802.11a.

3. 802.11g: Released in 2003, this standard operates in the 2.4 GHz band and provides data rates up
to 54 Mbps. It is backward compa ble with 802.11b and offers improved speeds and range.

4. 802.11n: Introduced in 2009, this standard operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, offering
data rates up to 600 Mbps. It introduced MIMO (Mul ple-Input Mul ple-Output) technology,
enhancing speed, coverage, and reliability.

5. 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Released in 2013, this standard operates in the 5 GHz band and supports data
rates up to several gigabits per second (Gbps). It introduced wider channel bandwidths, MU-MIMO
(Mul -User Mul ple-Input Mul ple-Output), and beamforming for improved performance in high-
density environments.

6. 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Introduced in 2019, this standard operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
bands and supports data rates up to several Gbps. It improves network efficiency, capacity, and
performance in crowded environments, thanks to technologies like Orthogonal Frequency Division
Mul ple Access (OFDMA) and Target Wake Time (TWT).

Emerging Standards of Wireless Networks:

1. 802.11ay: This standard is currently under development and is expected to operate in the 60 GHz
frequency band. It aims to provide mul -gigabit per second data rates, catering to high-bandwidth
applica ons like 4K/8K video streaming and augmented/virtual reality.

2. 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7): This standard is also under development and is expected to bring significant
advancements in speed, capacity, and efficiency. It aims to support data rates of several tens of Gbps,
enhanced mul -user capabili es, and improved network management.

3. 5G NR (New Radio): Although primarily associated with cellular networks, 5G NR technology also
offers wireless connec vity in local area networks. It provides extremely high data rates, ultra-low
latency, and massive device connec vity, enabling applica ons like Internet of Things (IoT), smart
ci es, and autonomous vehicles.

These are just a few examples of exis ng and emerging wireless network standards. As technology
advances, new standards will con nue to evolve to meet the increasing demands for faster, more
reliable, and efficient wireless communica on.

34
Wireless LAN (802.11)
Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves instead of cables
for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of
network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the wireless
LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at physical layer
level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Security

Security is an important aspect of wireless LANs (WLANs) based on the 802.11 family of standards.
To ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data transmitted over WLANs, various
security mechanisms have been developed. Here are some key security features in 802.11:

1. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): WEP was the initial security mechanism introduced with the early
802.11 standards. However, it is now considered weak and easily compromised due to vulnerabilities
in its encryption algorithm.

2. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA): WPA was introduced as an improvement over WEP. It introduced
the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which added stronger encryption and key management.
WPA also includes the use of a preshared key (PSK) or a RADIUS server for authentication.

3. Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2): WPA2 is an enhanced version of WPA that uses the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) for stronger encryption. It supports both personal mode (WPA2-PSK) and
enterprise mode (WPA2-Enterprise) using an authentication server such as RADIUS.

35
4. 802.1X Authentication: 802.1X is an IEEE standard for network access control. It enables the
authentication of wireless clients before granting them access to the network. This authentication
process involves an Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) and a RADIUS server for user
authentication.

5. Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3): WPA3 is the latest security standard for 802.11 networks. It
provides stronger encryption and better protection against various attacks. WPA3 introduces
features like Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE), which provides stronger protection
against offline dictionary attacks, and individualized data encryption for open networks.

6. Encryption: To secure data transmitted over WLANs, encryption protocols are used. The most
common encryption standards in 802.11 are Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol (TKIP), and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). AES is the strongest encryption algorithm
and is recommended for secure WLANs.

7. Key Management: WLANs use various methods for key management, including preshared keys
(PSK) and dynamic key exchange protocols like 4-way handshake and Pairwise Transient Key (PTK)
generation. These mechanisms ensure that encryption keys are securely exchanged between the
wireless client and the access point.

8. Authentication and Access Control: WLANs employ authentication mechanisms to ensure that
only authorized devices can access the network. This includes techniques like pre-shared keys (PSKs),
digital certificates, and authentication servers such as RADIUS for enterprise-level authentication.

It is important to note that while the aforementioned security mechanisms enhance the security of
WLANs, it is also crucial to follow best practices such as using strong passwords, regularly updating
firmware and security patches, disabling unnecessary services, and configuring appropriate access
control policies to ensure the overall security of the WLAN infrastructure.

Advantages of WLANs

 They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
 The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
 Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
 The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs

 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
 Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to
errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

36
Broadband Wireless (802.16)
The 802.16 is a set of standards defined by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) that
lays down the specifications for wireless broadband technology. It has been commercialized as
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) that is responsible for delivery of last mile
wireless broadband access.
The IEEE 802.16 lays down the standards for both physical layer as well as medium access control
(MAC) layer for WiMAX. It initially provided data rates of 30 – 40 Mbps. The updated version that
came in 2011 provides up to 1 Gbps data rates for fixed stations. It operates in the frequency band of
2 GHz to 11 GHz. The bandwidth is dynamically allocated as per user requirements.

IEEE 806.11 Architecture

In 806.11 architecture, two types of user stations are there −

 Subscriber stations − They are sta onary in some fixed loca on. For example,
broadband Internet for homes and offices.
 Mobile stations − They receive service while they are in motion within the range of
WiMAX. For example, a WiMAX equipped vehicle.
A user station connects wirelessly to the base station, forming the last wile of the broadband network.
The base station is connected to the backbone network of the broadband service provider. The
backbone network is connected to Internet. The architecture is shown as follows −

IEEE 802.16 Protocol Stack

The general structure of the IEEE protocol stack is shown as below −

As shown in the diagram, IEEE 802.16 lays down the standards for physical layer and data link layer.

 Physical Layer − The two popular services of the physical layer are fixed WiMAX and
mobile WiMAX. They operate in the licensed spectrum below 11 GHz. Fixed WiMAX
was released in 2003 and uses OFDM; while mobile WiMAX was released in 2005 and
uses scalable OFDM.

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  Data Link Layer − The data link layer is subdivided into three sublayers −
o Security sublayer − This is the bo ommost layer and is concerned
with security and privacy of the wireless network. It deals with
encryption, decryption and key management.
o MAC common sublayer − The MAC sublayer is concerned with
channel management. The channel management is connection
oriented, a feature that plays due to which quality of service (QoS)
guarantees are given to the subscriber. The base station controls the
system. It schedules the channels from base station to the subscriber
(downlink channels) and also manages the channels from the
subscriber to the base station (uplink channels).
o Service specific convergence sublayer − This is equivalent to logical
link control layer of other systems. It provides the required services
and interface to network layer.

Security
When it comes to security in the context of the IEEE 802.16 standard, also known as WiMAX
(Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), several measures are implemented to ensure the
protec on of data transmi ed over wireless networks. Here are some key security features in
802.16:

1. Privacy and Encryp on: 802.16 incorporates privacy and encryp on mechanisms to protect data
confiden ality. The standard supports the use of the Data Encryp on Standard (DES), Triple DES
(3DES), and Advanced Encryp on Standard (AES) algorithms for encryp on of user data and control
messages.

2. Authen ca on: 802.16 uses mutual authen ca on between the subscriber sta on (SS) and the
base sta on (BS) to establish trust and verify the iden es of both ends. The authen ca on process
typically involves a shared secret key or digital cer ficates, ensuring that only authorized devices can
connect to the network.

3. Key Management: To establish secure communica on, 802.16 u lizes key management protocols
for the exchange and management of encryp on keys between the SS and BS. These protocols
ensure that encryp on keys are securely generated, distributed, and updated to maintain the
confiden ality of the transmi ed data.

4. Access Control: 802.16 implements access control mechanisms to regulate network access and
prevent unauthorized devices from connec ng to the network. This includes authen ca on,
authoriza on, and accoun ng (AAA) mechanisms, which verify user creden als and determine the
level of access based on user profiles and policies.

5. Security Associa ons: 802.16 employs the concept of security associa ons (SAs) to establish
secure communica on between the SS and BS. SAs define the security parameters and encryp on
keys used for a specific communica on session, ensuring that data integrity and confiden ality are
maintained.

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6. Message Integrity: To ensure the integrity of control messages and data, 802.16 supports the use
of message authen ca on codes (MACs). MAC algorithms like Hash-based Message Authen ca on
Code (HMAC) and Cipher-based Message Authen ca on Code (CMAC) are used to verify the
integrity and authen city of transmi ed messages.

7. Privacy and Anonymity: 802.16 provides mechanisms to preserve user privacy and anonymity.
Techniques like dynamic IP address assignment and anonymiza on of user iden fiers help protect
user iden es and prevent unauthorized tracking or monitoring.

It's worth no ng that 802.16 has evolved over me, and later revisions of the standard, such as
802.16e (Mobile WiMAX) and 802.16m (WiMAX 2), have further improved security features. These
enhancements include stronger encryp on algorithms, advanced authen ca on mechanisms, and
improved key management protocols.

Overall, the security features in 802.16 aim to provide a robust and secure wireless network
environment, ensuring the confiden ality, integrity, and availability of data transmi ed over WiMAX
networks.

Bluetooth (802.15)
Bluetooth network technology connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-range to form a
personal area network (PAN). The Bluetooth architecture has its own independent model with a stack
of protocols, instead of following the standard OSI model or TCP/IP model.
The protocols in the Bluetooth standard can be loosely grouped into the physical layer, data link layer,
middleware layer, and application layer as shown in the following diagram −

Protocols in the Bluetooth Protocol Architecture

 Physical Layer − This includes Bluetooth radio and Baseband (also in the data link
layer.
o Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays down the
physical structure and specifications for transmission of radio waves.
It defines air interface, frequency bands, frequency hopping
specifications, and modulation techniques.
o Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol. It
defines the addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing, and
power control algorithms.

39
  Data Link Layer − This includes Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP), and Logical
Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
o Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links between
Bluetooth devices and maintains the links for enabling
communications. The other main functions of LMP are device
authentication, message encryption, and negotiation of packet sizes.
o Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) − L2CAP
provides adaption between upper layer frame and baseband layer
frame format. L2CAP provides support for both connection-oriented
as well as connectionless services.
 Middleware Layer − This includes Radio Frequency Communica ons (RFComm)
protocol, adopted protocols, SDP, and AT commands.
o RFComm − It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a
serial interface with WAP.
o Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are adopted from
standard models. The commonly adopted protocols used in Bluetooth
are Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), Internet Protocol (IP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
o Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of service-related
queries like device information so as to establish a connection
between contending Bluetooth devices.
o AT Commands − ATten on command set.
 Applications Layer − This includes the applica on profiles that allow the user to
interact with the Bluetooth applications.

Security in Bluetooth (802.15)

When it comes to security in Bluetooth, which is based on the IEEE 802.15.1 standard, several
measures are implemented to ensure the protec on of data transmi ed over wireless connec ons.
Here are some key security features in Bluetooth:

1. Pairing: Bluetooth devices establish a secure connec on through a process called pairing. During
pairing, devices authen cate each other and exchange encryp on keys. There are different pairing
methods, including Numeric Comparison, Just Works, Passkey Entry, and Out of Band (OOB), each
providing varying levels of security.

2. Authen ca on: Bluetooth devices authen cate each other to ensure that they are legi mate and
trusted. Authen ca on typically involves the exchange of authen ca on tokens, such as passkeys or
PINs, which are used to verify the iden ty of the devices.

3. Encryp on: Bluetooth employs encryp on mechanisms to protect the confiden ality of data
transmi ed between devices. The encryp on algorithms used in Bluetooth are based on the
Bluetooth Encryp on Algorithm (E0) and the Bluetooth Encryp on Key Genera on Func on (E1).

4. Frequency Hopping: Bluetooth u lizes frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technology to
transmit data over mul ple frequencies. This hopping pa ern makes it difficult for unauthorized
devices to intercept and decipher Bluetooth communica ons.

5. Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): SSP is an enhanced pairing mechanism introduced in Bluetooth
2.1+EDR and later versions. It provides more secure authen ca on and encryp on, making it harder
for a ackers to eavesdrop or impersonate devices during the pairing process.

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6. Bluetooth Secure Connec ons: Bluetooth Secure Connec ons, introduced in Bluetooth 4.0,
improves upon the security of SSP. It uses ellip c curve cryptography (ECC) to provide stronger
security for data encryp on and authen ca on.

7. Bluetooth Low Energy Privacy: Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) devices have a privacy feature that
enables them to rotate their Bluetooth device addresses to prevent tracking and unauthorized
monitoring of device ac vi es.

8. Applica on Layer Security: Bluetooth also allows for applica on layer security, where individual
applica ons can implement their own security mechanisms. For example, a Bluetooth-enabled
applica on can use secure protocols like Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
to encrypt data at the applica on level.

It's important to note that security vulnerabili es and a acks can s ll occur in Bluetooth, and
manufacturers and users should stay vigilant by keeping their devices updated with the latest
firmware and security patches. Addi onally, following best prac ces such as using strong, unique
PINs or passkeys, and avoiding public or untrusted Bluetooth networks can further enhance security.

Mobile Networks
Mobile networks refer to the telecommunica ons infrastructure that enables wireless
communica on between mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices.
These networks provide voice and data services, allowing users to make calls, send text messages,
access the internet, and use various mobile applica ons. There are several genera ons of mobile
networks, each represen ng a significant advancement in technology. Here's an overview of the
major mobile network genera ons:

1. 1G (First Genera on): The first-genera on mobile networks were analog-based and introduced in
the 1980s. They offered basic voice communica on with limited capacity and low data rates.

2. 2G (Second Genera on): Second-genera on networks were introduced in the 1990s and marked a
transi on to digital communica on. The most widely used 2G technologies are GSM (Global System
for Mobile Communica ons) and CDMA (Code Division Mul ple Access). They offered improved
voice quality, text messaging (SMS), and limited data services.

3. 3G (Third Genera on): Third-genera on networks, introduced in the early 2000s, brought
significant advancements in terms of data transmission. They provided higher data speeds, allowing
for video calling, mobile internet access, and mul media services. The prominent 3G technologies
include UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunica ons System) and CDMA2000.

4. 4G (Fourth Genera on): Fourth-genera on networks, introduced around 2010, represented a

major leap in terms of data speeds and capacity. 4G networks, based on technologies like LTE (Long-
Term Evolu on), offered significantly faster download and upload speeds, enabling high-quality video
streaming, online gaming, and advanced mobile applica ons.

5. 5G (Fi h Genera on): Fi h-genera on networks are the latest standard in mobile
communica ons. 5G networks, first deployed in select loca ons in 2019, deliver even faster speeds,
ultra-low latency, and massive device connec vity. They are designed to support emerging
technologies like Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, augmented reality (AR), and virtual
reality (VR).

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It's important to note that mobile networks are typically operated by telecommunica ons companies
(carriers) who deploy and maintain the network infrastructure. The coverage, quality, and availability
of mobile networks vary depending on factors such as loca on, network operator, and the specific
genera on of the network deployed in that area.

GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital cellular
technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900
MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA. This article includes
all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :
1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.
2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.
Features of GSM are :
1. Supports international roaming
2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.
8. Low service cost.
9. New features and services.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between
a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.
2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone
present in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the
network operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of
OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance
services.

Services of GSM:
1. Bearer services/ data services:
GSM specifies different mechanism for data transmission, The original GSM allowing for
data rates of up to 9600 bits/s.
Bearer services permit transparent or non transparent data transmission.
 Transparent bearer services:
Transparent bearer services only use the physical layer to transmit data. Data
transmission has a constant delay at throughput if no transmission error occurs.

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  Non-transparent bearer services:
Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layer two and three two three to
implement error correction and flow control.(data link layer and network layer).
2.Tele services:
Tele services are nothing but we use now as at also.
 Video calls.
 Video text and face emoji.
 short text message(SMS).
3.Supplementary services:
supplementary services it means advanced services.
 Conference calls.
 Call waiting.
 Call forwarding.
GSM security:
 GSM offers several security using confidential information stored in the AUC and in the
individual SIM.
 The SIM stores personal secret data and is protected with a pin against unauthorized
use.

Advantages:

Compatibility: GSM is widely used around the world, so it is compatible with many different
networks and devices.
Security: GSM offers enhanced security features such as authentication, encryption and
confidentiality, which helps to protect the user’s privacy and data.
Efficient use of bandwidth: GSM uses a time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique which enables
many users to share the same frequency channel at different times, making it an efficient use of
the available bandwidth.
Roaming: GSM allows users to roam internationally and use their mobile phones in other
countries that use the same GSM standard.
Wide range of features: GSM supports a wide range of features, including call forwarding, call
waiting, voicemail, conference calling, and more.

Disadvantages:

Limited coverage: GSM networks may have limited coverage in some remote areas, which can
make it difficult for users to make calls or access the internet.
Network congestion: GSM networks may become congested during peak hours, which can lead to
dropped calls or poor call quality.
Security vulnerabilities: Although GSM offers enhanced security features, it is still vulnerable to
certain types of attacks, such as eavesdropping and spoofing.
Data transfer speed: GSM networks offer relatively slow data transfer speeds compared to newer
technologies such as 3G and 4G.
Limited capacity: GSM networks have a limited capacity for handling large volumes of data, which
can be a disadvantage for users who require high-speed internet access or other data-intensive
applications.
Hence, this is the complete architecture and functionalities of GSM components.

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CDMA
o CDMA is an acronym for Code Division Mul ple Access, which is also a radio
telecommunica on standard similar to GSM.

o The CDMA came into existence in 2G and 3G genera on as the protocol of wireless
communica on.
o It is based on the spread spectrum technology and makes op mal use of the available
bandwidth. Since it uses the spread spectrum technology, hence allows each user to transmit
the data over the en re frequency spectrum at any me.
o The CDMA provides one of the most secure modes of communica on due to its spread
spectrum property.
o It is used in UHF or Ultra high-frequency cellular systems, with frequency bands ranging
from 800MHz to 1900MHz.

Advantages of CDMA:
o It uses a fixed frequency spectrum in an efficient way.
o There is no limit on the number of Users.
o It provides a flexible alloca on of resources.
o It is compa ble with other cellular technologies; hence it allows na on-wide roaming.

Differences Between GSM and CDMA

1. Technology Used

The GSM is based on the wedge spectrum technology, also known as a carrier. This carrier is split into
various time slots on the basis of TDMA technology, and each time slots are assigned to each user.
Due to this, until one outgoing call is finished, no other user can access that slot. It uses FDMA to
provide multiuser access by dividing the user frequencies.

44
On the other hand, CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology and hence it makes optimal use of
the available bandwidth. It enables each user to transfer the data over the entire frequency spectrum
at any time.

2. SIM Cards

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) is a smart card that contains the user identification information to
identify the subscriber on a telephony device. In a GSM-based phone, a SIM card is required to make
the data or call transmission. These cards can be easily replaced from one mobile phone to another
with saved information.

On the other hand, CDMA based devices do not require a SIM card; instead, it uses ESN (Electronic
Serial Number). Since it does not use a SIM card, hence changing a device from another is difficult and
required a proper procedure.

3. Flexibility

The GSM standard is more flexible as compared to CDMA. It is because, in GSM, the SIM card can be
inserted into any device and can be used. Whereas, CDMA mobile phone can only be used if ESN is
registered in its database.

If a CDMA stops working on a phone, we need to buy the new phone, whereas if a SIM stops working,
we can use another SIM rather than changing the phone.

4. Spectrum frequencies

The GSM works on the frequency spectrum ranging from 850 MHz to 1900 MHz, whereas CDMA also
operates in the frequency range of 850MHz and 1900MHz.

5. Radia on Exposure

In GSM phones, there is 28 times more radiation exposure takes place as compared to CDMA phones.

GSM phone continuously transmits wave pulses, whereas CDMA phones do not continuously produce
such pulses.

6. Global Reach

GSM is more used globally as compared to CDMA technology. Approx. 80% of the mobile networks
across 210 countries use GSM compared to CDMA. The CDMA-based mobile phones are mostly used
in the US, Canada, and Japan.

7. Security

The CDMA provides more security as compared to GSM technology because it has inbuilt encryption
and uses the spread spectrum for data transmission.

In CDMA, the signal detection is much difficult than in GSM. Hence it is more secure.

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8. Data Transfer Rate

The data transfer rate is high in CDMA compared to GSM technology. In CDMA, EVDO data transfer
technology is used, which provides a maximum download speed of 2 Mbps.

On the other hand, GSM uses EDGE data transfer technology that provides a maximum download
speed of 384 Kbps, which is much slower than CDMA.

Comparison Chart between CDMA and GSM

CDMA GSM

It stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication.

It uses a CDMA mechanism for data & call It uses TDMA and FDMA mechanism for data &
transmission. voice transmission.

The transmission rate is fast compared to GSM. The transmission rate is slow compared to
CDMA.

It uses EVDO data transfer technology. It uses EDGE data transfer technology.

It is handset specific and does not require any SIM It is SIM specific, hence requires a SIM card for
for communication. communication.

During transmission, it is much prone to radiation During transmission, it is comparatively less

emission. prone to radiation emission.

It offers more secure communication compared It offers less secure communication compared to
to GSM. CDAM.

The signal detection is difficult in CDMA. The signal detection is easy in GSM.

It provides built-in encryption. It requires additional encryption as no built-in

encryption is available.

It enables limited roaming. It enables worldwide roaming.

Conclusion:

Both GSM and CDMA have their own importance and depends on how both technologies are being
used. Approximately 80% of the world uses GSM, and CDMA is used mostly in the US and somewhere
in Canada and Japan.

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 UNIT 4
Internet Layer:
The Internet layer is responsible for logical transmission of data packets over the internet. It can be
compared to the network layer of the OSI model.
The main functions of the internet layer are −

 It transmits data packets to the link layer.

 It routes each of the data packets independently from the source to the destination,
using the optimal route.
 It reassembles the out-of-order packets when they reach the destination.
 It handles the error in transmission of data packets and fragmentation of data
packets.
The protocols used in this layer are −

 Internet Protocol, IP − It is a connectionless and unreliable protocol that provides a

best effort delivery service. It transports data packets called datagrams that travel
over different routes across multiple nodes.
 Address Resolution Protocol, ARP −This protocol maps the logical address or the
Internet address of a host to its physical address, as printed in the network interface
card.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, RARP − This is to find the Internet address of a
host when its physical address is known.
 Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP − It monitors sending the queries as well
as the error messages.
 Internet Group Message Protocol, IGMP −It allows the transmission of a message to
a group of recipients simultaneously.
The following diagram shows the network layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite −

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What is IP?
An IP stands for internet protocol. An IP address is assigned to each device connected to a network.
Each device uses an IP address for communication. It also behaves as an identifier as this address is
used to identify the device on a network. It defines the technical format of the packets. Mainly, both
the networks, i.e., IP and TCP, are combined together, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP. It
creates a virtual connection between the source and the destination.

We can also define an IP address as a numeric address assigned to each device on a network. An IP
address is assigned to each device so that the device on a network can be identified uniquely. To
facilitate the routing of packets, TCP/IP protocol uses a 32-bit logical address known as IPv4(Internet
Protocol version 4).

An IP address consists of two parts, i.e., the first one is a network address, and the other one is
a host address.

There are two types of IP addresses:

o IPv4
o IPv6

What is IPv4?
IPv4 is a version 4 of IP. It is a current version and the most commonly used IP address. It is a 32-bit
address written in four numbers separated by 'dot', i.e., periods. This address is unique for each
device.

For example, 66.94.29.13

The above example represents the IP address in which each group of numbers separated by periods
is called an Octet. Each number in an octet is in the range from 0-255. This address can produce
4,294,967,296 possible unique addresses.

In today's computer network world, computers do not understand the IP addresses in the standard
numeric format as the computers understand the numbers in binary form only. The binary number
can be either 1 or 0. The IPv4 consists of four sets, and these sets represent the octet. The bits in each
octet represent a number.

Each bit in an octet can be either 1 or 0. If the bit the 1, then the number it represents will count, and
if the bit is 0, then the number it represents does not count.

Representation of 8 Bit Octet

The above representation shows the structure of 8- bit octet.

48
Now, we will see how to obtain the binary representation of the above IP address, i.e., 66.94.29.13

Step 1: First, we find the binary number of 66.

To obtain 66, we put 1 under 64 and 2 as the sum of 64 and 2 is equal to 66 (64+2=66), and the
remaining bits will be zero, as shown above. Therefore, the binary bit version of 66 is 01000010.

Step 2: Now, we calculate the binary number of 94.

To obtain 94, we put 1 under 64, 16, 8, 4, and 2 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 94, and the
remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 94 is 01011110.

Step 3: The next number is 29.

To obtain 29, we put 1 under 16, 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 29, and the
remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 29 is 00011101.

Step 4: The last number is 13.

To obtain 13, we put 1 under 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 13, and the remaining
bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 13 is 00001101.

Drawback of IPv4

Currently, the population of the world is 7.6 billion. Every user is having more than one device
connected with the internet, and private companies also rely on the internet. As we know that IPv4
produces 4 billion addresses, which are not enough for each device connected to the internet on a
planet. Although the various techniques were invented, such as variable- length mask, network
address translation, port address translation, classes, inter-domain translation, to conserve the
bandwidth of IP address and slow down the depletion of an IP address. In these techniques, public IP
is converted into a private IP due to which the user having public IP can also use the internet. But still,
this was not so efficient, so it gave rise to the development of the next generation of IP addresses, i.e.,
IPv6.

49
What is IPv6?
IPv4 produces 4 billion addresses, and the developers think that these addresses are enough, but they
were wrong. IPv6 is the next generation of IP addresses. The main difference between IPv4 and IPv6
is the address size of IP addresses. The IPv4 is a 32-bit address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal
address. IPv6 provides a large address space, and it contains a simple header as compared to IPv4.

It provides transition strategies that convert IPv4 into IPv6, and these strategies are as follows:

o Dual stacking: It allows us to have both the versions, i.e., IPv4 and IPv6, on the same device.
o Tunneling: In this approach, all the users have IPv6 communicates with an IPv4 network to
reach IPv6.
o Network Address Transla on: The transla on allows the communica on between the hosts
having a different version of IP.

This hexadecimal address contains both numbers and alphabets. Due to the usage of both the
numbers and alphabets, IPv6 is capable of producing over 340 undecillion (3.4*1038) addresses.

IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address made up of 8 sets of 16 bits each, and these 8 sets are separated
by a colon. In IPv6, each hexadecimal character represents 4 bits. So, we need to convert 4 bits to a
hexadecimal number at a time

Address format

The address format of IPv4:

The address format of IPv6:

The above diagram shows the address format of IPv4 and IPv6. An IPv4 is a 32-bit decimal address. It
contains 4 octets or fields separated by 'dot', and each field is 8-bit in size. The number that each field
contains should be in the range of 0-255. Whereas an IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address. It contains
8 fields separated by a colon, and each field is 16-bit in size.

Differences between IPv4 and IPv6

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 Ipv4 Ipv6

Address length IPv4 is a 32-bit address. IPv6 is a 128-bit address.

Fields IPv4 is a numeric address that consists of IPv6 is an alphanumeric address that
4 fields which are separated by dot (.). consists of 8 fields, which are separated by
colon.

Classes IPv4 has 5 different classes of IP address IPv6 does not contain classes of IP
that includes Class A, Class B, Class C, Class addresses.
D, and Class E.

Number of IP IPv4 has a limited number of IP addresses. IPv6 has a large number of IP addresses.
address

VLSM It supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet It does not support VLSM.
Mask). Here, VLSM means that Ipv4
converts IP addresses into a subnet of
different sizes.

Address It supports manual and DHCP It supports manual, DHCP, auto-

configura on configura on. configura on, and renumbering.

Address space It generates 4 billion unique addresses It generates 340 undecillion unique
addresses.

End-to-end In IPv4, end-to-end connec on integrity is In the case of IPv6, end-to-end connec on
connec on unachievable. integrity is achievable.
integrity

Security In IPv4, security depends on the In IPv6, IPSEC is developed for security
features applica on. This IP address is not purposes.
developed in keeping the security feature
in mind.

Address In IPv4, the IP address is represented in In IPv6, the representa on of the IP

representa on decimal. address in hexadecimal.

Fragmenta on Fragmenta on is done by the senders and Fragmenta on is done by the senders
the forwarding routers. only.

51
 Packet flow It does not provide any mechanism for It uses flow label field in the header for the
iden fica on packet flow iden fica on. packet flow iden fica on.

Checksum field The checksum field is available in IPv4. The checksum field is not available in IPv6.

Transmission IPv4 is broadcas ng. On the other hand, IPv6 is mul cas ng,
scheme which provides efficient network
opera ons.

Encryp on and It does not provide encryp on and It provides encryp on and authen ca on.
Authen ca on authen ca on.

Number of It consists of 4 octets. It consists of 8 fields, and each field

octets contains 2 octets. Therefore, the total
number of octets in IPv6 is 16.

IP ADDRESSING
IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host, especially outside
the LAN. An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 232.
Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal notation and
hexadecimal notation.
Dotted Decimal Notation:

Hexadecimal Notation:

Some points to be noted about dotted decimal notation:

1. The value of any segment (byte) is between 0 and 255 (both included).
2. There are no zeroes preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).

52
IP Classes
Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for multicast
and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes
of IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
 Network ID
 Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns IP address to each device that is connected to its network.

Note: IP addresses are globally managed by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) and
regional Internet registries(RIR).
Note: While finding the total number of host IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are not counted and are
therefore, decreased from the total count because the first IP address of any network is the
network number and whereas the last IP address is reserved for broadcast IP.

Class A:
IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in first octet
are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any
network. The default subnet mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
 2^7-2= 126 network ID(Here 2 address is subtracted because 0.0.0.0 and 127.x.y.z are
special address. )
 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.x.x.x – 126.x.x.x

53
Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from medium-sized to
large-sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The
remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used to determine
the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
 2^14 = 16384 network address
 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110. The
remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used to determine the
host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C has a total of:
 2^21 = 2097152 network address
 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.

Class D:
IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order bits of the first
octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the
address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from 224.0.0.0
– 239.255.255.255.

Class E:
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have any sub-net
mask. The higher order bits of first octet of class E are always set to 1111.

54
Range of special IP addresses:
169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link local addresses
127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 : Loop-back addresses
0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 : used to communicate within the current network.

Rules for assigning Host ID:

Host ID’s are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID are assigned based on the
following rules:
 Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.
Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used to represent
the network ID of the IP address.
Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is reserved as a
broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that particular network.

Rules for assigning Network ID:

Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID, as all host on
the same physical network is assigned the same network ID. The network ID is assigned based on
the following rules:
 The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A
address and is reserved for internal loop-back functions.
 All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast
address and therefore, cannot be used.
 All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the
local network and are not routed and therefore, aren’t used.

Summary of Classful addressing :

Problems with Classful Addressing:

The problem with this classful addressing method is that millions of class A address are wasted,
many of the class B address are wasted, whereas, number of addresses available in class C is so small
that it cannot cater the needs of organizations. Class D addresses are used for multicast routing and
are therefore available as a single block only. Class E addresses are reserved.
Since there are these problems, Classful networking was replaced by Classless Inter-Domain
Routing (CIDR) in 1993. We will be discussing Classless addressing in next post.

55
Private IP Addressing
Private IP Addresses are those addresses that work within the local network. This article will detail the
concept of Private IP Addresses in networking.
These addresses are non-routable on the Internet. The address is basically assigned by the network
router to your particular device. The unique private IP address is provided to every device which is on
the same network. In this way, devices communicate with one another on the same network without
connecting to the entire Internet.
In this way, Private IP addresses are able to provide more security within a particular network. The
private IP address cannot be seen on the Internet, unlike the public IP address. Only devices within
the local network are able to see the address of one another.
Private IP address exists within the specific ranges as reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA). Following are the address ranges of private IP addresses:
 In Class A, the address range assigned to Private IP Address: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 In Class B, the address range assigned to Private IP Address: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 In Class C, the address range assigned to Private IP Address: 192.168.0.0 to
192.168.255.255
The range except assigned to Private IP Address is used to assign Public IP Address on a network as
public IP addresses are unique for each device on the Internet. Therefore, private networks can use
these address ranges for allocating private IP addresses in a specific network. Private IP addresses can
be reused on another network which is not possible with Public IP addresses.

Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method of IP address allocation and IP routing that allows
for more efficient use of IP addresses. CIDR is based on the idea that IP addresses can be allocated and
routed based on their network prefix rather than their class, which was the traditional way of IP
address allocation.
CIDR addresses are represented using a slash notation, which specifies the number of bits in the
network prefix. For example, an IP address of 192.168.1.0 with a prefix length of 24 would be
represented as 192.168.1.0/24. This notation indicates that the first 24 bits of the IP address are the
network prefix and the remaining 8 bits are the host identifier.

56
CIDR has several advantages over the tradi onal class-based addressing system, including:

1. Efficient use of IP addresses: CIDR allows for more efficient use of IP addresses by allowing
the alloca on of IP addresses based on their network prefix rather than their class.
2. Flexibility: CIDR allows for more flexible IP address alloca on, as it allows for the alloca on
of arbitrary-sized blocks of IP addresses.
Be er rou ng: CIDR allows for be er rou ng of IP traffic, as it allows routers to aggregate
IP addresses based on their network prefix, reducing the size of rou ng tables.
3. Reduced administra ve overhead: CIDR reduces administra ve overhead by allowing for
the alloca on and rou ng of IP addresses in a more efficient and flexible way.
4. In summary, CIDR is a method of IP address alloca on and rou ng that allows for more
efficient use of IP addresses and be er rou ng of IP traffic. It has several advantages over
the tradi onal class-based addressing system, including greater flexibility, be er rou ng,
and reduced administra ve overhead.

Advantages:

1. Efficient use of IP addresses: CIDR allows for more efficient use of IP addresses, which is
important as the pool of available IPv4 addresses con nues to shrink.
2. Flexibility: CIDR allows for more flexible alloca on of IP addresses, which can be important
for organiza ons with complex network requirements.
3. Be er rou ng: CIDR allows for more efficient rou ng of IP traffic, which can lead to be er
network performance.
Reduced administra ve overhead: CIDR reduces administra ve overhead by allowing for
easier management of IP addresses and rou ng.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: CIDR can be more complex to implement and manage than tradi onal class-
based addressing, which can require addi onal training and exper se.
2. Compa bility issues: Some older network devices may not be compa ble with CIDR, which
can make it difficult to transi on to a CIDR-based network.
3. Security concerns: CIDR can make it more difficult to implement security measures such
as firewall rules and access control lists, which can increase security risks.
4. Overall, CIDR is a useful and efficient method of IP address alloca on and rou ng, but it
may not be suitable for all organiza ons or networks. It is important to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of CIDR and consider the specific needs and requirements
of your network before implemen ng CIDR.

As we have already learned about Classful Addressing, so in this article, we are going to learn about
Classless Inter-Domain Routing. which is also known as Classless addressing. In Classful addressing the
no of Hosts within a network always remains the same depending upon the class of the Network.
Class A network contains 224 Hosts,
Class B network contains 216 Hosts,
Class C network contains 28 Hosts
Now, let’s suppose an Organization requires 214 hosts, then it must have to purchase a Class B
network. In this case, 49152 Hosts will be wasted. This is the major drawback of Classful Addressing.
In order to reduce the wastage of IP addresses a new concept of Classless Inter-Domain Routing is
introduced. Nowadays IANA is using this technique to provide IP addresses.

57
Whenever any user asks for IP addresses, IANA is going to assign that many IP addresses to the

User.
Representation: It is as also a 32-bit address, which includes a special number that represents the
number of bits that are present in the Block Id.
a.b.c.d/n
Where n is the number of bits that are present in Block Id / Network Id. Example:
20.10.50.100/20
Rules for forming CIDR Blocks:
1. All IP addresses must be con guous.
2. Block size must be the power of 2 (2n). If the size of the block is the power of 2, then it will
be easy to divide the Network. Finding out the Block Id is very easy if the block size is of
the power of 2. Example: If the Block size is 25 then, Host Id will contain 5 bits and Network
will contain 32 – 5 = 27 bits.

3. First IP address of the Block must be evenly divisible by the size of the block. in simple
words, the least significant part should always start with zeroes in Host Id. Since all the
least significant bits of Host Id is zero, then we can use it as Block Id part.
Example: Check whether 100.1.2.32 to 100.1.2.47 is a valid IP address block or not?
1. All the IP addresses are con guous.
2. Total number of IP addresses in the Block = 16 = 24.
3. 1st IP address: 100.1.2.00100000 Since, Host Id will contains last 4 bits and all the least
significant 4 bits are zero. Hence, first IP address is evenly divisible by the size of the block.
All three rules are followed by this Block. Hence, it is a valid IP address block.

58
Transport Layer:
The Transport Layer is one of the layers in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite. Its primary purpose is to provide
reliable and efficient data transfer between end systems or hosts across a network.

The Transport Layer takes data from the Session Layer above it and breaks it down into smaller units
called segments (in TCP) or datagrams (in UDP). These segments or datagrams are then transmitted
over the network and reassembled into the original data at the receiving end.

The two most commonly used protocols in the Transport Layer are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that offers reliable and
ordered data delivery. It establishes a connection between the sender and receiver, ensures that all
data packets arrive at the destination in the correct order, and handles retransmission of lost or
corrupted packets. TCP also provides flow control mechanisms to manage the rate of data
transmission based on network conditions.

2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides a lightweight and
low-overhead mechanism for sending data. Unlike TCP, UDP does not establish a connection before
transmitting data and does not guarantee reliable delivery or ordered packets. It is commonly used
for applications that prioritize speed and efficiency over reliability, such as real-time multimedia
streaming or DNS (Domain Name System) queries.

In addition to reliable data delivery, the Transport Layer is responsible for other functions, including
multiplexing and demultiplexing. Multiplexing involves combining data from different applications or
processes into a single stream, while demultiplexing involves separating the incoming data stream and
delivering it to the appropriate application or process on the receiving end. This allows multiple
applications to use the network simultaneously.

Overall, the Transport Layer plays a crucial role in ensuring efficient and reliable communication
between network hosts, enabling the transmission of data across networks with features such as error
recovery, congestion control, and flow control.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol
suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So,
there is no need to establish a connection prior to data transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-
latency and loss-tolerating connections establish over the network.The UDP enables process to
process communication.
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer protocol used with most
of the Internet services; provides assured delivery, reliability, and much more but all these services
cost us additional overhead and latency. Here, UDP comes into the picture. For real-time services
like computer gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we need UDP. Since high
performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing delayed packets.
There is no error checking in UDP, so it also saves bandwidth.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and bandwidth.

59
UDP Header –
UDP header is an 8-bytes fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes to 60
bytes. The first 8 Bytes contains all necessary header information and the remaining part consist of
data. UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore the range for port numbers is defined
from 0 to 65535; port number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests
or processes.

1. Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to iden fy the port number of the
source.
2. Des na on Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to iden fy the port of the des ned packet.
3. Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a 16-bits
field.
4. Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of the one’s
complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of informa on from the IP
header, and the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a
mul ple of two octets.
Notes – Unlike TCP, the Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP. No Error control or flow
control is provided by UDP. Hence UDP depends on IP and ICMP for error reporting. Also UDP
provides port numbers so that is can differentiate between users requests.
Applications of UDP:
 Used for simple request-response communica on when the size of data is less and hence
there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
 It is a suitable protocol for mul cas ng as UDP supports packet switching.
 UDP is used for some rou ng update protocols like RIP(Rou ng Informa on Protocol).
 Normally used for real- me applica ons which can not tolerate uneven delays between
sec ons of a received message.
 UDP is widely used in online gaming, where low latency and high-speed communica on
is essen al for a good gaming experience. Game servers o en send small, frequent
packets of data to clients, and UDP is well suited for this type of communica on as it is
fast and lightweight.
 Streaming media applica ons, such as IPTV, online radio, and video conferencing, use
UDP to transmit real- me audio and video data. The loss of some packets can be
tolerated in these applica ons, as the data is con nuously flowing and does not require
retransmission.
 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) services, such as Skype and WhatsApp, use UDP for
real- me voice communica on. The delay in voice communica on can be no ceable if
packets are delayed due to conges on control, so UDP is used to ensure fast and efficient
data transmission.
 DNS (Domain Name System) also uses UDP for its query/response messages. DNS
queries are typically small and require a quick response me, making UDP a suitable
protocol for this applica on.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configura on Protocol) uses UDP to dynamically assign IP
addresses to devices on a network. DHCP messages are typically small, and the delay
caused by packet loss or retransmission is generally not cri cal for this applica on.

60
Advantages of UDP:
1. Speed: UDP is faster than TCP because it does not have the overhead of establishing a connection
and ensuring reliable data delivery.
2. Lower latency: Since there is no connection establishment, there is lower latency and faster
response time.
3. Simplicity: UDP has a simpler protocol design than TCP, making it easier to implement and
manage.
4. Broadcast support: UDP supports broadcasting to multiple recipients, making it useful for
applications such as video streaming and online gaming.
5. Smaller packet size: UDP uses smaller packet sizes than TCP, which can reduce network
congestion and improve overall network performance.
Disadvantages of UDP:
1. No reliability: UDP does not guarantee delivery of packets or order of delivery, which can lead to
missing or duplicate data.
2. No congestion control: UDP does not have congestion control, which means that it can send
packets at a rate that can cause network congestion.
3. No flow control: UDP does not have flow control, which means that it can overwhelm the receiver
with packets that it cannot handle.
4. Vulnerable to attacks: UDP is vulnerable to denial-of-service attacks, where an attacker can flood
a network with UDP packets, overwhelming the network and causing it to crash.
5. Limited use cases: UDP is not suitable for applications that require reliable data delivery, such as
email or file transfers, and is better suited for applications that can tolerate some data loss, such as
video streaming or online gaming.
UDP PSEUDO HEADER:
 the purpose of using a pseudo-header is to verify that the UDP packet has reached its
correct des na on
 the correct des na on consist of a specific machine and a specific protocol port number
within that machine

UDP pseudo header

UDP pseudo header details:

 the UDP header itself specify only protocol port number.thus , to verify the des na on
UDP on the sending machine computes a checksum that covers the des na on IP
address as well as the UDP packet.
 at the ul mate des na on, UDP so ware verifies the checksum using the des na on IP
address obtained from the header of the IP packet that carried the UDP message.
 if the checksum agrees, then it must be true that the packet has reached the intended
des na on host as well as the correct protocol port within that host.

61
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP is abbreviated as Transmission Control Protocol. TCP/IP is developed by Cerf and Kahn. The TCP
provides complete services in the transport layer. It carries the data in the form of packets that are
broken into smaller units called segments. These Segments have a particular sequence number. Based
on the sequence number, TCP collects all the segments and rearranges them into proper data.
Evolu on
Communication networks have evolved more in recent decades. The Packet switching technology has
emerged a lot and TCP/IP needs to be transferred from a combination of wired and wireless to
complete the wireless design. Earlier, we used copper wires and fiber optic cable for data
transmission over long distances that act as a transmission medium.
The wireless network has a high Bit error rate (BER) because the transmission medium is air where
there are high chances of unwanted signals. It involves packet loss and random error that has to be
reported to the client regarding the problem or any network congestion. There are totally three
phases used for congestion. The first phase is the slow start, second phase is Congestion Avoidance
and the last phase is Congestion detection.
1. Slow start
In the TCP/IP the packets are transmitted in the form of broken segments from the server and at the
receiver section it is turned into proper data and delivered to the client. The Sender sends the packet
by setting them to Maximum Segment size (MSS). And MSS increases exponentially after getting the
acknowledgment from one host to another.
A slow start will help to increase the transmission speed. Slow is used to find the bandwidth available
for the transmission of packets and also maintains the network speed. Based on the network
capability, initially, it is unknown, as it slowly increases information wide until the maximum capacity
is formed.
The Congestion is set to a maximum based on the data, before receiving an ACK from the receiver.
The slow start will determine that the slow start process is activated. After the activation, it sends
one TCP ACK or data From Host A to Host B and waits for an ACK. After receiving the ACK, the
congestion window is increased to a maximum greater than the threshold value. So the slow start
terminates the process when congestion happens.
2. Conges on Avoidance phase
In the network, congestion occurs when there is a traffic overload on the links beyond their actual
capacity. Due to this congestion in the network, there will be a loss of packets during the transmission.
So the users face various issues during the usage of the network. As the size increases to the maximum
in the above phase, it is required to avoid congestion by calculating the window size of the packet.
3. Conges on Detec on phase
The Third phase is the Congestion detection phase, after calculating the window size we can avoid
congestion. Even though it contains some network congestion, that can be detected by using this
algorithm

62
TCP Segment structure –
A TCP segment consists of data bytes to be sent and a header that is added to the data by TCP as
shown:

The header of a TCP segment can range from 20-60 bytes. 40 bytes are for options. If there are no
options, a header is 20 bytes else it can be of upmost 60 bytes.
Header fields:
 Source Port Address –
A 16-bit field that holds the port address of the application that is sending the data
segment.
 Destination Port Address –
A 16-bit field that holds the port address of the application in the host that is receiving
the data segment.
 Sequence Number –
A 32-bit field that holds the sequence number, i.e, the byte number of the first byte
that is sent in that particular segment. It is used to reassemble the message at the
receiving end of the segments that are received out of order.
 Acknowledgement Number –
A 32-bit field that holds the acknowledgement number, i.e, the byte number that the
receiver expects to receive next. It is an acknowledgement for the previous bytes being
received successfully.
 Header Length (HLEN) –
This is a 4-bit field that indicates the length of the TCP header by a number of 4-byte
words in the header, i.e if the header is 20 bytes(min length of TCP header), then this
field will hold 5 (because 5 x 4 = 20) and the maximum length: 60 bytes, then it’ll hold
the value 15(because 15 x 4 = 60). Hence, the value of this field is always between 5
and 15.
 Control flags –
These are 6 1-bit control bits that control connection establishment, connection
termination, connection abortion, flow control, mode of transfer etc. Their function is:
 URG: Urgent pointer is valid
 ACK: Acknowledgement number is valid( used in case of cumulative
acknowledgement)
 PSH: Request for push
 RST: Reset the connection
 SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers
 FIN: Terminate the connection

63
  Window size –
This field tells the window size of the sending TCP in bytes.
 Checksum –
This field holds the checksum for error control. It is mandatory in TCP as opposed to
UDP.
 Urgent pointer –
This field (valid only if the URG control flag is set) is used to point to data that is
urgently required that needs to reach the receiving process at the earliest. The value of
this field is added to the sequence number to get the byte number of the last urgent
byte.

TCP Connec on Management

TCP is a connec on-oriented protocol and every connec on-oriented protocol needs to establish a
connec on in order to reserve resources at both the communica ng ends.

Connection Establishment –
1. Sender starts the process with the following:
 Sequence number (Seq=521): contains the random ini al sequence number generated
at the sender side.
 Syn flag (Syn=1): request the receiver to synchronize its sequence number with the
above-provided sequence number.
 Maximum segment size (MSS=1460 B): sender tells its maximum segment size, so that
receiver sends datagram which won’t require any fragmenta on. MSS field is present
inside Op on field in TCP header.
 Window size (window=14600 B): sender tells about his buffer capacity in which he has
to store messages from the receiver.

2. TCP is a full-duplex protocol so both sender and receiver require a window for receiving messages
from one another.
 Sequence number (Seq=2000): contains the random ini al sequence number generated
at the receiver side.
 Syn flag (Syn=1): request the sender to synchronize its sequence number with the
above-provided sequence number.
 Maximum segment size (MSS=500 B): sender tells its maximum segment size, so that
receiver sends datagram which won’t require any fragmenta on. MSS field is present
inside Op on field in TCP header.
Since MSSreceiver < MSSsender, both par es agree for minimum MSS i.e., 500 B to avoid
fragmenta on of packets at both ends.
Therefore, receiver can send maximum of 14600/500 = 29 packets.
This is the receiver's sending window size.
 Window size (window=10000 B): receiver tells about his buffer capacity in which he has
to store messages from the sender.
Therefore, sender can send a maximum of 10000/500 = 20 packets.
This is the sender's sending window size.
 Acknowledgement Number (Ack no.=522): Since sequence number 521 is received by
the receiver so, it makes a request for the next sequence number with Ack no.=522

64
 which is the next packet expected by the receiver since Syn flag consumes 1 sequence
no.
 ACK flag (ACk=1): tells that the acknowledgement number field contains the next
sequence expected by the receiver.
3. Sender makes the final reply for connection establishment in the following way:
 Sequence number (Seq=522): since sequence number = 521 in 1st step and SYN flag
consumes one sequence number hence, the next sequence number will be 522.
 Acknowledgement Number (Ack no.=2001): since the sender is acknowledging SYN=1
packet from the receiver with sequence number 2000 so, the next sequence number
expected is 2001.
 ACK flag (ACK=1): tells that the acknowledgement number field contains the next
sequence expected by the sender.

Since the connection establishment phase of TCP makes use of 3 packets, it is also known as 3-way
Handshaking (SYN, SYN + ACK, ACK).

65
Application Layer
The application layer in the OSI model is the closest layer to the end user which means
that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the software
application. The application layer programs are based on client and servers.

The Application layer includes the following functions:

o Identifying communication partners: The application layer identifies the availability
of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
o Determining resource availability: The application layer determines whether
sufficient network resources are available for the requested communication.
o Synchronizing communication: All the communications occur between the
applications requires cooperation which is managed by an application layer.

Services of Application Layers

o Network Virtual terminal: An application layer allows a user to log on to a remote
host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote
host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal, which in turn, talks to the host.
The remote host thinks that it is communicating with one of its own terminals, so it
allows the user to log on.
o File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): An application allows a user to
access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a computer and to manage files
in a remote computer. FTAM defines a hierarchical virtual file in terms of file structure,
file attributes and the kind of operations performed on the files and their attributes.
o Addressing: To obtain communication between client and server, there is a need for
addressing. When a client made a request to the server, the request contains the server
address and its own address. The server response to the client request, the request
contains the destination address, i.e., client address. To achieve this kind of addressing,
DNS is used.
o Mail Services: An application layer provides Email forwarding and storage.
o Directory Services: An application contains a distributed database that provides
access for global information about various objects and services.

Authentication: It authenticates the sender or receiver's message or both.

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Introduction of DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on
different systems, pass the messages to each other.

o DNS stands for Domain Name System.

o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.
o DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of
symbols specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the
users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead
of remembering the IP addresses.
o For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most
people would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain
name is more reliable than IP address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse
domain.

Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

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Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character
organizational abbreviations.

Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has received a request
from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized clients. To determine whether the
client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address
to the name.

Working of DNS
o DNS is a client/server network communica on protocol. DNS clients send requests to the.
server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward DNS
lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name known as
reverse DNS lookups.
o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the
internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of so ware
such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address of a hostname.
If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname, then it forwards
the request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn
completes the request over the internet protocol.

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Electronic Mail
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This
service allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner
(mail) to the other Internet user in any part of world. Message in mail not only
contain text, but it also contains images, audio and videos data. The person who
is sending mail is called sender and person who receives mail is called recipient.
It is just like postal mail service. Components of E-Mail System : The basic
components of an email system are : User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent
(MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. These are explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA) : The UA is normally a program which is used to send
and receive mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts
variety of commands for composing, receiving and replying to messages
as well as for manipulation of the mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) : MTA is actually responsible for
transfer of mail from one system to another. To send a mail, a system
must have client MTA and system MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes of
recipients if they are connected in the same machine. It delivers mail to
peer MTA if destination mailbox is in another machine. The delivery
from one MTA to another MTA is done by Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol.
3. Mailbox : It is a ile on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails
are present in this ile. The user can read it delete it according to
his/her requirement. To use e-mail system each user must have a
mailbox . Access to mailbox is only to owner of mailbox.
4. Spool ile : This ile contains mails that are to be sent. User agent
appends outgoing mails in this ile using SMTP. MTA extracts pending
mail from spool ile for their delivery. E-mail allows one name, an alias,
to represent several different e-mail addresses. It is known as mailing
list, Whenever user have to sent a message, system checks recipient’s
name against alias database. If mailing list is present for de ined alias,
separate messages, one for each entry in the list, must be prepared and
handed to MTA. If for de ined alias, there is no such mailing list is
present, name itself becomes naming address and a single message is
delivered to mail transfer entity.

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Services provided by E-mail system :
 Composition – The composition refer to process that creates messages
and answers. For composition any kind of text editor can be used.
 Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the
sender to recipient.
 Reporting – Reporting refers to con irmation for delivery of mail. It
help user to check whether their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
 Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the
user.
 Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will recipient
do after receiving mail i.e save mail, delete before reading or delete
after reading.

Advantages of Email
There are many advantages of email, which are as follows:

o Cost-effective: Email is a very cost-effective service to communicate with others as

there are several email services available to individuals and organizations for free of
cost. Once a user is online, it does not include any additional charge for the services.
o Email offers users the benefit of accessing email from anywhere at any time if they have
an Internet connection.
o Email offers you an incurable communication process, which enables you to send a
response at a convenient time. Also, it offers users a better option to communicate
easily regardless of different schedules users.
o Speed and simplicity: Email can be composed very easily with the correct information
and contacts. Also, minimum lag time, it can be exchanged quickly.
o Mass sending: You can send a message easily to large numbers of people through
email.
o Email exchanges can be saved for future retrieval, which allows users to keep important
conversations or confirmations in their records and can be searched and retrieved
when they needed quickly.
o Email provides a simple user interface and enables users to categorize and filter their
messages. This can help you recognize unwanted emails like junk and spam mail. Also,
users can find specific messages easily when they are needed.
o As compared to traditional posts, emails are delivered extremely fast.
o Email is beneficial for the planet, as it is paperless. It reduces the cost of paper and
helps to save the environment by reducing paper usage.

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Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allowing you to make
voice calls over a broadband Internet connection instead of an analog (regular)
phone line. Some VoIP services allow you to call people using the same service,
but others may allow you to call anyone. They can have a telephone number –
including local, long-distance, mobile, and international numbers or not. Some
VoIP services only work over your computer or a special VoIP phone while other
services allow you to use a traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
How VoIP / Internet Voice Works –
Voice is converted into a digital signal by VoIP services that travel over the
Internet. If the regular phone number is called, the signal is converted to a
regular telephone signal i.e. an analog signal before it reaches the destination.
VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer having a special VoIP
phone, or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. Wireless hot spots
in locations such as airports, hospitals, cafes, etc allow you to connect to the
Internet and can enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly.
Equipments Required –
A high-speed Internet connection is required which can be through a cable
modem or high-speed services such as a local area network. A computer, adaptor,
or specialized phone is required. Some VoIP services only work over your
computer or a special VoIP phone. Other services allow you to use a traditional
phone connected to a VoIP adapter. If you use your computer some software and
an inexpensive microphone are needed. VoIP phones plug directly into your
broadband connection and operate largely like a traditional telephone. If you use
a telephone with a VoIP adapter, you can dial just as you always have, and the
service provider may also provide a dial tone.
Advantages of VoIP –

1. Some VoIP services offer features and services that are not available
with a traditional phone, or are available but only for an additional fee.
2. Paying for both a broadband connection and a traditional telephone
line can be avoided.
3. Smoother connection than an analog signal can be provided.

Disadvantages of VoIP –

1. Some VoIP services don’t work during power outages and the service
provider may not offer backup power.
2. Not all VoIP services connect directly to emergency services through
emergency service numbers.
3. VoIP providers may or may not offer directory assistance.

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Comparison of VoIP vs. Traditional Phone Services

Features VoIP Tradi onal Phone Services

Method of transmission Digital Analog

Yes, high-speed
Internet requirement No, tradi onal phone line
broadband

Lower cost for long- Higher cost for long-

Cost
distance distance

More features and Limited features and

Features and services
services services

Power outages May not work Usually works

Emergency services
May not connect directly Direct connec on
access

May or may not be

Directory assistance Usually available
available

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