Introduction to Fluid Flow

Fluid flow refers to the movement of fluids (liquids and gases) from one location to another due
to the action of external forces like gravity, pressure, and friction. Fluid flow can be influenced by
various conditions, including the properties of the fluid and the nature of the environment in which
it flows. For instance, water flowing in a river is driven primarily by gravitational forces acting on
the water, allowing it to move from higher elevations to lower areas.
Example: One simple example of fluid flow is the movement of air in a room due to a fan. When
the fan blades rotate, they push air particles, creating airflow from one end to another. This
movement allows cooler air to circulate, which helps in temperature regulation.

Types of Fluids
1. Ideal Fluids: These fluids are theoretical and do not exist in reality. They are considered
incompressible and have no viscosity (resistance to flow). This assumption allows for
simpler mathematical models in fluid dynamics

2. Real Fluids: Real fluids have viscosity and can compress to some extent. Their flow is
affected by friction and other resistive forces.

3. Compressible Fluids: These fluids can experience significant changes in density when
subjected to pressure.

4. Incompressible Fluids: These fluids have a constant density regardless of changes in

pressure.

Types of Fluid Flow

Laminar Flow – is the orderly, smooth movement of fluid particles in parallel layers without
mixing between them. Each layer glides over the adjacent one with minimal resistance or
turbulence.

Characteristics:
• Particles move in straight, parallel lines.
• Consistent flow velocity across layers.
• Occurs at low velocities.
• High-viscosity fluids are more likely to exhibit laminar flow.
• Typically occurs when the Reynolds number is less than 2,000.
Example:

The smooth flow of syrup or ketchup when poured from a bottle. Due to the high viscosity of these
fluids, they flow in a steady, orderly manner without much mixing, which makes it a classic case
of laminar flow.

Turbulent Flow – is characterized by chaotic, irregular fluid motion where particles move in
random directions, forming eddies and swirls that disrupt the smoothness of the flow.

Characteristics:
• Fluid particles move in erratic, non-parallel paths.
• Flow velocity fluctuates, creating eddies.
• Occurs at high velocities.
• Common in low-viscosity fluids like air and water at higher speeds.
• Typically occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 4,000.

Example:

A water flowing from a faucet at high speed. When you turn on the faucet fully, the water starts to
flow chaotically, with visible ripples and splashes. This is due to the high velocity, which causes
the flow to become irregular and turbulent.
Fundamental Principles Governing Fluid Flow

Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation):

The continuity equation expresses the principle of conservation of mass in a fluid system, stating
that for an incompressible fluid (where the density remains constant), the mass flowing into a
system must equal the mass flowing out. This means that the volume of fluid passing through a
section of a pipe or duct per unit of time is constant, even if the cross-sectional area changes.
Mathematically, it is represented as:

Where:
• are the cross-sectional areas at points 1 and 2,
• are the velocities of the fluid at those points.

An example is water flowing through a garden hose with a nozzle attachment.

When you partially block the hose’s opening by attaching a nozzle, you decrease the area through
which water flows, forcing it to speed up (higher velocity) as it exits. According to Bernoulli’s
principle, as the velocity of the water increases, the pressure in the nozzle decreases. This is why
you feel less force pushing back on the hose despite the water spraying out at a higher speed.

Conservation of Energy (Bernoulli’s Principle):

Bernoulli’s Principle is based on the conservation of mechanical energy for flowing fluids. It states
that for an incompressible, non-viscous fluid, the total mechanical energy (sum of pressure energy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy) along a streamline remains constant. This principle shows
how pressure, velocity, and elevation are interrelated in fluid flow.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:

Where:
• P is the pressure,
• p is the density of the fluid,
• V is the fluid velocity,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity,
• h is the height (potential energy term).

Bernoulli’s principle shows that as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure decreases, and
vice versa. This is due to the conservation of energy: when a fluid speeds up, kinetic energy
increases, and pressure energy must decrease to balance the equation.

An example is Chimney and Wind. When wind blows over the top of a chimney, it creates an area
where the air speed is high. According to Bernoulli’s principle, this increase in speed results in a
decrease in pressure at the top of the chimney. Because the pressure is now lower at the top than
at the bottom, the smoke and hot air inside the chimney are drawn upward, allowing it to rise and
exit the chimney more efficiently. This principle of high-speed airflow causing low pressure is also
why windy days help ventilate smoke and gases out of chimneys more effectively.

Equations and Mathematical Models in Fluid Flow

Continuity Equation
The continuity equation expresses the principle of mass conservation in fluid flow. It states that
the mass flow rate remains constant along a streamline, meaning that the amount of mass entering
a section of a pipe or channel must equal the amount of mass exiting it.

Incompressible Flow
For incompressible fluids (constant density, like water), the continuity equation simplifies because
density does not change with flow. The continuity equation for incompressible flow is:

Where:
• A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe,
• V is the velocity of the fluid at that section.

If the area decreases, the velocity must increase to keep the flow rate constant. This principle is
why water flows faster through narrow pipes.
Compressible Flow: For compressible fluids (variable density, like gases), density changes with
pressure and temperature. Here, the mass flow rate considers changes in density:

Where:
• p is the fluid density at each section.

In cases like jet engines, where air density changes, this version of the continuity equation helps
predict airflow behavior under varying pressures.

Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation represents the conservation of energy in a fluid system. It relates pressure,
kinetic energy, and potential energy along a streamline, showing that the sum of these energies
remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation is written as:

Where:
• P is the pressure energy per unit volume,
• p is the fluid density,
• V is the fluid velocity (related to kinetic energy),
• g is the gravitational acceleration,
• h is the height (related to potential energy).

Bernoulli’s equation indicates that as fluid velocity 𝑉 increases, pressure 𝑉 decreases if height
remains constant. This inverse relationship between speed and pressure applies widely in
engineering and natural systems.

Real-World Application of Fluid Flow

• Engineering: Pneumatic Systems
Application: Pneumatic systems use compressed air in tools and machinery, such as drills and
robots.

Explanation: Fluid flow principles allow controlled movement of air through pipes to generate
force, enabling precise control of machinery in manufacturing and construction, enhancing
productivity and safety.

• Environmental Science: Ocean Currents

Application: Ocean currents distribute heat and nutrients globally, helping predict weather
patterns and manage coastal ecosystems.

Explanation: The movement of water in ocean currents follows fluid dynamics, influencing
climate by transferring heat and nutrients across oceans, which is crucial for ecosystem health and
weather forecasting.

• Biology: Blood Flow in the Heart

Application: Blood flow through the heart is crucial for circulation, aiding in treatments for heart
conditions.

Explanation: Blood flow is regulated by the heart’s pumping action, ensuring oxygen and
nutrients are delivered throughout the body. Fluid flow concepts help doctors diagnose heart issues
and design treatments like stents and pacemakers to maintain proper circulation.

• Medicine: Dialysis Machines

Application: Dialysis uses fluid flow across membranes to filter waste from the blood in kidney
failure patients.

Explanation: Dialysis machines simulate kidney function by pushing blood through a

semipermeable membrane. This flow removes waste products and excess fluid from the blood,
mimicking the natural filtration process when kidneys are compromised.

Summary
Blood flow serves as a unifying concept across multiple disciplines, from engineering device
design and environmental studies to biological understanding and medical treatments. Each field
uses the principles of fluid dynamics to solve unique problems, demonstrating the profound impact
of fluid flow on science and daily life.