ab 3)

By

HEINEMANN
MODULAR MATHEMATICS
for PS eae rena aNee
LONDON
ASAND A-LEVEL Pie

Geoff
Mannall
Michael
Kenwood
ea
Fave
ty
 1 Algebra I
2 The mathematics of uncertainty

7 Ll
3 Exponentials and logarithms
4 Algebra II 90

_ Review exercise 1 108

5 The binomial series for a positive integral index 132

6 Trigonometry I 143

7 Trigonometry II 165

8 Differentiation 208

_ Review exercise 2 250

9 Integration 276

10 Coordinate geometry 314

11 Probability 342

12 Numerical methods 365

- Review exercise 3 379

_ Examination style paper P2 412

= Heinemanng
EES I

Tne il
Heinemann Educational Publishers,
Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8EJ
a division of Reed Educational & Professional Publishing Ltd

OXFORD MELBOURNE AUCKLAND

JOHANNESBURG BLANTYRE GABORONE
IBADAN PORTSMOUTH (NH) USA CHICAGO

© Geoff Mannall and Michael Kenwood 1995

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior
written permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying in
the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE.

First published 1995

99 00 01 02

7A) SIO) INES AE asym ee a a)

ISBN 0 435 51808 9

Original design by Geoffrey Wadsley: additional design work by Jim Turner

Typeset and illustrated by TecSet Limited, Wallington, Surrey

Printed in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Bath

Acknowledgements:
The publisher’s and authors’ thanks are due to the University of London
Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC) for permission to reproduce
questions from past examination papers. These are marked with an [L]}.
The answers have been provided by the authors and are not the responsibility
of the examining board.
About this book

This book is designed to provide you with the best preparation

possible for your London Modular Mathematics P2 examination.
The series authors are examiners and exam moderators themselves
and have a good understanding of the exam board’s requirements.

Finding your way around

To help to find your way around when you are studying and
revising use the:
¢ edge marks (shown on the front page) —these help you to get to
the right chapter quickly;
¢ contents list —this lists the headings that identify key syllabus
ideas covered in the book so you can turn straight to them;
¢ index —if you need to find a topic the bold number shows where
to find the main entry on a topic.

Remembering key ideas

We have provided clear explanations of the key ideas and
techniques you need throughout the book. Key ideas you need to
remember are listed in a summary of key points at the end of each
chapter and marked like this in the chapters:

_ log.b
a log,5
a
~ log.a

Exercises and exam questions

In this book questions are carefully graded so they increase in
difficulty and gradually bring you up to exam standard.

* past exam questions are marked with an L;

* review exercises on pages 108, 250 and 379 help you practise
answering questions from several areas of mathematics at once,
as in the real exam;
¢ exam style practice paper —this is designed to help you prepare
for the exam itself;
* answers are included at the end of the book — use them to check
your work.
Contents

1 Algebra |
1.1 Identities

1.2 Long division

1.3 Algebraic fractions
Multiplying fractions
Dividing fractions
Adding fractions
Subtracting fractions
1.4 Partial fractions
Linear factors in the denominator
Quadratic factor in the denominator
Repeated factor in the denominator
Improper algebraic fractions
|ieee, The remainder theorem and the factor theorem

Summary of key points

2 The mathematics of uncertainty

2.1 Different types of data 45
2.2 Populations and samples 46
2.3 Presenting data in a frequency distribution 49
2.4 Using histograms to present data 50
Frequency density 53
2.5 Using cumulative frequency polygons to present
data
2.6 Measures of central position
The mode
The median
The mean
>> formula for the mean
Finding the mode, median and mean of a
grouped frequency distribution
2.7 Measures of dispersion
 Contents WV

The range 64
The interquartile range 64
The variance and the standard deviation 66
Shorter methods of calculation 68
Using a calculator to find the mean and
standard deviation 71

Summary of key points 74

3 Exponentials and logarithms

3.1 Laws of logarithms 76

3.2 Equations of the form a* = b 81

3.3 Exponential growth and decay 83

Summary of key points 88

4 Algebra Il
4.1 Reducing equations to linear form 90
Equations of the form y = ax? +b 33
Equations of the form y = ax? + bx 95
. ry Coley
Equations of the form —+—-= - 97
X; ’
Equations of the form y =o oe)
Equations of the form y = ab* 101

Summary of key points 107

Review exercise 1 108

5 The binomial series for a positive integral index

5.1. Binomial expressions 137

5.2 Pascal’s triangular array 134

5.3 The expansion of (a + 5)", wherex is a positive

135
integer
5.4 Expanding (a + 5)” by formula for positive
integral n ieRG
Summary of key points 142

6 Trigonometry Il
6.1 Secant, cosecant and cotangent 143

6.2 Drawing the graphs of sec x, cosec x and cot x 144

Graphing sec x 144

Graphing cosec x 145

Graphing cot x 146

vi Contents
\

6.3 The compound angle formulae: sin (A + B),

cos (A + B), tan(A + B) 147
6.4 Pythagoras’ theorem 13
6.5 Double angle formulae 156
6.6 Half angle formulae 152
6.7 How to solve more complicated trigonometric
equations 161
Summary of key points 164

7 Trigonometry Il
7.1 The sine rule 165
7.2 The cosine rule 174
7.3 The area of a triangle 181
7.4 Problems involving bearings 183
7.5 Applying trigonometry to problems in three
dimensions 188
The angle between a line and a plane 188
The angle between two planes eal
7.6 Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions 198
Finding the distance between two points 201
Summary of key points 207

8 Differentiation

8.1 Composite functions 208

8.2 Differentiating composite functions using the
chain rule 209
8.3 Differentiating products 212
8.4 Differentiating quotients 214
8.5 Related rates of change 218
8.6 Second derivatives 219
8.7 Points of inflexion 221
8.8 Finding the nature of stationary points 222
8.9 Parallel and perpendicular lines 224
8.10 Tangents and normals to curves Zod
8.11 Differentiating trigonometric functions 233
8.12 Differentiating relations given implicitly 240
8.13 Differentiating functions given parametrically 244
Summary of key points 247
 Contents vii

Review exercise 2 250

9 Integration
9.1 Integrating standard functions 276
9.2 Integration using identities Page
9.3 Integration using substitutions 281
9.4 Integration by parts 286
9.5 A systematic approach to integration 289
9.6 The area under a curve 02
9.7 Volumes of revolution 295
9.8 Forming and solving simple differential equations 305
Summary of key points 312

10 Coordinate geometry
10.1 The coordinates of the mid-point of the line
segment joining two given points 314
10.2 Sketching curves given by cartesian equations 318
Modulus functions 326

Sketching the graph of y = “Ae 330

f(x)
10.3 Sketching curves given by parametric equations pePs
Parametric equations that easily transform to a
cartesian equation 333
Curves that cannot easily be drawn from their
cartesian equation or whose cartesian equation
is difficult to obtain 336
Summary of key points 340

11 Probability
11.1 Sets 342
Disjoint sets 344
The empty set 344
Equal sets 344
Subsets 344
_ The universal set 345

11.2 Venn diagrams 345.

11.3 Operations on sets 346

Complement 346
Union 346
Intersection 346
viii Contents

11.4 Events and sample spaces 349

11.5 Probability 350
11.6 Relative frequency and probability 351
11.7 Combining events 3m.
Mutually exclusive events 354
Complementary events 354
Independent events SoD
11.8 Conditional probability 357
Tree diagrams 359
Summary of key points 363

12 Numerical methods

12.1 Approximate solutions of equations 365

12.2 Starting points for iteration 370
12.3 Convergence 4
Summary of key points 378

Review exercise 3 379

Examination style paper P2 412

Answers 415

List of symbols and notation 435

Index 438
Algebra |

In Book Pl you were shown how to use some basic algebraic

processing skills. In this chapter further processing skills will be
explained and you will find out how to process algebraic fractions,
how to find the remainder when one algebraic expression is divided
by another, how to find a factor or factors of a polynomial by using
the factor theorem and how to put an expression into partial
fractions.

1.1 Identities

In chapter 1 of Book P1 the difference between an equation and an

identity was explained. An equation is true for a limited number of
values of the variable; for example, x* = 9 is true only for x = +3
and x = —3. But an identity is true for a// values of the variable;
for example, x7+2x+1=(x+1) is true for x=0 because
0+0+1=(0+1), for x=1 because 1+2+1=(1+41), for
x = 2 because 4+ 4+4+1= (2+ oy and so on.
In order to proceed further with the study of algebra you must be
able to deal confidently with identities. There are two common
methods used in the processing of identities.
The first method is based on using the coefficients of the terms in
x,x?,x°, etc., on the left and right-hand sides of the identity. This
relies on the fact that the terms on the left and right-hand sides of an
identity are the same. So that when like terms (the terms in x°, terms
in x!, terms in x’, etc.) have been collected together on the left-hand
side and like terms have been collected together on the right-hand
side of the identity, the coefficients of x° are equal, the coefficients
of x! are equal, the coefficients of x* are equal, and so on.

That is, if
a a A ie + ax? + ayx + ap Sb bax +. + box? + byx + bo
then: et hig dd)= Pee = Do, <.,.a, = 0,
2 Algebra
|

Example 1
Find the constants A and B such that A(x + 2) + B(x +1) =x.
The left-hand side can be written as
Ax+2A+Bx+B
= Ax+Bx+2A+B
= (A+ B)x+ (244+ B)

So: (A+ B)x+ (244+ B) =x

Equate coefficents of x:
A+B=1 (1)
Equate the constant terms:
2A+B=0 (2)
There are now two equations in A and B which can be solved
simultaneously as shown in chapter 2 of Book P1.

Subtract (1) from (2):

A=-1

Substitute the value of A in (1):

-14+B=1
B=2

Example 2
Find the values of A and B for which

A(4 —x) + B(x —7) = 30 —6x

The left-hand side can be rewritten:
4A —Ax+Bx—7B
= (-A+ B)x + (44 —7B)
So we have: (—A+ B)x + (4A —7B) = —6x+ 30
Equate coefficients of x:
—-A+B=-6 (1)
Equate the constant terms:
4A —7B = 30 (2)
Multiply (1) by 4:

—44 + 4B = —24 (3)

 Algebra | 3

Add (3) and (2):

—3B=6

B=-2

Substitute the value of B into (1):

—-A-2=-6
Am 4

Example 3
Find the values of A, B and C such that
A(x? + 4) + (x —2)(Bx + C) = 7x2 —x4+14
Rewrite the left-hand side (LHS) as a polynomial in descending
powers of x:

LHS= Ax’?
+44 4+Bx?—2Bx+ Cx—2C
= (A+B)x*+(—2B+C)x+ (44 —2C)
So: (A+ B)x?+ (—2B+C)x+ (44—2C)= 7x?-x+14
Equate coefficients of x:

A+B=T7 (1)
Equate coefficients of x:
—2B+C=-1 (2)
Equate the constant terms:
44—2C=14 (3)
You have three equations in three unknowns to be solved
simultaneously. Substitute the expression for A given in (1) into
equation (3) so that you have two equations in B and C which you
can solve in the usual way.
From (1): A=7-B
Substitute in (3):
4(7-—B)-—2C= 14
28 —4B—2C= 14

—4B—2C=-14
4B+2C= 14
IB CHI (4)

Add (2) and (4): 20 =6

Cc=3
4 Algebra |

Substitute in (2): —2B+3=-1

—2B = —4
Bz 2
Substitute in (1): Ay l= 7

A= 5

Example 4
Find the constants A, B and C such that

Axe 2 je a Bie xP 3) Cle 1) + 2) Side eG

Rearrange the left-hand side as a polynomial in descending powers
of x:

A(x?+ 5x+6)+ B(x?+ 4x+3) + C(x?+3x+2)

=(APB4 C)x?+ (544484 3C)x+(644+3B+20)
So: (A+ B+ C)x? + (54+ 4B + 3C)x + (64 +3B+2C) =4x+ 6
Equate coefficients of x:

A+B+C=0 (1)
Equate coefficients of x:
5A +4B+3C=4 (2)
Equate constant terms:
64+3B+2C=6 (3)
From (1): A=-B-C
Substitute into (2) and (3):
S(=B= OC) 4B 3C= 4
—5B—5C+4B+3C=4
—B-—2C=4

6(—B— C) + 3B+2C =6
—6B —6C+3B+2C=6
—3B—4C =6

Multiply (4) by 2: —2B—4C=8 (6)

Subtract (6) from (5):
—B=-2
Bea?
 Algebra | 5

Substitute for B in (6):

—4-4C=8
4C=-12
C= -3
Substitute for B and C in (1):

A=-2+3
Ae!

The second method used in the processing of identities is

substituting particular values of the variable into the identity. This
is allowed, since an identity is true for a// values of the variable. You
must choose values to substitute that will make some of A, B and C
disappear from the identity. This will make it easier to find the
others.

Example 5
Find the constants A and B such that A(x + 2)+ B(x+1) =x.
Substitute x = —1since this makes the bracket (x + 1) zero.
A(—1+2)+ B(-14+ 1) =-1
A=-1
Substitute x = —2and the bracket (x + 2) becomes zero:
A(—2 +2) + B(—2+1) =-2

—B=-2
B= 2 as in example 1

Example 6
Find the values of A and B for which

A(4 —x) + B(x —7) = 30 —6x

Substitute x = 4:
A(4 —4) + B(4 —7) = 30 —24
—3B=6

B=-2

Substitute x = 7:

A(4 —7) + B(7 —7) = 30 —42

—3A =-12

A =4 as in example 2
6 A\gebra |

Example 7
Find the values of A, B and C such that

A(x + 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x +3)+ C(x +1)(x+ 2) = 4x +6

Substitute x = —1:

tee (se er (21 3) Cee

eed eG
A(1)(2) + B(0)(2) + C(0)(1) = 2
By)
ye

Substitute x = —2:

ee) SBS 2e en eae Ce I)

=-8+6
A(0)(1) + B(—1)(1) + C(—1)(0) = —2
pi 2
2

Substitute x = —3:

A(—3 + 2)(—3 + 3) + B(—3 + 1)(—3+ 3) + C(—3 + 1)(—34+2)

= —12+6
A(—1)(0) + B(—2)(0) + C(—2)(—1) = —6
2C = -6
C = —3as in example 4

You will gather from the above examples that, in general, it is much
easier to solve problems like this by substitution than it is by
equating coefficients. However, sometimes the method of substi-
tution will not work completely. Forexample, if one of the brackets
in the identity is, say, (x? + 9) there is no real value of x that will
make this bracket zero. For if x7+9=0 then x? =—9 and a
negative number has no real square roots. Under these circum-
stances it is usually easier to use the method by substitution as far as
you can and then finish off the problem by equating coefficients,
that is, to use a combination of the two methods.
 Algebra | 7

Example 8
Find the values of A, B and C such that

A(x* +4) + (x —2)(Bx + C) = 7x +x+14

Substitute x = 2:

A(4+4) +(2—2)(2B+C) =28-2414

84 = 40
A=5
Since there is no real value of x that will make (x? + 4) equate to
zero, revert to equating coefficients:

A(x? + 4) + (x —2)(Bx + C)
=A’ +444 Bx? —2Bx 4+Cx —2C
= (A+ B)x* + (—2B+ C)x+ (4A —2C)

But since A = 5 the LHS of the identity is:

(5+ B)x* + (—2B+ C)x + (20 —2C)

So: (5+ B)x? + (—2B + C)x + (20 —2C) = 7x* -x+14
Equate coefficients of x:

53+ B=7
te Raat)

Equate the constant terms:

20 —-2C = 14
C=

Another approach would be to take two other values of x and form

equations that can be solved to find B and C.

For x =0, 4A—2C=14

So: 20 —2C= 14
and: C3
For x =1, 5A —-
B—C=20
So: 25— B-—3=20
and: B=2
You should appreciate that the two approaches are essentially
equivalent.
8 Algebra
|

Example 9
Find the values of A, B and C for which

A(2x* + 1) + (2x —3)(Bx + C) = 11x

Substitute x = 1}:
A(8 +1)
+ (3—3)(14B+C) = 163
55A= 164
A=3
Since there is no real number that will make (2x? + 1) equate to
zero, revert to the method of comparing coefficients.

Ae ein 3Bx C)
Ae ex —3B PoC eC
= 24er 2B)x + (—3B4 2C)x 4+(4 —3C)
Since A = 3, this can be written:
(Ge he =(- 38 IC es 3C)
So: (6 + 2B)x? + (—3B+ 2C)x + (3 —3C) = 11x
Equate coefficients of x:

6+2B=—0
B=-3

Equate the constant terms:

3—3C=0
(Ce

1 Each of the following is either

(a) true for all values of x, or
(b) true for some values of x, or
(c) true for no values of x.
Distinguish which is which and explain why.
(G) > (3x — 1)? = 9x? +1
(ii) (3x—1)? =25
(iii) (3x —1)? = 9x? —-6x41
(iv) (2x+3)/=x?-4
5
(v) xP + (x42)? = (x41) 2
 Algebra | 9

Find the values of the constants A, B, and C:

Je ee 4x+9

WN
bh
CmeAND
A(x+5)+ B(x+2)=x+8
A(x +2) + B(x —1) =6x+3
A(x+4)+ B(x+2)=x+4+12
A(x+1)+ B(x —3) =8x+4+
16
A(x + 3)(x +4) + B(x + 2)(x + 4) + C(x + 2)(x + 3) = 6x" 4+34x + 46
A(x+ 1)(x+3) +B(x—1)(x+1) +C(x—1)(x +3) = 6x+2
A(x+ 2)(x+ 3) + B(x+
1)(x+3)+C(x4 1)(x4 2) =4x4 6
A(x+ 2)(x—1) +B(2x+ 1)(x—1)+ C(2x+ 1)(x+2) =4x?—17x—14

NM
NR
eet
©
=
wWN
bk
Aun
MAI
Nrereco
A(x—1)(x+4) + B(2x+ 1)(x+4) + C(2x+ 1)(x—1)= 12x?+ 59x—26
(Ax+ B)(x+1) 4+C(x?+3) =x-3
(Ax + B)(x? + 3) + Cx2(5x—2) = —13° + 18x27
+ 6x + 36
A(x? +x +3) +(Bx4+C)(2x4+ 1) =x?-—x42
At 2) + Bie Ex —2) + Cet) =
A(x?+4) + (x—2)(Bx+C)= 4x?—7x + 22
A(x?+x +2) + (Bx+ C)x = —x*—2x+4
A(x? + x +1) + (Bx + C)(2x —5) = 7x? —7x +3
A(x? + 1) + (Bx + C)(2x + 3) = 8x7 +4x+1
A(x? + 5) + (Bx + C)(x —3) = 3x?+ 5x4 28
(Ax + B)(3x —4) + C(x? +x+1)
=x? —12x4+6
Find the values of A, B and C for which
Bee 19%95 S Aleot BY+ C
Hence find the minimum value of 4x? — 12x + 25.

23 Find the values of A, B and C for which

Sx AST 5SATB
Hence find the minimum value of 3x? + 18x — 5.

24 Find the values of A, B and C for which

64x 92 BAS (Bax)

Hence find the maximum value of 16 + 4x —x’.

25 Find the values of A and B for which

9x? + 30x +A = (3x4 B)

10 A\gebra |

1.2 Long division

Not many years ago questions such as ‘divide 12603 by 14 were
commonplace in mathematics lessons, not only in secondary schools
but also in primary schools. The method that was used was called
long division. Students used to practise questions using long division
for weeks on end!
Today most students have an electronic calculator that produces an
answer to such questions in a fraction of a second and so the
method of long division has become largely redundant. However,
most calculators today are still unable to divide one algebraic
expression by another and so the method of long division has to be
used in these circumstances. It is a technique with which you
therefore need to become familiar.

The method of long division is best explained by using an example.

Example 10
Divert = 9x la = 17x 15 by x = 33:
You first need to ask, ‘If I divide the first term of
2x4 —9x3 + 13x* —17x + 15 by the first term of x —3, what will be
the answer?’ In this case, 2x* divided by x gives 2x?. (You learned
how to manipulate indices in Book P1). Now multiply this answer of
lx By x —3 to give 2x" —6x.

The solution thus far is written:

phe
x —3 )2x4—9x3+ 13x?—17x+15
2x*—6x3
Notice that 2x°, the term you obtain when you divide 2x* by x, is
written immediately above 2x*. Notice also that the terms of
2x* —6x? are written immediately underneath the corresponding
terms of 2x4 —9x? + 13x? — 17x + 15, i.e. 2x* is written underneath
2x* and —6x° is written underneath —9x°.

You now subtract 2x* —6x? from 2x* —9x3.

So:
Dx Ox (2X 16x)
2 Ox —2x" 4 ON
= eae
 Algebra | 11

The solution now looks like this:

2x3
ek )2x4 — 9x3 + 13x? — 17x + 15
2x4 —6x3

—3x3

At this stage copy the next term from 2x4 —9x3 + 13x2 — 17x +15
that does not have anything written directly underneath it, next to
—3x°. In this case the 13x? needs to be copied:

2x3
x34 )2x4 — 9x3 + 13x? — 17x + 15
2x4 — 6x°

a= 3x7 4-137

Now repeat the whole process from the beginning. So ask, ‘If I
divide the first term of —3x? + 13x? by the first term of x — 3, what
will be the answer?’ This time the answer is —3x?, which you write
next to 2x°. You then multiply —3x? by x —3 to give —3x3 + 9x?.

Write these two terms underneath the corresponding terms of

—3x? + 13x? and subtract:

—3x + 1327= (—3x?+9)

See 13x 3x —9
= 4x
The solution now looks like this:

2x7—3x?
x—3 )2x4—Ox?2 13x4—17x15
2x4—6x*
357 + 13x"
—3x°+9x"
4x?

Copy the next term from 2x* —9x?+ 13x* —17x+15 that has
nothing written directly underneath it next to 4x*, and repeat the
process.
12 =Algebra|

2x?—3x7£ 4x
x —3)2x4—9x3+ 13x?—17x+ 15
2x4—6x3
ae eb IED
aa
—3x3+ 9x?
Ax?—17x
4x2—12x
— 5x

Repeat the process once more:

x ee
x —3 )2x4 —9x3 + 13x? —17x + 15
ox? — He

= 3X 13
— 30 ie Xe

Ax? —A7x
4x? — 12x

— 5x+15
— 5x+15

There are no more terms to copy so the solution is finished. Thus

2x4 —9x3 + 13x? —17x+15 divided by x—3 gives a result of
2x3 — 3x? + 4x — 5. This can easily be checked by multiplication.

Example 11
Divide 6x? + x? + 13x +7by 2x +1.

3x7 — x47
2x multiplied by 3x? = 6x?: 2x+1 )6x3+ x2+13x+7
Multiply 2x + 1 by 3x: 6x? + 3x?

Subtract and copy 13x: —2x? + 13x

Multiply 2x + 1 by —x: Se aR
Subtract and copy 7: 14x +7
Multiply 2x + 1 by 7: Lae
The answer is 3x? —x+7.
 Algebra | 13

Sometimes the polynomial that you are given to divide has one or
more terms in x missing. For example, 3x° + 2x3 + 7x —6 has the
terms in x* and x? missing. In questions involving long division
these must be added and a zero placed in front of them. So the
polynomial above would be written 3x° + 0x4 + 2x3 + 0x2 + 7x —6.

Example 12
Divide —4x* — 5x? + 5x +4 by 2x41.

Write —4x* — 5x? 4+5x +4 as

—4x* 4 0x3 —5x? 4 5x44

—2x3+x? —3x+4
2x multiplied by —2x3 = —4x4: 2x +1) —4x4+ 0x3—5x24 5x44
Multiply 2x +1 by —2x?: —4x* —23

Subtract and copy —5x?: 2x? — 5x?

Multiply 2x + 1 by 2: 2

Subtract and copy 5x: — 6x? + 5x

Multiply 2x + 1 by —3x: — 6x? — 3x

Subtract and copy 4: 8x +4

Multiply 2x + 1 by 4: &x+4

The answer is —2x? + x* — 3x +4.

Example 13
Divide —3x* + 8x? — 10x? + 18x — 14 by —x +2.

Bx?29 ox 6
—x multiplied by 3x? = —3x?: —x+2 )—3x4+ 8x3—10x?+ 18x—14
Multiply —x + 2 by 3x?: 3x 6x8

Subtract and copy —10x?: 2x? — 10x?

Multiply —x + 2 by —2x°: 2x7 — 4x2

Subtract and copy 18x: Gx 4 18x

Multiply —x + 2 by 6x: = 6x" + 12x

Subtract and copy —14: 6x — 14

Multiply —x +2 by —6: 6x
S12

Subtract: —2
14 Algebra |

Since there is no other term to copy next to —2 you cannot go any

further. So —x + 2 divided into —3x* + 8x? — 10x* + 18x — 14 gives
an answer of 3x* —2x* + 6x — 6 (called the quotient) and leaves a
remainder of —2. (This is a similar situation to dividing 39 by 5. The
number 5 divided into 39 gives a quotient of 7 and leaves a
remainder of 4. That is, 39 = (7 x 5) + 4.) This result is written as

3x" + 8x° —10x° + 18x 14 = (3x° —22° + 6x —6)(—x + 2) —2

Example 14
Divide 3x° —8x*’+ 8x° — 11x? + 15x —7 by x7 —2x+.

Cpe Oh
x? multiplied by 3x* = 3x°: x? —2x I YBx5 —8x4 + 8x3 —11x? + 15x —7
Multiply x* —2x +1 by 3x°: 3x° —6x4 + 3x°

Subtract and copy —11x?: —2x" 4 5x7 = 11x*

Multniyvo —271+ | by —2: —2x" +493. 2x?

Subtract and copy 15x: PE Ox? TE1S

Multiply x? —2x + 1 by x: x — Ox" eh ex

Subtract and copy —7: = Pe +145 ey

Multiply 2° —2x + 1 by —7: — 7x? +14x=7

Example 15
Divide 3x + 28x" —43x° + 16x21 by Sx x4 4.

Shs Sere
—x? multiplied by 3x* = —3x’: —x* + 7x +4 )—3x4 + 28x3 —43x? + 16x +21
Multiply —x? + 7x + 4 by 3x?: -3x4 +2127 + 12°

Subtract and copy 16x: Tx "55" es

Multiply —x* + 7x + 4 by —7x: 7x? -- 49x? —28x

Subtract and copy 21: — 6x7 44-21

Multiply —x? + 7x + 4 by 6: — 6x? +42x + 24

Subtract: 2x —3
So the answer when —3x*4+ 28x? —43x? + 16x +21 is divided by
—x? + 7x + 4 is 3x? — 7x +6 with a remainder of 2x — 3. This can
be expressed as

BOOS 433 16x 21 = (—x + 1X4 4G 6) Ox 3)

where 3x* — 7x + 6 is the quotient and 2x — 3 is the remainder.
 Algebra | 15

Exercise 1B

Divide:
Se PER cn bm by x—2

=
WN
bh
MN
CeAIDH
2x* + 3x? — 1 by 2x—1
2x? — 11x? + 12x — 35 by x—5
—3x* + 11x3 — 13x? + 26x — 15 by x — 3
—18x? + 33x? — 29x + 10 by —3x+2
2x* + 12x3 + 14x? — 8x by x +4
4x3 + 4x? x41 by 2x+1
15x* = x°'+- Tx? +5 by 3x+1
9 1958 12592 = SIX 4130 by Hx 7
—8x* + 24x3 — 12x + 17x — 26 by —2x + 5

a|ehk
S
=
WON
CeC
MOHAN
O
3x? + 4x4 + x? 4+.3x + 1bby x? H9x41
—2x* + 13x3 — 3x? + 37x + 35 by 2x27—x+7
—2x* + 3x3 —4x* — 24x +7 by x* —3x+7
Bx-E Gxt 2h oP 119? 45x — 7 by 2x2 4-1
—6x° — 12x* + 25x3 — 10x? — 14x + 12 by —3x? +2
3x* —4x° + 12x? — 6x +11 by x? +2
x + x* + 10x* + 10x +7 by x? + 2x
—6x? + 3x4 —4x3 + 20x* — 3x + 10 by 3x7 +2
4x* — 4x3 —4x? + 6x —7 by 2x7 +2x-1
mae ee — 1959 — 39° + 17x —9 by —x* fb x —7

1.3 Algebraic fractions

You should have already studied fractions as part of your GCSE
course.
The number at the top of a fraction is called the numerator and the
number at the bottom is called the denominator. Thus the numerator
in the fraction 5 is 5 and 17 is the denominator. The same is true for
an algebraic * °
fraction. The numerator °
of the fraction 3x2 5 9)
4*5 is 3x° and
the denominator is x° — 1.

Multiplying fractions
To multiply two numerical fractions, you first ‘cancel’ each factor in
either numerator with the same factor, if it exists, in either
denominator. Then you multiply the numbers that are left in the
16 =A\gebra|

numerators to give the numerator in the answer, and you multiply

the numbers that are left in the denominators to give the
denominator in the answer.

For example:

ose BB)
81 * 40
=
Sa oe hlaee (cancel by
Ms5)
Seite
=X % (cancel by 3)
_ 1xl
HRS
= Alle
= 216

The same methods apply when you multiply algebraic fractions.

You first cancel any factor common to both a numerator and a
denominator and continue doing this for as many times as you can.
You then multiply together the terms remaining in the numerators
and multiply together the terms remaining in the denominators.

Example 16

eee 14 x—1
Simplifyarea) 3 aT

14 a!
x7= 21
Gea iae 21 (factorise
x —1)
i. x-l
= eure. 3 (cancel
l by7)
2 x. (cancel by x —1)
e- wB
Pie"
~ 3(x+1)
2
oy +1)

Example 17

Simplify
 Algebra | 17

pore ale geht

Oyeeh TR
=
Mee ie
kl x-2
3d (factorise :
2x —x—6)
7 te Ib
(2x +3)(x—2) aS. (cancelbyx)
l l
Roya 35 (cancelbyx —2)
peewee
es,k
(2x +3)3x
1 |
~ 6x2+9x 3x(2x +3)

Dividing fractions
As you should know from your GCSE studies, if you are asked to
evaluate 4 + +2you write 2 x 33 and then evaluate this. In the same
way, to divide one algebraic fraction by another, you take the
fraction which comes after the division symbol and turn it upside
down. You then change the division symbol into a multiplication
symbol and continue as above.

Example 18
eee Shs Ae
Simplify9 243)"

5x7 ‘ 3x3
x2—9°2(x+3)
_ 5x?| 2(x+3)
x29 353 2
rmHar ’sae 2 (factorise
x?—9)
fee TS) (cancelby x’)
ix—3)(*
+3) 3x
5 2
oa ae (cancel by x + 3)
Rt 1k
a
(x—
3)3x
oe 10
~3x29x 3x(x—
3)
18 Algebra |

Example 19
i Gacsa) aidPaeine’)
Srriplirygeee
esth
eee Rt (04 seer EE)
ay
7) 21045)
6x 1042 392 0 1
_ 15(x—7) 3x?+2x-1
~ 6x2+10x—4~10(2x+3)
Bie)
=(+ 4)(3x—1) (3x— 1)(x+ 1)
%T0Qx+3) (factorise)
eect
(2x + 4)(3x—1)
. Gx =1@+))
2(2x+-3)
(cancel
by5)
= a 7 : Minas
“ee 3) (cancelby 3x —1)

3(x—7)(x+ 1)
2(2x+ 4)(2x+ 3)
2 3x°—18x—21
8x2 + 28x+24

Adding fractions
Consider the sum 4+ 2. In order to add these fractions you must
first write them as equivalent fractions that have the same
denominator, often called a common denominator. In this case a
common denominator is 35, because 35 is a multiple of both 7 and 5.

So: ae a3 2x5.
atEe Se Bey
SOT
Sel: 21
Bisse
ri0e 21
ba 835
HI

35
You should know that the common denominator which you use
when adding fractions is not always the product of the two original
denominators. For example, consider the sum 3+ A common
denominator of 12 x 18 = 216 would work, but it is much simpler
to use the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 12 and 18.
The lowest common multiple of two integers is the smallest integer
that can be divided exactly by each of them.
 Algebra | 19

Since: Lg 2482s 3
and: 18 ]=2 3 x3
MeLiM is 2x2 x 3°36.
So: 5
—+— 7
. i2' 18

“ae
Se aneOna aE
‘iT a Waa
hea
ioe, 1!
36 (36
—-29
36

The same rules apply for the addition of algebraic fractions.

Example 20
Express as a single fraction:

3 5 x—7
2x+5 4x24 10x

3 3 x—7
2x+5 4x?+ 10x
2 3 rm x—7
~ 2x+5 ° 2x(2x+5)
2xx3
yeDx(2x4-5)
2 Chant
BY1 x—7 .
| Ix(lx+5) | commondenominator
2x(2x+5
Coad)

= 6x ~: x—7
5 2xf2x4 5). 2x(2x4,5)
were?
~ 2x(2x+5)
a ime
| 2x(2x+5)
Pare 1)
~ 2x(2x +5)
20 Algebra |

Example 21
Expressas a singlefraction:
2x+1 x—3
2x?+ 14x+ 20as3x? —
575
2x+1 x-—3
2x2+ 14x420° 3x2—75
- 2x+1 x—3
“D(x tails HS) 3K ESS 5)
= 3(x —5)(2x+1) 2(x + 2)(x—3)
~~2 3(e + 2x + 5)(m—5) 2x B(x +2)(0 +5)(x—5)
6x7=27x—15 Dgey ee A)
i 6(x + 2)(x + 5)(x —5) a 6(x + 2)(x + 5)(x —5)
_ 6x? —27x —Dee =r 12
6(x + 2)(x + 5)(x —5)
= 8x? —29x —27
~ 6(x+2)(x + 5)(x —5)

Subtracting fractions
The method used to subtract algebraic fractions is similar to that for
adding fractions.

Example 22
Express as a single fraction:

5x—24 x-4
IG Ae\wasWve 4

5x —2 _ x—4
Wytay 6 Oe xe x4)
at 2 . x—4
(x43)? 2x 3(x+3)(2—x)
= Meare 2). (eax)
Dea 43 | 2 A) x)
_ 3(2 —x)(5x—2) —(x + 3)(x —
4)
67 oye —x)
_ —15x?
+ 36x—12 —x? + x4 12
Ss 6(¢-+3) =x)
 Algebra | 21

+16x?
4.37x
6(x
+3)(2—
x)
_ x(—16x + 37)
6(x+ 3)°(2—x)

Express as a single fraction:

3x° 4(3 + 2x)

1
(24x)G4+2x) 9x3

L=—% : 6x
x(x—4) (2—x)(14+x)
1—xa 6x2
4x(7+x) 3+4+x-—2x?
ee Bet ext dixPIB
3(x +2)(2x
x* —25x*
— 1) 4x?
4x* —20x —24
—
36
2x—6 ~ 2x24 1ix+5

4(x+7) | 2(x+7)(3x —2)

9(x*-—25)° = 15x(x + 5)
Tx(2—x) ~~ 14x(2x —3)
27(2x—1)(x+4)©9(x+2)(2x—1)
15x°+30x , 21(3x*+4x—4)
llx?-—1llx—22° 44(x? —2x)
2(x+3)? —10(x*—9)
x2(x—1) ©2x*4+x-3
10
x74+3x4+2. x*+4x4+3
x? -—3x+2 ° 2x2-3x+1
l 2
11
ee, sic5kigl
dPapeaet
ag
13 3 2
4x—5-6—2x agian5 3 2 l
15 6 es 3 16ee 2 3
ee
2x-3 3-2x (x+3)(x+1)2x-1
22 =Algebra|
x 2
[Peeee
(x—1)Qx+1) x+4
18 6x _ Ix+2
(5—2x)(6+x) (5—2x)(1—~x)
2x—7
(Ogee
eee x+4
eee Se
GG Sah.SETS
20 5 7X 2X = 3
Fse WH4ne e-Deese

1.4 Partial fractions

Now that you have learned how to add and subtract fractions to
produce a single fraction, you are going to learn how to reverse the
process. You know that:
2 B
x+5 x+4
eee 3x4 15
(x + 5)(x + 4)
Sx 23
(x + 5)(x + 4)
Now you need to be able to start with
ax 4-23
(x + 5)(x + 4)
and split it into
2 3
pos ered

This process of taking a single fraction and breaking it up into the

sum (or difference) of two or more fractions is known as splitting an
expression into its partial fractions.

Linear factors in the denominator

When you need to split an expression into its partial fractions, the
first thing you must do is to factorise the denominator of the given
5x +1
expression. With, for example, the fraction —————~you first
x7+x—-—2
rewrite it as
5x+1
ia
 Algebra | 23

= For a fraction with only linear factors in the denominator, and

where the degree of the denominator exceeds that of the
5x+1
numerator, e.g. ——_——_—___ , the partial fractions are of the
(x —1)(x + 2)
form

Aa a
x-—1x+2
where A and B are constants.

So: eyteod MA.“s B

(x—I1)(x+2)° xpd x+2
Note that this is an identity, because when you have found the

values of
of Aan 5x +
A and B,——————__
ei 1 wil
ae —
eaten A for

all values of x, and not just for some values of x.

A B A(x + 2) + B(x —1)

Now:
om — + ——
ERPRNSta5 TENTEa
So: 5x+1 _ A(x +2) + BV)
(x —1)(x + 2) (x —1)(x + 2)
However, if these two fractions are identical, and also the
denominators of these two fractions are identical, then the
numerators of the two fractions must also be identical. That is:

5x+1= A(x+2) + B(x—-

1)
The values of A and B can now be found using the methods shown
in section 1.1.

x= —-2
=> —9=—3B
B=
So: 5 Fi.Dee
EROS 1 C8)Z 3
(x—
1)(x+2)yaLey ED
; 2 and 2
and this can easily be checked by adding Ty FD
24 Algebra |

Example 23

Express —= 2, : :
in partial fractions.
x? —x

4x —2
xe7—x
1 ax=2
(take out the common factor x)
~ x(x? —1)
- 4x —2
(factorise the difference of two squares)
Re 1)

Since each of the three factors in the denominator is linear:

4x —2 BA B ie G
x(x-1)(x+1) >x x-1 x+1

cee ay, B a CG —Ate = Ve +1) + Bx + 1) + Cx —1)

x x-1l x41 x(x —1)(x +1)

So: 4x —2= A(x —1)(x+ 1) + Bx(x +1) + Cx(x- 1)

x=0> =2=—A
JWey)

B=
cH —1 —6=2C
=-—3
Thus: AX eis eee
Vx Xe XY Xl
Example 24

Express 2
Sete aeOP in partial fractions.
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x —3)
Since. the denominator has factors that are each linear, and the
degree of the numerator is 2 which is less than the degree of the
denominator, the form of the partial fractions is:

A eee C _ A(x + 2)(x —3) + B(x + 1)(%= 3) + C(x + I(x +2)

x+1 x+2 x-3 (x + 1)(x + 2)(x —3)
 Algebra| 25
Therefore, equating numerators:

3x° + 7x —8 = A(x + 2)(x— 3) + B(x + 1)(x— 3) + C(x 1)(x + 2)

x=-1=> 3-7-8=-44
—12=—4A4
A=3
il 12-14-8=5B
-10=5B
B=-2
x=3> 27+21-—8=20C
40=20C
Gee
Therefore:CecncNakbred
Sem dae, 2 2
(Selick 3) Bae oot +53
Quadratic factor in the denominator
If any of the factors in the denominator is not linear then the partial
fractions cannot take the form shown in the previous section.

m= For a fraction that has a non-reducible quadratic factor in the

denominator, and where the degree of the denominator exceeds
that of the numerator, e.g.
x 5x4 1
(x? + 1)(x —2)
the partial fractions are of the form

Ax+B C
+1 x2
where A, B and C are constants.
It is essential to ensure that each partial fraction with a quadratic
denominator has a numerator of the form Ax + B. Any numerator
of the form A will not, in general, work if the denominator is
quadratic.

Example 25
5x* + 4x44
Express in partial fractions.
(x + 2)(x? + 4)
Since one of the factors in the denominator is quadratic the partial
fractions are of the form
A , Bx+C _ AQ’ +4) +(x 42)(Bx + C)
x4+2 x°4+4 (x + 2)(x? + 4)
26 Algebra |

So, equating numerators:

5x* +4444 = A(x?+4) +(x +2)(Bx + C)

ae 2 20-8+4=8A4
16=8A
Aba

Equating coefficients of x: 5=A+B

5 2.48
B=3

Equating coefficients of x: 4=2B+C

4=6+C
C=-2
Thus: :
Sx°+4x+4 _ 2 ax —2
(x + 2)(x? + 4) Sea eA
You must make sure that you have factorised the denominator of
the given fraction completely, before you try to express it in partial
fractions. If the denominator is (x* —3x + 2)(x? —x + 3) then the
partial fractions are not of the form
Ax+B Cx+D
x*—3x+2 x*-x+4+3

because (x? —3x + 2)(x? —x +3) is not completely factorised. It

can be factorised further into (x —1)(x —2)(x? —x+3). So the
partial fractions are of the form
A B Co?
x-1 x-2 x*-x+3

Example 26

Express
—2x—1
(x? —3x + 2)(x? —x 4+3)
in partial fractions.

Since the denominator can be factorised to

(x =1)(x —2) (x? —x +3) the partial fractions are of the form
A v B Cx+D
x-1 x-2 x*-—x+4+3
A(x —2)(x* —x +3)+ B(x —1)(x? —x+3)+ (Cx+D)(x —1)(x
—2)
(x —1)(x —2)(x? —x +3)
 Algebra | 27

Equating numerators:

2x —1= A(x—2)(x?—x +3)

+B(x—1)? —x +3)
+ (Cx+D)(x—1)(x2)
eal Sa a1 = 143)
—3=-3A
Alm:i
-=1> 25 = -R(1(4 2 3)
—5=5B
Ra
Equating coefficients of x°: 0=A+B+C
0=1-1+C
0 G

Equating constant terms: —1= -—6A—3B+2D

1643420
2D=2
Diss]

By =2x—1 weal 1 geal

(x? —3x+2)(x*-x+3) x-1 x-2 x?-x4+3

Repeated factor in the denominator

If the factors in the denominator include one that is repeated, e.g.
(x + 4), then the partial fractions take yet another form, which you
must remember.

@ For a fraction that has a repeated factor in the denominator, and

where the degree of the denominator exceeds that of the
numerator, e.g.

2(x* —2x —1)

(x + 1)(x —hs

the partial fractions are of the form

A B " &
caeey dees| fel i

where A, B and C are constants.

28 Algebra
|

Example 27

Expressit ee) inpartialfractions.

Eyes Sine

Thepartialfractionsare of the form

A B C
ciel Gx)
eA) Br Leg eer iL)
: (x +1)(x—1)?
Equating numerators gives
OG? —2x—1) =A —1) + B(x Es 1) + Clr 1)
eed Ms 2(1+2-—1)=4A4
4=44
A=1
al 2( b= 22.1) 20
—4=2C
Ca 2
Equating constant terms: =—2=A—B--C
—2=1-B-2
B= 1
So: 2(x? —2x —1) eal 1 m
(x+1)(x—-1%
x+1°>x-1 (x—-1)

Example 28
x +3x+4
Express in partial fractions.

Thepartialfractionsare of the form:

A B Cc
x42! @42P @42p
WA ed) hn dd) eC
‘e (coh
Equating numerators gives

x43x44 A(x+2) + B(x+2)4C

 Algebra | 29

fans. ende Co
C2
Equating coefficients of x: =A

Equating coefficients of x: 3=4A+B

peter lg
B=-1

So: x2 +3x+4_ l in ] Z
(4227.a xh +2)" (+2)
Improper algebraic fractions
zee polynomial 3x+2 is of degree 1 and the polynomial
x? —5x +2 is of degree 2. The degree of a polynomial in x is the
same as the degree of the highest power of x in the polynomial.

A fraction where the degree of the numerator is less than the degree
of the denominator is called a proper fraction. A fraction where the
degree of the numerator is either equal to the degree of the
denominator or higher than the degree of the denominator is called
an improper fraction.

So

2x+3
ay LDP

is a proper fraction because the numerator has degree 1 and the

denominator has degree 2. But
3x° +2x+6
5x° = 7
is an improper fraction because the numerator has degree 2, which is
equal to the degree of the denominator, for this is also of degree 2.
Similarly,
2x3 + 3x* —7
5x —3
is an improper fraction because the numerator is of degree 3, which
is greater than the degree of the denominator, for this is of degree 1.

When you try to split a fraction into its component partial fractions
you must make sure that it is a proper fraction. If it is improper, you
must first divide the denominator into the numerator before you try
to split up the fraction into its partial fractions.
BO Algebra |

Example 29
2x?+ 8x47
Express in partial fractions.
(x
2)(x+3)
+
Sincethe degreeof both the numeratorand the denominatoris 2,
the fraction is improper. So the denominator must be divided into
the numerator.

First multiply out the denominator:

2x? 48x47. 2x*+ 8x47
(x+2)(x+3) x*+5x+6

2
Ro ox G )2x? + 8x+ 7
2x + 10x12

— 2x-— 5
So x*+5x+6 divides into 2x2+8x+7 twice and leaves a
remainder —2x — 5.

Now when 33 is divided by 7, the quotient is 4 with a remainder 5.

This answer can be written 43, that is 4+3. In the same way,

DearS ar
xe Sx 6

can be written:
—2x —5
2+
ge Sx G6
—(2x + 5)
=24+———__—_
2 x 5x0

2x+5
xe SO 6
The fraction

2x+5
x? +5x+6
is proper since the degree of the numerator (1) is less than the degree
of the denominator (2). It can therefore now be split into partial
fractions.

2x+5 2x+5
x?4+5x+6 (x+2)(x+3)
The partial fractions are of the form
A Bo _ A(x+3)+ B(x +2)
x+2 x+3 8 (x+4+2)(x+4+3)
 Algebra | 31

Equating numerators gives:

2x +5 = A(x+3) + B(x+2)

x=-3> —-l1=-B8
a

So: S32 + 8x+7 Seed

2x° 2x+5
(x + 2)(x + 3) x? + 5x+6

a aan
a I? SHES
ad 1 1
x4+2 x+3
Example 30

Express xi + 3x? +10 in partialfractions

or —____—_—__
ist a4) ions.

The degree of the numerator (3) is higher than the degree of the
denominator (2), so the fraction is improper.

xi + 3x?+ 10a 10
(x+1)(x+4)” x?+5x+4

So by division:
x-—2
x? + 5x+4)x3+3x?+ 0x+ 10
x44 Sx*+ Ax

2x7 — Ax#10
= 2" 10% — 8

6x + 18
That is, x3 + 3x7 + 10 = (x7 + 5x +4)(x —2) + 6x4 18
32 Algebra |

So: x + 3x8+10_ | 24 6x 18
x24+5x+4 — x*4+5x+4

6 3x7 +10 6x +18

= x —2 + —______
(x + 1)(x +4) (x + 1)(x+ 4)
6x+18 . :
Now ——————~is proper, sincethe degree of the numerator (1)
(x + 1)(x+4)
is less than the degree of the denominator (2). We can therefore split
it into partial fractions.

Ota lois ad A a B
(x+1)(x+4) x+1 »*+4
_ A(x+4)4+ Bx + 1)
Soe are g Edeae
Equating numerators gives

6x+18 = A(x+4) + B(x+1)

x=-1ls 12:==33A
A=4
x= -—-4=> —6=-3B
BD
xe 10 4 2
= 5 (x + 1)(x +4)
er - Sate 34

Express as partial fractions:

2x +5 2x +2
(x + 2)(x + 3) (x —1)(x +3)
x+1 x+7
(x +3)(x + 4) x? +5x+6
2x* + 12x = 10 3x* = KE6
(x —1)(2x —1)(x +3) (x* + 4)(x —2)
x = 2x +9 lycra —4
(x?+ 3)(x —3) (x?+ 5)(2x+ 3)
9 Pyieais
cick: a
ScatWP 10 vowed
ekeAS
(5 + 2x?)(x + 3) (2x + 1)(x* +2x +7)
 Algebra | 33

11
2x —7
12
Xt 4x+7
(x —5° A
=3x? 4:10x4- 5 —5x?+ 8x+9
13 14
(4. 2)(x=1)" (7 Qe au?

15 10x+9 16
(2x+1)(2x+3)”
17 18

19 20 ———

9 = 2x —2x7 4x4-—3x42
21 22
(1 + x)(2 —x) 2x* ay =|

2° + 10x* +1241 +x? —2x44

23 24
(x + 2)(x +3) x24

25
ee xX =2 26
13
x*(x +1) (2x —3)(3x +2)

27
Re 43x +9 28
x3+4x? + 3x44
(2x—4)(x4-2)7 (x2 + 1)(x+1)?
4x4 + 6x3 + 4x7 + x —3 4x +3
29 30
x?(2x + 3) (2x —1)(3x+ 1)

43x —2x—5 3x2 ++12x+8

31 32
(x —1)*(x?
+2) (2x + 3)(x? —4)

x —x*-1 42x43
33
x(x? +x+1) “4 x?(x
+1)
35 =
x3-+ 1
34 Algebra |

1.5 The remainder theorem and the

factor theorem

When a polynomial is divided by a linear expression there is usually

a remainder. For example,
Ox te —10x + 19x —19) = (x3)
3x9 + 2x? —4x+7
x—3 )3x4 —7x3 —10x? + 19x —19
3x1= 9x"
2x° —10x?
2 — she
SS Ay? 19%
— 4x7+ 12x
Tx—19
7x —21
2
So: (3x4 —7x? —10x” + 19x —19) + (x —3)
gives a quotient of 3x3 + 2x? —4x +7 and a remainder of 2. You
can write this sentence mathematically as:

oe ety alee
x yee
—10K 19% 3,3 im oy eee 9)
= 5 a,
Now if both sides of the identity are multiplied by (x —3) then
3x* —7x3 —10x? + 19x —19 .
xa oe
= (0-3) (3x 420? —44745) 2

Ax I e10 x ++ 19x
19x19SK
(x =—3)(3x°
3) 4+Oe
2x Shee 2
x + J (2-3) | anne
Se
That is:
See ae = 10K 19x — 19 = Ge 3a —4
But this is the definition of a quotient and remainder. In other
words,
f(x) = (x—a)g(x) +R

‘original polynomial = (divisor) x (quotient) + remainder’

 Algebra | 35

The ‘divisor’ is the linear expression that the polynomial was divided
by.

Let’s try another example.

Divide 6x° 4 2x7 — 5x7 452% —1 by x — 1.

6x*+6x3+8x24+3x45
x —1)6x5+ Ox4+2x3—5x242x—1
6x° — 6x4

6x4 + 2x3
6x4 — 6x?

8x? — 5x7
8x° — 8x2

ayy
3x12 3x

5x - 1
5x —5

4
fe + oe Se |
So: a wep age tt
x-1 x-—1
Multiply
byx-—1:
6x" + 2x —5x? +2x-1
y——1,et) =(x=1)(6x4
+60°
+8x7
43x45
+5)
6x5 420° —Sx? 4 Ix 1S (x= 1)(6e4 + 6x8 +87 + 3445) + (2 (5)

6x? 42x —5x74 2x —1 = (x —1)(6x*$'6x?+ 8x?43x45) 44

Once again:
originalpolynomial!= (divisor)x (quotient)+ remainder
In the first example the divisor was x — 3. Look at the left-hand side
of the identity:

3x4 —7x3 —10x? + 19x —19 = (x —3)(3x° + 2x? —4x+7) +2

and put x = 3.
36 Algebra |

LHS= (3 x 3*)= (7x33)=(10°«'3?)#:(19'«:3)—

19
= 243—189—-904 57-19
= 300—298
0
whichistheremainder
whenthepolynomial
isdividedbyx —3.
You will see the reason for this if you consider the right-hand side of
the identity and put x = 3:

RHS= (x —3)(3x?+2x7—4x+7)+2
9 HBP 3G 18124742
= (0 x 94)+2
=0+2
=f)
That is, as soon as you put x = 3, the first bracket becomes zero, so
the whole of the first expression becomes zero since anything
multiplied by zero gives an answer of zero. So the right-hand side of
the identity reduces to ‘zero + the remainder of 2’.

You can do the same with the second example. Put x = 1 in the
right-hand side of the identity:
Ge er a 16x ore 8x 3 5) 4
LHS = 6+2-—5+2-1=4
which, once again, is the remainder. Again, you can see why this is
so by considering the right-hand side of the identity with x = 1:
RHS = (1 —1)(6+64+8+43+45)+4
= (0 x 28) +4
=4
Let us now consider the general situation. Suppose that when the
polynomial f(x), of degree n, where
f(x) = a,x" + Gee ae hack Box ti aco

is divided by (x —a), the quotient is a polynomial g(x) (of degree

n— 1) and there is a remainder R.
Then: ity
f = g(x) +——_
R
x-a x-a
or
f(x)x(2G)=(x~a)xg(x)
+(2a)x
f(x) = (x —a)g(x)+R
Consider the LHS and RHS of this identity with x = a.
 Algebra | 37

LHS = f(a)

RHS= (a—a) x g(a) +R

=0xg(a)+R
=R
So: f(a) =R
That is, if you substitute x = a into the polynomial you obtain the
remainder that you would get if you divided f(x) by (x —a). This
the remainder theorem. It can be stated more formally as:

= Ifa polynomial f(x) is divided by x —a, the remainder is f(a).

Example 31
Find the remainder when 3x* + 7x? + 2x + 1 is divided by x —2.
Let f(x) = 3x3 + 7x? + 2x41.
The remainder is
f(2) = (3 x 8)+ (7x 4)+(2x2)+1
= 244+28+4+1
af |

Example 32
Find the remainder when 3x4 —2x? + 6x + 6 is divided by x + 1.
Let f(x) = 3x* —2x? + 6x +6.

The remainder is

f(—-1)=3-—-2-6+6

—)
A more general case of the remainder theorem can be found by
considering the remainder when the polynomial f(x) is divided by
ax —3. Suppose that the answer is, again, another polynomial g(x)
and the remainder is R.

So:

Multiply by ax —£:

og *(ox—&
\ B)
(ax—
8)xax)+(xB)x A
f(x) = (ax —B) x g(x) + R
38 Algebra |

Nowputx = g
a

That is: f (©) = Jt

a
This is a more general form of the remainder theorem.
= Ifa polynomial f(x) is divided by ax —B, the remainder is f (f) :

Example 33
Find the remainder when 2x? + 4x* —6x + 1 is divided by 2x — 1.
Let f(x) = 2x? + 4x2 —6x +1.
Putixi= 5.

The remainder is;

f5)=(2x)+(4x})-(6x4)+1
=14+1-34+1

Example 34
Find the remainder when 2x” + 3x — 1 is divided by 3x + 2.

Let f(x) = 2x7 + 3x —1.

The remainder is:

Example 35
When 2x? + ax*?+x-+1 is divided by x +2 the remainder is —29.
Find the value of the constant a.

Let f(x) = 2x3 +ax?+x4+1.

The remainder is:
f(—2) = -16+ 4a—2+1 = —29
4a—17= —-29
4a=-12
a=-3
 Algebra | 39

If x —a is a factor of a polynomial f(x) then x —a divides exactly

into f(x) and leaves no remainder. So:

OO) = (x)

That is: f(x) = (x —a) x g(x)

Put X= a f(a) = (a— a) x g(a)

= 0 x g(a)

This is the factor theorem.

m= If x—aq isa factor of the polynomial f(x), then f(a) = 0.

Example 36
Factorise completely x* —6x* + 11x —6.
Let f(x) = x —6x7 + 11x —6.

Try x= 1: fle) —6 4-11—~

6.0
So x — 1 is a factor of f(x).

Ingz=z: f(2) = 8 —24+ 22-—6=0

So x — 2 is a factor.

Try ac 3: f(3) =27 —544+33-6=0

So x — 3 is a factor.

Thus: x3—6x*+ 11x—6 = (x'—1)(x—2)(x—3)

Example 37
The polynomial ax? — x* + bx + 6 has a factor of x + 2, and when it
is divided by x + 1 there is a remainder of 10. Find the values of the
constants a and db. Find the values of x for which the polynomial is

zero.

Let f(x) = ax? —x?+bx+6.

Since (x + 2) is a factor of f(x),
f(—2) = -8a —-4-—25+6=0 (1)
Since there is a remainder of 10 when f(x) is divided by (x + 1),
f(—1) = -a—1-—b+6=10 (2)
From (1): —8a—2b= -2
From (2): —a—b=5
40 Algebra |

Solving these simultaneously:

4a+b=1 (1)
a+b=—5 (2)
(1) —(2): 3a = 6
Ca
Substitute in (2): 2+b=-5
b=-7
So: f(x) = 2x7 —x? —7x+6
You know that (x + 2) is a factor of f(x).
Divide f(x) by (x + 2):

2x? —5x4+3
x +2 )2x3—ae = pets
2x?+ 4x?
5x TX
=5x —10x
oa
3x +6

So: oy IX 6 = (0-422 5x3)

= (x + 2)(2x —3)(x —1)

When 1 TX 60,
(x +2)(2x—3)(x-—1)=0

That is, x = —2, 3 and 1.

Factorise:
Tse Ax 3x7 —-12
Qe a —10K
BU a 1305-6
4060 x —327+ 20
§ 3x3+ 17x?—27x4+7
 Algebra | 41

Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by g(x):

f(x) = 3x3+ 2x?-6x+1, g(x)=x-2

nCoen
f(x) = 5x*- 2x3 +3x-—2, g(x)=x4+3
f(x) = 2x3 + 3x? —7x - 14, g(x) =x+5
f(x) = 4x* +2x?-x-7, g(x) =2x-1
10 f(x) = 4x9 + 6x7 +3x42, g(x) =2x4+3
11 When divided by x + 1, the polynomial ax? — x2 —x + 6 leaves
a remainder of 4. Find the value of the constant a.
12 When divided by x — 2, the polynomial x3 —ax? + 7x +2
leaves a remainder of —4. Find the value of the constant a.
13. When divided by x + 3, the polynomial 2x3 + x2 + ax +1
leaves a remainder of —53. Find the value of the constant a.
14 When divided by 3x — 1, the polynomial 9x3 + 9x? + ax +2
leaves a remainder of 4}. Find the value of the constant a.
15 When divided by 2x — 3, the polynomial 4x? —ax? —2x +7
leaves a remainder of 13. Find the value of the constant a.
16 When divided by x — 1, the polynomial ax? + x2 + bx —4
leaves a remainder of —6. Given that x — 2 is a factor of the
polynomial, find the values of the constants a and b.

17 When divided by x + 1, the polynomial ax* + bx* — 13x +6

leaves a remainder of 18. Given that 2x — 1 is a factor of the
polynomial, find the values of the constants a and b.
18 When divided by x — 1, the polynomial 3x? + ax? — 5x +2
leaves a remainder of —4. Find the value of the constant a and
hence factorise the polynomial.
19 Given that 2x? + ax* + x — 12 leaves a remainder of 6 when
divided by x + 2, find the value of the constant a. Hence solve
the equation

2x° +ax?+x-12=0

20 When divided by x — 1 the polynomial ax? — 3x? + bx + 6

leaves a remainder of —6. When divided by x + 2 it leaves a
remainder of zero. Find the values of the constants a and 4 and
hence solve the equation

ax® —3x*+bx+6=0
42 Algebra |

21 P(x) = x4 +23 —5x*+ax+b

Given that (x —2) and (x + 3) are factors of P(x), find the
constants a and b.
Factorise P(x) completely. [L]
22 f(x) = 2x? + px? +-qx+6
where p and gqare constants.
When f(x) is divided by (x + 1), the remainder is 12. When f(x)
is divided by (x —1), the remainder is —6.
(a) Find the value of p and the value of gq.
(b) Show that.f(4) = 0 and hence write f(x) as the product of
three linear factors. [L]
23 Find the value of the constant k so that the polynomial P(x),
where

PGi ic ait
has a remainder 3 when it is divided by (x —2).
Show that, with this value of k, P(x) is positive for all real x.
[L]
24 The polynomial f(x), where
{2 ee
is exactly divisible by (x —1) and has remainder +9 when
divided by (x + 2). Find the values of the constants A and B.
Hence solve the equation f(x) = 0. [L]

writtenae bs ene evenifsomeeofess hae :

Zet0coefficients,
e.g.x°+ 3mustbewritten
as
oe+ 0x"+ Ox+3.
 Algebra | 43

| 3 To multiply two algebraic fractions, you can cancel each

common factor in either numerator with the same common
factor in either denominator. You then multiply what
remains of each numerator to give the numerator of the
answer and multiply what remains of each denominator to
give the denominator of the answer.
4 To divide one fraction by another, you turn the divisor
upside down and multiply.
5 To add or subtract two fractions you change each fraction
to an equivalent fraction with a denominator equal to the
lowest common multiple of the two original denominators,
and then add or subtract.
6 A proper fraction with linear factors in the denominator
such as

1)
(x —1)(x —2)(x —3)’
has partial fractions of the form
A B C
a ae

7 A proper fraction with a non-reducible quadratic factor in

the denominator, such as
f(x)
(x + 2)(x? + 2x + 3)
has partial fractions of the form
A Bx +c
x+2 x24+2x+4+3

8 A proper fraction with a repeated factor in the denomi-

nator, such

aspial athhas partialfractionsof the form

(x+ 2)
A B ©
K+2° (x+2) (x42)
_9 An improper fraction is one where the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
denominator
The mathematics of
uncertainty

In many areas of your studies you may already have found it

necessary to collect, classify and interpret data. You may have done
this during your work in Science, Business Studies, Geography and
Mathematics. You may also have used sets of data that have been
collected by someone else. Every day the media present you with
data on matters of concern and interest together with their
interpretation of the data. This interpretation may or may not
appear to be fair, depending on the point that is being made and the
way in which the data are being used.

Statistics is the branch of mathematics concerned with methods of

collecting and interpreting data. It can help us to make decisions in
the face of uncertainty. For example, any claims made by a
manufacturer about the effectiveness of a new fertiliser on various
crops would require careful analysis and investigation before they
could be accepted.

2.1 Different types of data

One dictionary defines data as ‘a set of observations, facts or
measurements’. The something you observe, measure and record is
known as a variable or variate. Here are some examples of variates:

e the colours of snooker balls;

e the number of children in each house on an estate;
e the heights of conifer trees in a plantation.

These are all variates since a set of measurements or observations ©

can be defined and obtained for each of them.

Here are the three variates again, shown with typical measurements
or observations:
46 The mathematics of uncertainty
\

Variate Measurement or observation

Colour of snooker balls red, white, yellow, green, blue, pink,

black, brown

Number of children in each house on an | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,...

estate

Height of conifer trees 20 m, 22.65 m, 35.60 m

By considering these variates you can see that there are important
differences between them.
The colour of a snooker ball is called a qualitative variate because
numerical values cannot be assigned to it in the way they can to the
other variates. With a qualitative variate it is necessary to assign
non-numerical descriptors. For the qualitative variate colour we use
the descriptors red, white, blue, and so on. For the qualitative
variate nationality we would use descriptors such as English, French,
and German.
The number of children on an estate and the heights of conifer trees
are both called quantitative variates because they can be counted or
measured numerically using numbers such as 4 children in a house
or a tree of height 12.73 m.

The number of children in each house on an estate is always a whole

number. That is, the variate can only take specific values such as
0,1,2,3 .. . and it increases in steps. Variates like these are called
discrete, meaning the values of the variate are separate or discrete
from one another. Shoe size is a typical discrete variate where the
sizes go up in halves: 45, 5, 55, 6... and so on.

The heights of conifer trees in a plantation can, in theory, take any

value in the range between the shortest and the tallest. A variate
such as height that can take any value in a range is called a
continuous variate.

You need to be able to distinguish between the different types of

variates. To summarise:

e A variate may be either qualitative or quantitative.

e A quantitative variate may be either discrete or continuous.

2.2 Populations and samples

You can use a Statistical survey to investigate some property or
characteristic of a set of people or items that have something in
common. When you collect data about every member of the set or
 The mathematics of uncertainty 47

population of people or items in the survey it is called a census. The

government conducts a census of everyone living in the United
Kingdom every 10 years. This is very costly in terms of both time —
and money.

A less costly way of conducting a survey is to consider only a sample

(a limited number of members) of the population. Sample surveys
are extremely popular. They are used by the government, by the
marketing departments of large industrial and commercial firms to
help them develop their products, and by medical researchers to give
just a few examples.

Any individual member of a population is sometimes called a

sampling unit. The collection of all sampling units makes up the
population and this is called the sampling frame. You could take the
electoral roll of a town as a sampling frame for collecting data about
the people living in the town who were on the electoral roll when it
was last printed.

In any survey you want to obtain data that is as representative of the

population as possible and not biased in any way. For example, if
you wanted to survey people’s sweet-eating habits your sample
would be extremely biased if it only included college students.

The best way of obtaining representative data is to use a process

known as random sampling. Arandom sample is one in which every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in
the sample. The idea of a random sample is easy to understand in
principle, but it is not easy in practice to obtain one from a large
population. If the population is reasonably small then each member
can be assigned a different numbered card, and cards can be selected
at random as required until a sample of the required size is obtained.
If the population is large so that the numbered card approach is
unrealistic, then a different number can be assigned to each member
of the population and a table of random sampling numbers can be
used to choose the members of the sample.

Example 1
Comment critically on the following methods of obtaining a
representative sample of a population.

(a) A survey is to be conducted about the sporting interests of

young adult males in Wolverhampton. One suggestion for
collecting data is to interview a sample of those leaving a
home match at the Wolves Football Ground.
(b) A survey is to be conducted about the employment of young
females living on a housing estate. One suggestion for
collecting data is to call at every fifth house on the estate
48 The mathematics of uncertainty

during a Thursday morning and, for those where no answer is

obtained, try the next house and the next until someone is
found to be at home.

(a) This method of collecting data would certainly produce a

sample biased towards those interested in football in particular
and sport in general. Also, ‘young adult males’ is not a clear
enough definition for members of the proposed sample.

(b —This method would certainly introduce serious bias towards

women who are unemployed, with most of those having
employment being absent from the estate at the time of the
survey. Also, ‘young females’ is not a sufficiently clear
description of the members wanted in the survey.

1 State whether the following variates are (a) qualitative

(b) quantitative. When a variate is quantitative, say whether it is
(c) discrete (d) continuous.
(i) the number of days in each month
(ii) the distance, in km, travelled by a headteacher daily
(111)the makes of all the teachers’ cars in a school car park
(iv) the number of potatoes obtained from each plant in a row
(v) the time taken by each member of your class to complete a
statistics project.
2 A safety committee is interested in estimating the percentage of
commercial vehicles with illegal tyres. Suggest possible ways in
which a random sample of commercial vehicles could be
obtained so that the tyres can be checked.
3 A questionnaire is posted to every home in a county to collect
data about the personal preferences of housewives for different
kinds of detergent. Explain briefly why the sample of data
collected is biased.
4 (a) Explain the terms ‘sampling unit’ and ‘sampling frame’.
(b) A representative sample of the television viewing habits of
the adult population in Avon is required. A sample of 200
people is collected by conducting a verbal questionnaire with:
(i) the first 100 men and the first 100 women coming out of
the mainline station in Bristol at 9 a.m. on a weekday
 The mathematics of uncertainty 49

(ii) 100 men and 100 women in a busy shopping precinct at

Bath on a Saturday afternoon.
Comment critically on these methods of obtaining a represen-
tative sample and suggest a way in which you might select a
sample of your own.
5 A time-and-motion study team at a large factory wishes to
obtain a random sample of:
(a) electric light bulbs coming off the production line
(b) the lunch-time eating habits of their production line
workers
(c) the absentee rate for their workers on different days of the
week.
Suggest a possible method of collecting data for each sample.

2.3 Presenting data in a frequency

distribution
In the examples and exercises in the rest of this chapter it is assumed
that any sample data used are representative of the population being
considered and that the data have been collected using a random
sampling procedure.
When data have just been collected they are sometimes called raw
data. That is, the data have not been sorted into any order or put in
a form which is easy to analyse. Remember, you will want to use the
data to make observations or draw conclusions about the
population from which the sample was collected. A frequency
distribution is often used to summarise raw data and to make it
easier to analyse. The following example shows you how to do this.

Example 2
The temperatures in °C at noon for the first 14 days of July in
Penzance, Cornwall were recorded to the nearest °C as:

22, 21, 19; 23, 19, 18, 27, 27, 25, 23,A2G2o re: 2s

Summarise these data using a frequency distribution.

First notice that the temperatures range from 18 °C to 28°C. Make a
table of values from 18 to 28 and record the number of times or
frequency with which each temperature occurred. The table then
shows the data as a frequency distribution:
50 The mathematics of uncertainty

romeropolo]|=]|] [a[al
rence
omarocon|
tf2]ofof+afof
f ofefaf1
In this example the frequency distribution does not show any
obvious pattern in the data.

2.4 Using histograms to present data

In the previous example temperature data were recorded to the
nearest whole degree and frequencies were collected for each
individual temperature between 18 and 28 degrees. The data were
not grouped in any way.
From your GCSE work you will be familiar with the idea of
grouping data and using a histogram to present them. For example,
here are some test data from an experiment given as a grouped
frequency distribution.

Fenn
'e[oaTea]earca]terceloaT<a]ve
cS al a a ee a
The temperatures have been grouped into classes, with 0 < T < 2
meaning any temperature greater than or equal to 0°C and less than
2SGee

These data can be displayed as a histogram:

density
Frequency

0. A WeEGIRTD
Qe ONE 15
Temperature
(°C)
 The mathematics of uncertainty 51

This histogram looks very similar to a bar chart because every

rectangle is of equal width. This is because the temperature data
have been grouped into equal class widths of two degrees at a time,
from 0 to 2 degrees, from 2 to 4 degrees and so on. But there is no
reason why data need always be grouped in equal class widths,
especially if there are particular ranges in which no data fall at all.
In a bar chart all the bars are the same width and the /ength of each
bar is proportional to the frequency it represents. By contrast, the
width of a rectangle on a histogram depends on the class width it
represents and:
m The area of a rectangle on a histogram is proportional to the
frequency it represents.

Notice that the vertical axis of a histogram is labelled ‘frequency

density’. The reason for this will become clear shortly.
The difference between a histogram and a bar chart can be seen by
looking at histograms of the same set of data grouped in two
different ways. For example, here are two different ways of
grouping another set of temperature data:

few f 2 fo [ste] s | «
The same data can be grouped differently. The three class widths
2<T<4,4<T7< 6and6<T < 8 could be replaced by one class
width 2 < T < 8 like this:

LO:
=<deal?
8<T<
10
eee) 5 |
52 The mathematics of uncertainty \

Here are the histograms for the two different groupings of the same
data:

density
Frequency

a IY ar Orer
Temperature
(°C)
(b)

density
Frequency

i . z= — aE : 5 “5
Temperature
(°C)

Notice that there are no gaps, as such, between adjacent rectangles

of a histogram. (In (a) above, the rectangles are of zero height in
the 2-4 and 6-8 intervals.) This is because the variate is continuous
for the range of the data. The area of each rectangle is proportional
to the frequency it represents. The total area of the histogram is the
sum of the areas of all the rectangles in the histogram.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 53

Frequency density
Now let’s look at how the height of a histogram rectangle is
calculated. In a frequency distribution of a continuous variate the
class widths are found by calculating the difference between the
upper class boundary and the lower class boundary for each class.
The height of each rectangle in a histogram is found by using the
fact that the area of each rectangle is proportional to the frequency
it represents. That is:
Area = frequency x constant of proportionality
This constant can take any value but for convenience it is usually
taken to be 1, giving:

Area of rectangle = frequency

This allows for easy reading and interpretation of histograms.
Now:
Area of rectangle = Class width of rectangle x Height of rectangle

Frequency
So: Height of rectangle =
Class width
This calculation gives the frequency density per unit of the variate or,
more simply the frequency density.
The horizontal axis of the histogram is labelled with the name of the
variate. The vertical axis is labelled ‘frequency per unit of the
variate’ or just ‘frequency density’.
Frequency of class
= Remember that: Frequency density = Clits width

Example 3
The lengths in cm of the stems of 50 daisy flowers are shown in this
frequency table. Draw a histogram to display these data.

Length
(con)
[0.x
<20
[20
<r
< 0]
<rcss]
scr
<w]w
<x
<
remo| +| «fe |» fe Le. 50]H
Seco)
First find the class widths. Then use the relationship:

Frequency
Height
ofrectangle
=Gicsdnaaih

to find the height of each rectangle: the frequency density.

24 The mathematics of uncertainty

Length(xcm) 20<«<30| 30<%<35| 35<x<40| 40<x<50| 50<x<60

Frequency density (height of

rectangle)
pot f mw
| | ow
fo
Now that you know both the width and the height of each rectangle
the histogram can be drawn:

| Histogram showing lengths of stems of daisies

se
fob
j
Wes ef

ae
{ Clagswidth
=40—
35
“boundary
=40)
: id =5

density
Frequency
:
:

? aes
aa a:
es:
5

0,5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Length (cm)

2.5 Using cumulative frequency

polygons to present data
The data in a grouped frequency distribution can also be presented
as a cumulative frequency distribution. The cumulative frequency at
any point in the distribution is obtained by adding together all the
frequencies up to that point.

Example 4
Here is a grouped frequency distribution showing the volumes of
concentrated juice in a sample of 250 bottles that have been filled by
an automatic pump. Each volume is measured to the nearest
millilitre.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 55

Volume (m2) < 993.5 |993.5 < <995,5

995.5
<
V<997.5|997.5
see <
V<999.5
1999.5
sa, <
V<1001
Volume (mé) 1001.5 < V < 1003.5 | 1003.5 < V < 1005.5 | 1005.5 < V < 1007.5

There are no bottles containing a volume of Juice less than 993.5 mé.
There are 10 bottles containing a volume of juice less than 995.5 mZé.
There are (10 + 27) bottles containing a volume of juice less than
997.5 mé.
You continue this process of cumulation until you have considered
each class interval. The cumulative frequency distribution can now
be summarised in a table:

< 993.5 < 997.5 | < 999.5 |< 1001.5|< 1003.5|< 1005.5|/< 1007.5

Pefe fs fe [i [ow
[am
These data are used to draw a cumulative frequency polygon by
plotting the cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries
of the corresponding classes. In this case, these data are plotted at
(993.5,0), (995.5,10) and so on. Here is the cumulative frequency
polygon with the points joined by straight lines:

Cumulative
frequency

995 | 1000 1005 1010

Volume (ml)
56 The mathematics of uncertainty

1 The masses of strawberries, to the nearest lb, picked by a group

of students on a particular day in July were recorded and are
shown in the following table.

Mass
(Ib) 20-29
30-39
40-49
Saree [f= | * | 2
Show this information in a carefully marked histogram.
2 Inasurvey about the mileage covered by a brand of radial tyre,
a manufacturer recorded the following:

Mileage (000 miles) 10-12 13-16 17-20 21-25

In this frequency distribution, the mileage covered by each tyre

was rounded to the nearest 1000 miles before entry into the
table.
Draw an accurate histogram to show this information.
3 The % marks of 200 recruits in an initative test for the Marines

are given in the following cumulative frequency table.

Cumulative
frequency
eal RP WW
75
(a) Draw the cumulative frequency polygon for these data.
(b) Draw a histogram to show these data.
4 The Neversofar Ladies Athletic Club have an open 1500m race
every August. Last year 40 runners took part with the following
results timed to the nearest second:

240-259
260-269
270-274
fearonfs | «|sf? 275-290
Draw a histogram to show this information.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 57

Draw a cumulative frequency polygon for the following

continuous data where x has been rounded to the nearest whole
number.

ew [2 ls [efe[slalo]s

Reclassify the data in question 5 into the four intervals 1-15,

16-20, 21-30 and 31-40 and draw the corresponding histogram.
The lengths, to the nearest second, of the first 100 calls to be
answered by the operators at the complaints section of a large
hotel chain were recorded and classified in the frequency
distribution shown.

fro [= [| =|»|» |w[ =

rower[>[7felaft=fwls i
Display this information in a cumulative frequency polygon.
Display the information given in question 7 in a histogram.
The frequency distribution of a continuous variate is illustrated
by the histogram shown.

density
Frequency
0 7 20 30 40 70

Metres

Given that the total frequency is 20, write down the class
intervals and the corresponding frequencies.
Draw a cumulative frequency polygon for these data.
58 The mathematics of uncertainty \

10 The cumulative frequency polygon of a continuous variate is

shown. Deduce the class boundaries and the corresponding
frequencies. Draw a histogram to show these data.

frequency
Cumulative

0 20 40 60 80
Seconds

2.6 Measures of location

You may have learned methods for finding the mode, the median
and the mean of a set of data in your GCSE course. These measures
are known collectively as measures of location because they act as a
focus for the data and can be used as single values to represent the
data. Here is a definition of each one:

The mode
For a list of items or numbers, the mode is the one that occurs most
often. Sometimes there are two or more items in the list that occur
with equal frequency and more often than any other item. So there
may be two or more modes in a distribution.

The median
The median is the middle value of an ordered set of data. It is
obtained by first rewriting the list in order of size. If this ordered list
has an odd number of items, find the middle member and this is the
median. If the list has an even number of items, find the two central
members in the ordered list and the median is halfway between
them.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 59

The mean

The mean is obtained by dividing the total sum of all the items in the
list, or frequency distribution, by the number of items in the list.

Example 5
A young professional golfer made the following scores on the first
18 holes in a tournament:
Rp Ape Bods IO Gob 65-4, 755,010,704. 6-524
Find her (a) modal score (b) median score (c) mean score.
First rearrange these data in a frequency table:

(a) From the table it is clear that she made a score of 4 at five holes
and this was the score that occurred most frequently. So the
mode is 4 because this score occurred most often.

(b) When all the scores are arranged in order of size:

4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 10, 10

you can see that the ninth and tenth scores, that is the two
middle scores, are 5 and 6 respectively. So the median score is
halfway between 5 and 6, which is 5.5.

(c) There are 18 scores in the distribution, so the mean score is

obtained by summing all the scores and then dividing the sum by
18:

Sum of all scores = (4 x 5) + (5 x 4) + (6 x 3) + (7 x 3) + (8 x 1)

+(9 x 0) + (10 x 2)

= 20+ 20+ 18+ 214+8+4+0+420

= 107

107
So the mean is: Mean = ee 5.94
60 The mathematics of uncertainty

>»formula for the mean

A formula for the mean can be written using the sigma (X) notation
(see page 96 in Book P1). In example 5 the scores can be written as
X1,X2,X3, .. . occurring with frequencies f),/2,/3, . . . respectively.
The mean of a frequency distribution is often denoted by x and from
the definition of the mean:

IM att ia st Sn
2) Payorare ocr.
|
So: Bez:
ee
In example 5:
bfx = (4x 5) + (5 x 4) + (6 x 3) 4+(7 x 3) + (8 x 1) + (9 x 0) + (10 x 2)
=20+ 204 18+ 21+ 8+ 20= 107

and: f= 18

Sox = ae = 5.94, as found before.

Finding the modal class, median and mean of a

grouped frequency distribution
Often, sample data are collected and summarised in a grouped
frequency distribution in which the data are grouped in class
intervals. You will often find that you are given just the frequency
distribution to work with, particularly when the original sample
data are unavailable.
The following examples show how to find estimates of the modal
class, the mean, and the median of a grouped frequency distribution.
To make these estimates we assume that the members in any class
interval are uniformly distributed throughout the interval.

Examples 6, 7 and 8 use the data on the distribution of the lengths of

stems of daisy flowers from example 3:

Length
(xcm)<x <20/20
<x<30/80
<x<35)35
<x<40/40
<x<50/50
<x<60
 The mathematics of uncertainty 61

Example 6
Estimate the modal class of this distribution.

Looking at the histogram you can see that the class interval with the
greatest frequency density is 30 < x < 35. This is the modal class.

Example 7
Estimate the median of the distribution.

Here are two methods of estimating the median:

Method 1

Plot the histogram of the distribution:

aS + CERES OS 3 CRESTS
~ n + ;

in)

density
Frequency
in
40 50 60
Length (cm)

The median is the middle member of the population when all

members are arranged in size order. With a frequency distribution
this is equivalent to saying that the median occurs at the value of x
shown by the dotted line on the histogram where the area of the
whole histogram is divided into two equal parts.
By looking at the histogram you can see that the dotted line should
be drawn in the interval 30 < x < 35. Suppose it is at the point on
the x-axis where x = m, then we have:

Area to left of x=m is: 4+ 16+ 2.4(m —30) = 2.4m —52

Area to right of x= mis: 2.4(35 -—m)+ 10+6+2= 102 —2.4m
If the line x = m divides the histogram into two equal areas then:
2.4m — 52 = 102 — 2.4m

4.8m = 154 and m = 32.1

So the median of the distribution is estimated to be 32.1.

62 The mathematics of uncertainty

Method 2

This method uses the cumulative frequency polygon. First form the
cumulative frequency table:

fcmamcrwwos
|e [+[l= lelsfa
Plot the points (0,0), (20,4), . . . and so on on graph paper and join
successive points with straight lines to form the cumulative
frequency polygon:

tinndnnaonsncharrasratnate

40+

frequency
Cumulative
30+—

25 -——

20-eae

tod

0 10 20 30 60
Length of stem (cm)
Read median here = 32.1

The median estimate is obtained by reading off on the x-axis the

point that is eq uivalent to 25 on the cumulative frequency scale.

Once again the estimate of the median is 32.1.

 The mathematics of uncertainty 63

Example 8
Estimate the mean of the distribution.

As a first step when estimating the mean, tabulate the data:

Length (Z cm) Mid-interval value Frequency

(M cm) £3

0<L<20 4
20 < L < 30 16
30<L< 35 12
35<L< 40 10
40<L< 50 6
50 < L < 60
2
Sf=50 S/M = 1585

Using the totals in the f and fM columns:

>
Estimate
imate ofof mean'= = =7 50

Important notes
You will have noticed that in example 7, method 2, the upper class
boundaries of the class intervals were used to draw the cumulative
frequency polygon and to estimate the median. But when estimating
the mean from a frequency distribution, you must always use the mid-
interval values, as shown in example 8.

Calculations of the mean can be shortened by using coding: see

example 14, page 70.

2.7 Measures of dispersion

Measures of location are important statistics when you are
considering sample data. The other statistic required is some
measure that tells you how much the members of the distribution
are spread out. In these two frequency distributions distribution A is
much more spread out than distribution B.

Distribution A Distribution B

Frequencydensity
density Frequency
Oo 10 20 30 40 x
64 The mathematics of uncertainty

There are several ways of measuring the spread or dispersion of

distributions like these.

The range
A rather crude but quick way of measuring dispersion is to subtract
the smallest value from the largest value in the distribution. This
gives a value called the range.
One real snag about using the range in this way is that large or small
isolated members tend to distort the value and thus give a false
impression.

The interquartile range

To offset the snag about using the range, the cumulative frequency
polygon or the histogram of the distribution can be used to find
more reliable measures of dispersion.
First the data must be divided into a number of equal parts.
Percentiles divide the data into 100 equal parts and quartiles divide
the data into four equal parts. The quartiles of an ordered set of
data are such that 25% of the data are less than or equal to the first
or lower quartile, 50% are less than or equal to the second quartile
(this is the median), and 75% are less than or equal to the third or
upper quartile.
The median or second quartile of the distribution is often called the
50th percentile because 50% of the total frequency lies either side of
the median. The lower quartile is also called the 25th percentile and
the upper quartile is also called the 75th percentile.
On the cumulative frequency polygon for a distribution with
frequency N, estimates of the lower quartile, the median and the
upper quartile can be read off on the horizontal axis of the cumulative
frequency polygon at the points with these cumulative frequencies:
Ne TN 3N
Ag a a
If N is large, then the points corresponding to * x and in give good
approximations to the lower quartile, the median and the upper
quartile. A more detailed description of the method of estimating
percentiles is given in chapter 4 of Book T1.
The difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile is
called the interquartile range or IQR.
= IQR = Upper quartile —Lower quartile
The middle 50% of the distribution falls within the IQR.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 65

Note

It is possible to define other measures of spread such as the

intersextile range which includes the middle 60% of the distribution.
The IQR, however, remains the measure of this kind that is most
often used.

Example 9
This frequency distribution shows the number of minutes, to the
nearest minute, taken by an ambulance to reach an accident from its

station
onSO
separate
calls.
Estimate
theIQR.
pe Te Te]
foment[s]e[>[o>
ew [2ete eletetetelets
First rewrite the data as a cumulative frequency distribution:

Fincnny
[es] <5]
cas]
ess]
cos]
ers]
cas]
cos]
cwslens[e
comimverwos
| [2f7[*falslel=lelele
Then draw the cumulative frequency polygon:

50

40

frequency
Cumulative30
;

20

ee

10

0 2 4° SG ig 10 12 14
| Time(min)
Lower Upper
quartile quartile
66 The mathematics of uncertainty \

Reading from the cumulative frequency polygon the lower quartile

is at:

(=) = 12.5th call = 5.2 minutes

The upper quartile is at:

ae (=) = 3/.5th call = 7.9 minutes

So the interquartile range is:

IQR = (7.9 —5.2) minutes = 2.7 minutes

Example 10
Estimate the median and the interquartile range of the distribution
given in example 4 on page 54.
As N=250, which is large, an estimate of the median can be
obtained directly from the cumulative frequency polygon on page 54
by reading off on the horizontal axis the value which corresponds to
a cumulative frequency of 230—125. This estimate of the median is
1000.7 mé.
The lower and upper quartiles correspond to cumulative frequencies
of 2° ~ 63 and 4° = 188 and are read off as:
Lower quartile = 998.7 mé
Upper quartile = 1003.1 mé
So the interquartile range is:
IQR = Upper quartile —Lower quartile = 4.4m£
To ensure you understand this method, draw your own accurate
diagram for these data and use your graph to check the results
given.

The variance and the standard deviation o

The most important measures of dispersion are the variance and the
standard deviation of a set of numbers or of a frequency distribution.
The reason for their primary importance is that, together with the
mean, they form the basis on which decision making depends in
higher statistical work.
Suppose that you have a population of n _ observations
X1,X2,X3,...X,. The mean yp, of this population is found by
summing all the observations and dividing the sum by n. (Notice
that the symbol ypis used for the mean of a population of numbers
instead of x.) This can be summarised by the formula:
 The mathematics of uncertainty 67

1 n
p=7 om
r=1
The variance of the n observations is found by subtracting the mean
yu.from each observation to give n terms such as (x, —1).
If we tried to sum these terms to get an idea of the overall spread of
the data from the mean (1), we would get:

(x1—pw)+(%2—p)+... +(on—pH)
= (xX)
+X2+...%,) — np
But p=
(x1 +X. +... Xn)
n
Sothisbecomes:(x)+2%2+...Xn)—”
(1 + 2+... +n)
n
=0
This is not a very useful measure! To overcome the difficulty, square
each of the (x, — yz) terms. This gets rid of the negative terms that
cancel to give zero. Then divide the sum of these terms by 7 to give a
measure of the average difference from the mean. This is called the
variance and it can be written:

m Variance o* = U(x, — yu)?

As the units
n
of original data have
been squared the units of the
variance will be the square of the units of the original data. To
return to the original units of the data, take the positive square root
of the variance. This gives another measure of dispersion called the
standard deviation:

m Standard deviation o = /
U(x,
—i] -

The units of the standard deviation are the same as those of the data
Set,

Example 11
Find the mean and the standard deviation of the population of eight
numbers 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10.

The mean is:

34+4444+546474+9+10
48_ 6
8 8
68 The mathematics of uncertainty

The variance is:

D(x—py)?9+44+44140414+9416 |
aes)
n = 8 -
The standard deviation o is /5.5 = 2.3 (to 1 decimalplace).
Example 12
Find the mean and the standard deviation of the eight numbers
(a) 13, 14,°14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20
(b) 27, 36, 36, 45, 54, 63, 81, 90
(C)mL
ay 1 Tel 255°20, 52, 3)

In (a), (b) and (c) refer to example 11, where the numbers are 3, 4, 4,
op0ei 2. 1O0>-Callthis list L.
(a) These numbers are each 10 more than the numbers in list L. The
mean is 10 + 6 = 16 and the standard deviation does not change
because the spread is the same as in list L. So the standard
deviation is 2.3.

(b) These numbers are each 9 times the corresponding number in L.

The mean is therefore 9 times 6 = 54.

These numbers are also 9 times as spread out as those in list L.

The standard deviation is therefore 9 x 2.3 = 20.7.

(c) These numbers have been obtained by muliplying each member

of L by 3 and adding 5 to the result each time. Another way of
saying this is that each new number y is obtained by multiplying
x, the original number, by 3 and adding 5. That is, y= 3x +5.
In this case, the mean is (3 x 6) + 5 = 23. The standard deviation is
3 times as wide, which makes its value 3 x 2.3 = 6.9.

= In general, if a set of data x;,x2,x3,... with mean pu, and

standard deviation o, is transformed into another set
y1,)2, 3, --. by a relation of the form y = ax + b, where a and
b are constants, the mean 1, and the standard deviation o, of the
transformed set are given by the equations:

My=apy +b
and Oy = ax

Shorter methods of calculation

Often calculations can be substantially shortened by using the
formulae which follow. You will not be expected to prove these
formulae but you will be expected to use them appropriately.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 69

For a set of data x1,x2,x3,...2X, occurring with frequencies

hi, fa, f3, . . -fn respectively you can tabulate and evaluate:
mu df the total frequency,
m= fx the sum of all products fix; +fox2+ .. . fan,
= Sfx? the sum of all the productsfix? + fpx3+ .. . fyx?
The mean is calculated using the formula:
iw
Mean
i =id
uf

mw The variance is calculated using the formula:

o*==e- (=)2
Variance
m= The standard deviation o is the square root of the variance.

Example 13
Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of the data from
example 5, page 59.

The table shows the score x and the frequency f for the young
professional golfer. First find the values of fx and fx? and include
them in the table:

Df =108 Df = 708

The mean is found using the formula:

_Sfx
ae _108
st =
a 6 (as before in example 6)

The variance is found using the formula:

Efe2 (Bfx\"_708- (5) 2= 3933=362 3:33

Sena sg eT a Ce
70 The mathematics of uncertainty \

The standard deviation o is the positive square root of the

variance = \/3.33 = 1.8.

So the mean score is 6 and the standard deviation is 1.8.

You can often make the calculations easier by using a ‘code’ to

reduce the numbers involved to more manageable values, as the next
example shows.

Example 14
Find estimates for the mean and the standard deviation for the data
given in example 8, page 63.

ihe first two columns are as presented in example 8. Then a new

variable x is introduced which is 2.5 times smaller than the original
scale, and the origin is taken at 32.5, as shown. The mid-interval
value 37.5 is +2 steps from the new origin and the mid-interval
value 25 is —3 steps from the new origin and so on. You can now
estimate the mean and the standard deviation of this new variable x
by calculating

Lfx 16
Standard
deviation
o=/ Pe—
2 (=)2|
_, [f820_
(256
a 50 2500
In the original data, the mid-interval
=/16.3
=4.04 values were denoted by M and
so we have M = 2.5x + 32.5

The mean of the M values is 32.5 — 2.5 x 0.32 = 31.7

The standard deviation of the M values = 2.5 x 4.04 = 10.1

 The mathematics of uncertainty 71

The coding method reduces the heavy arithmetic quite dramatically

although this is not too much of a problem these days as scientific
calculators are in universal use. Finally, we estimate the mean as
31.7 and the standard deviation as 10.1.

Using a calculator to find the mean and

standard deviation
You need to know how to use your calculator to find the mean and
the standard deviation of a set of data.

Enter each member of the data set into the calculator and press a
special key, often marked x,, for each new entry. After you have
completed entering all the members press a key, often marked x, and
the mean will be displayed.

Most calculators have two keys marked o,_; and o,. The standard
deviation that you require is given by pressing the key marked ay.

Your calculator may have keys marked ©x and Dx’. These can be of
use when calculating the mean and the variance of sample data.

Read the manual supplied with your calculator, then work through
the examples on mean and standard deviation in the manual. Then
use your calculator to check your own calculations from the
formulae.

In an exam you should always show sufficient working for the

examiner to see how you arrived at your answer. Remember: marks
for method can only be awarded when the method can be seen!

Find the mean and the standard deviation of the sample data sets in
questions 1-6:

| Os ee as BeA Sa
2 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
See a tke 85,49, 1), 10
State any connection you have found in questions 1, 2, 3.
72 The mathematics of uncertainty

13-15
1 6-18
1
EM Re ee |, ee 9-21
2 2-24
2 5-27

A data set consists of the five numbers 3, 4, 7, x and y. The

mode and the mean of this set are 4 and 6.5 respectively. Find x,
y and the median of the set.

For the frequency distribution given in the table, estimate

(a) the median (b) the range (c) the IQR.

The marks obtained by 50 trainee secretaries in a dictation

speed test are shown in the table. Calculate (a) the mean (b) the
median (c) the range (d) the IQR (e) the variance (f) the
standard deviation.
10 The masses in grams of 10 pain-killing tablets were 5.99, 5.95,
B90 002 997,120.99, 6-01, 6.015.917, 0.03:
Find the median mass, the range and the IQR.

11 The following scores were made by a group of people playing

skittles:

feats 008
PA i et dilSlade
or Te Poe eS
Calculate the mean score, the variance and the standard
deviation.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 73

12 The mass of strawberries, to the nearest lb, picked by each of a

group of students was recorded and is shown in the following
table:

Mass (Ib) 0-19 20-29 30-39 40-49

Estimate the mean mass and the standard deviation.

13 In a survey about the mileage covered by a brand of radial tyre,
a manufacturer recorded the following:

Mileage(000miles) 10-12 13-16 17-20

In this distribution, the mileage covered by each tyre was

rounded to the nearest 1000 miles before entry into the table.
Estimate (a) the median (b) the range (c) the IQR.
14 The % marks of 200 recruits in an initiative test for the Marines

are given in the following cumulative frequency table.

(a) Rewrite these data as a frequency distribution.

(b) Hence find estimates for the mean and the standard
deviation of the marks of the recruits.
15 With the data given in question 14, estimate the median and the
IQR of the marks of the recruits.
16 The Neversofar Ladies Athletic Club have an open 1500 m race
every August. Last year 40 runners took part with the following
results:

Time
(s) + 240-259
260-269270-274
falemsbatuatiesien 275-290
3,
Frequency

(a)Estimate
(b) Estimate
the mean
the standard
timet aken
deviation
for a ll
r unners.
time of all the runners.
74 The mathematics of uncertainty

ty By considering a cumulative frequency polygon, estimate the

median time taken by the runners to complete the race in
question 16.
18 All the children in a number of families were together at a party.
Each child was asked to state the number of children in his or
her family. Two children said 1 child, four children said 2

children and twelve said 3 children.

(a) Explain carefully how you decide that there were 8 families
at the party.
(b) Show that the mean number of children per family at the
party is 2.25.
19 For two data sets, ¥ and Y, it is known that

for set XY,Uf = 20, Sfx = 100 and Sfx? = 1000

for set Y, Sf = 30, Sfy = 180 and Sf’ = 1200

(a) Find the means of set X and set Y.

(b) Find the variances of set X and set Y.
The two sets are now combined into one data set. Find the
mean and the variance of this combined set.
 The mathematics of uncertainty 75

ae
ES
Exponentials and
logarithms

In Book P1 you were shown how to add, subtract, multiply and

divide numbers that are written in the same bases and raised to
various powers. This chapter continues the work on powers.

3.1 Laws of logarithms

You may recall from Book P1 that the words power, index, exponent
and logarithm are synonymous: they are four different words to
describe exactly the same thing.
power
exponent
index
logarithmaes
6 = 19~~ number

base

For the time being use the word ‘logarithm’ and take the base to be
positive (a > 0). Then b must also be positive. Remember that the
graph of y = a*(a > 0) looks like this:

yy,

(0,1)

O x

Now the statement b = a‘ reads ‘the number b is equal to the base a

raised to the logarithm c’. Another way of reading the statement is ‘c
is the logarithm of the number b to the base a’. This can be written

c=log,b
 Exponentials and logarithms 77

So the statements
a=b and c=log,b
are identical and interchangeable.
Let p=log,x and let g= log, y, where a>0. Then these two
statements can also be written as

x=a?’ and y=a!

Now xsyy=? xat= Pn
But another way of writingxy = a?*4is
Pp+q= log, xy
However p =log,x and q = log,y
mwSo: log,xy = log,x+ logay
Also: Cas is i
Vow
x ;
But —= a? can be written
a
p—q=log,~
a

= or loge = log, x— log,y

Now: aie) = a
This statement can be written as
log, x” = pn
But since p = log, x then
# log, x” = nlog,x
If r = log, a then
a =a
and this implies that r = 1.
a So: log,a = 1
If r = log, 1 then
f=
But a? = 1
So: r=)
a That is log,1 = 0
These five results are very important and you must memorise them.
78 Exponentials and logarithms

There are two common bases for logarithms, 10 and e.

@ logjox is usually written lg x.

@ log.x is usually written In x.

You should find a ‘In’ button on your calculator which will evaluate
logarithms to base e. However, many calculators do not have a ‘lg’
button but instead a button marked ‘log’. This is, in fact, the button
needed to evaluate logarithms to base 10.

Example 1
Find x if log, 32 = x.
Oss 2—a— 2D
But 2° = 32

So: bce)

Example 2
Find the value of log; 243.
If y = log, 243
then: 3” —943
But 5243
So: Ne

Example 3
Simplify:

log, 4+ 2log, 3 —log, 6

log, 4 + 2log, 3 —log, 6

= log, 4 + log, 3? —log, 6
= log, 4+ log, 9 —log, 6
= log, (4 x 9) —log, 6
LAE36
oa 2a6
= log, 6
 Exponentialsand logarithms 79
Example 4

3
a:
Express l0Ba a in terms of log, x, log, y and log, z.

log, =- = log, x —log, y*z

Yrz
= 3log, x —flog, y*+ log, z]
= 3log, x —log, y? —log, Z
= 3log, x —2log, y —log, z

It is possible to express a logarithm written in one base as a

logarithm in another base. This is particularly useful when, say, you
need to calculate the value of a logarithm in base 7, for which there
is no button on your calculator. If you can convert the logarithm
from base 7 to base 10 or base e, then you can use your calculator to
work out its value.

If y=log, b

then ep

So, taking logarithms to base c gives

log.(a”) = log, b

that is: ylog.a=log.b

log.b
is re log..a

= Thus: log, b = log.b

Be
log.a

Example 5
Calculate, to 3 significant figures, the value of log, 7.

log47Ig7 0.84509...
=154=0.60205...
= 1.40 (3s.f.)
80 = Exponentials
andlogarithms \

Example 6
Calculate, to 3 significant figures, the value of log, 5.

Nero theeKates
ince
eeet odo, em
=0.827
(3s.f.)

Find the exact value of x, showing your working:

1 log,8=x Zz log;27/ =x 3 slog, 12523
4 log, 36=0.5 5 log»x=4 6 log,64=x
me log, 125-= x 8 log,9 = —2 9 logs.x tel
10 logyx= 35
Find the value of:

11 log;81 12 log, 256 13 log;3

14 log;4 15 log, 343 16 logss,4
17 —log,(3) 18 logs(>s) 19 log,2
20 logy,3

Calculate to 3 significant figures the value of:

21 log,9 22 logs 22 23 log, 3

24 log, 5 25 logy 11

Simplify:

26 log;7 + log; 2 27 Ig15—I1g5

28 In5+1n6-—In10 29 21n8 —In5+21n10

30 2log,3 —3log,2+4log,1 31 3log,4—-—log,2—3log,6

32 2log,7 —2log,a+2log,3 33 log,5+4log, 16—log,2
34 Slog,a+4log,27+log,2 35 jlog,81 + 3log,(+)—2log,(3)

Expressin terms of log, x, log, y and log, z:

a
36 log, (=) 37 log, (=) 2) 38 log, xy?z°

39 log,/(xy’z) 40 log,seek7
a
 Exponentials and logarithms 81

3.2 Equations of the form a* = b

Although you can solve equations such as 3* = 9, 4° = 64,

2* = 128, and so on, because the value of x is an integer, in general
you cannot solve such equations by inspection. It is time consuming
to find a solution to 5* = 67 by trial and improvement.
The standard method for solving such equations (other than trial
and error) is by taking logarithms.
pa 5 =.67

then ele St: 1967

xlg5 =1g67
and hence x= tal
Ig 5
This can now be evaluated with the help of a calculator.

5 1,826.07 ....;
“0.698 97...
= 2.01 (3 Sf)

There is no particular reason to take logarithms to base 10. Natural

logarithms would do just as well. These would lead to the solution

_ In67
~~ n5

a 4.204 69...
ee60 a3

Sell 3k)

Example 7
Solve the equation 4*+?= 51.
If 4°42 = 5]
then: lg4*+2—Ig51
(x + 2)lg4=1g51
Ig51
Xs 2 124
» igSl na
ery
= 0.836 (3 s.f.)
82 Exponentialsand logarithms

Example 8
Solve the equation (0.3)°* = 0.51.

If (0.3)*= 0.51
then: 1g(0.3)*= 1g0.51
| 5xle03 Sig 0151
lg0.51
x= ae

SXi=10559.26ven
cas
x=0.112 3 sf)

Example 9
Solve the equation 3% —6(3*) + 5 = 0.
ey as
Since 32* = (3*)” the equation becomes
SO a
DOD Bt
So: yesalior 5
That is S2=71t00 3 t=)
3* —1 = 3° or Wwig32=1s5
xle3=1¢5
ras
lg3
= Wror ==463-8)

Example 10
Solve the equation 2(5**) —5* = 6.
Pet y ="

Then: 2y —y=6
or: 2y°—y—6=0
(2y+3)(y—2)=0
y=-liory=2
So: * bear 5%=2
 Exponentials and logarithms 83

Since 5* is always positive, 5* = —15 gives no real value of x.

ming. 74
gives lg 5* = lg2

xig) = ig2
lg2
x= le

x = 0.431 (3 s.f.)

Solve the equations:

et pe “Anes
ie kt SA
4 5*=9 5152151 6, 47%-=0.425
7.3" 93 ee pape gaa eee
10 5*3 = 3x-2 11 62-'= gx+3 12 43*+2 — 7-3
13. 2* —5(2*)+6=0 14 2(3**) —9(3*) +4 =0
15 3(4°*) + 11(4*) =4 16 3°*t! — 3%424
RPh = 5027) +3 18 4° + 48 = 4x?
Fe F265 20 25% = 5*+! 6

3.3 Exponential growth and decay

People such as scientists, sociologists and town planners are often
more concerned with the rate at which a particular quantity is
growing than with its current size. The Director of Education is
more concerned with the rate at which the school population is
increasing or decreasing than with what the population is now,
because he has to plan for the future and ensure that there are
enough (and not too many) school places available to meet demand
each year. The scientist may need to know the rate at which a colony
of bacteria is growing rather than how many of the bacteria exist at
this moment, or the rate at which a liquid is cooling rather than the
temperature of the liquid now, or the rate at which a radioactive
material is decaying rather than how many atoms currently exist.
One thing that each of these populations has in common is that their
rate of increase is proportional to the size of the population at any
time. Now in Book P1 you were shown that = represents the rate of
x
84 Exponentials and logarithms

change of y with respect to x. So if the size of a population at a given

time ¢ is P then the rate of increase of the population is a short way
of saying ‘the rate of increase of the population as time goes on’.
Paha &
That is, it is the rate of change of P with respect to ¢, 1.e. ats Now if

this rate of increase is proportional to the size of the population at

; ; dP ;
any given time, then pe kP, where k is a constant. If you take

the equation
dhs
kP
ee
and divide both sides by P you get

1aP_
Pde
If you now integrate both sides with respect to ¢, you get

|; isdi [rar
‘Pat
or: IEap=|kar
: i x
1.€.
where C is a constant.
InP=kt+C
Now In P= log, P
So: log, P= AEC
and: P= eC = okt. ef
Since both e and C are constants, it follows that e© is a constant.
Call this constant A.

Then: P= Ae
This demonstrates that the population grows exponentially; that is,
P is a function of e’.

Example 11
(a) Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which the
temperature of a preheated body decreases is proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the body and that of the
surroundings. Given that °C is the excess of the temperature of the
body over that of the surroundings at time ¢ minutes after the start,
show that the relationship between @and f is the form @= Ae~*
where A and & are constants.
 Exponentials and logarithms 85
\

(b) A bowl of water whose temperature is @ °C, at time ¢ minutes is

placed in a room where the temperature remains constant at 15 "°C;
Given that ¢ = 100 at r=0, and @=40 at += 30, find the
temperature of the water at time (i) t = 10 (ii) t= 45,
Find also the time when (iii) 6= 70 (iv) 6= 53.

(a) If the temperature of the water at time ¢ minutes is @°C then the
de
rate of change of the temperature of the water is Fj

But 6= @—M, where M°C is the constant temperature of the

surroundings. Differentiating with respect to t gives

do dé
dt dt

since M is a constant.

So the rate of change of the temperature of the water can also be

dé
written as —.
dt
The rate at which the temperature of the water decreases is therefore
dé LEAS
rar (The minus sign indicates that the temperature is decreasing

rather than increasing.)

If this rate is proportional to 6 then

dé
oedt a <
where
&isa constant.
i.e. dO —ké
dt
1 do_
6 dt
1dé
\j——
7 dt=|-kdt
|

[529|
1
a =|—xk
di
So: Ind = —kt+C

where C is a constant.
 \

86 Exponentials
andlogarithms
i eTkt+Cda enktec
6 = Ae, where A = e©
The minus sign indicates that the temperature of the water is
decreasing. This is an example of exponential decay.
(b) When ¢t = 0, 6 = 100, M = 15 and
6= 100 —15 = 85
So: 85 = Ae® (1)

A= 85
When ¢ = 30, ¢ = 40 and
6= 40 — 15 = 25
So: 25 = Ae (2)

Substitute A = 85 in (2):
25 = 8senn

en 30k 20
a

ines Ings

—30k = —1.2237 (since Ine = 1)

k = 0.04 (1 s.f.)
So: b= 5c O@
Pee 10 — 856-9 57

57x 6-15
ox 72
Gy P=45 S20 = 857 4

14x ¢@-15
o = 29
(iyo 10s ¢ 5
55 a85ea0 |
en0.041 55
om

—0.04t = Ings
t= keihin re:
0.04 85

ee i
 Exponentials and logarithms 87

(iv)6=53 > 6 = 38
38 = 85e7 9%

38
—0.04t = "85In—

t = 20

1 The law of cooling is 6 = Ae~°-°*! where @°C is the excess of

temperature of the water over the room temperature at time f
minutes and 4 is a constant. Given that the constant room
temperature is 20°C and that the temperature of the water is
80°C when ¢t= 0, find the temperature of the water when
(a)t#=10(b)t=20 (c) t=45,
2 The law of cooling for a bath of water is 6= 4e~°° where @ is
the excess of temperature of the water over the temperature of
the bathroom at time ¢ minutes and 4 is a constant. Given that
at time ¢ = 0 the temperature of the water is 60°C and that the
bathroom has a constant temperature of 15°C, calculate the
value of t when the temperature of the water is (a) 50°C
fo}.39 °C. (e):27°C.
3 The population of a country grows according to the law
P = Ae®* where P million is the population at time t years and
where A is a constant. Given that at time t = 0 the population is
27.3 millions calculate the population when (a) t = 10 (b) t = 15
7.252):
4 The population of a country grows according to the law
P = 12e*' where P million is the population at time r years and
k is a constant. Given that when t = 7, P = 15, calculate the
value of t when the population will be
(a) 20 million (b) 30 million (c) 35 million.
5 The rate of increase of a population P million at time ¢ years is
proportional to the population at that time. Given that at time
t= 0, P = 36.4 and that at time t = 10, P= 41.2, find the law
for the size of the population in the form P = f(t).
Exponentialsand logarithms \

Hence calculate the size of the population when (a) t = 5

(by) € = 20 (c) t= 23.
A bowl of water stands in a room of constant temperature
18°C. The water cools according to Newton’s law of cooling
and @°C is the excess of the temperature above 18°C at time f¢
minutes. Initially the water has a temperature of 75°C. After 5
minutes it has a temperature of 60°C. Find the temperature of
the water when (a) ¢ = 15 (b) ¢ = 20 (c) t = 37.
The mass of a radioactive substance is given by m = moe
where 7 is the mass at time f years, mo is the initial mass at time
t= 0 and k is a constant. Given that m = 0.8m when t = 2,
find the value of k. Hence find the mass in terms of mp when
faker 40) bo 1 (6) e = 17.
The mass of a radioactive substance is given by m = moe~
where m is the mass at time f years, mp is the initial mass and k is
a constant. Given that 10 = 9mpo when t = 4, find the value of
k. Hence find the value of t when the mass has reduced to

(a) 0.8779(b) 0.679 (c)0.4510.

The rate of decay of the mass m of a radioactive substance at
time f years is proportional to its mass at that time. Given that
initially it has a mass mp show that m = moe“, where k is a
constant. Given that m = 0.85mpo when t = 5 find

(a) the mass in terms of mp when ¢t= 13

(b) the time at which m = 0.5m.
Exponentialsand logarithms 89
Algebra II

4.1 Reducing equations to linear

form
Scientists, as part of their work, frequently conduct experiments.
Once they have collected the scientific data they usually want to see
whether they can identify a relationship or law that links two
variables in the data. This is not an easy task. It usually involves
guessing a relationship and then, by drawing a graph, testing to see
whether or not the guess is correct. If the guess is incorrect then the
scientist has to modify the original guess and go through the process
of drawing another graph.
For example, a scientist collected the following data for the two
variables x and y:

The scientist guessed that x and y are related by a law of the form
y =ax+5 and wanted to test this.

Now, you were shown in Book PI that a straight line has an

equation of the form y = mx + c. The equation y = ax + b is of the
same form, so if the data collected from the experiment do satisfy a
law of the form y = ax + b, then when the corresponding values of x
and y are plotted on a graph the five sets of data should lie
approximately on a straight line:
 Algebra ll 91

You can see from the graph that the points do, indeed, lie
approximately on a straight line. You would not expect them to lie
exactly on a straight line, since there will always be some
experimental error. Because of this, it is not possible to join all
the points with a single straight line. Instead, you must draw a line of
best fit. That is, a straight line that goes as close as possible to each
of the plotted points.

You can now find the values of a and b. Since you can see from the
graph that the straight line passes through the points (8,16.5) and
(11,25) you can obtain the following equations by substituting into
the law y=ax +b:

16.5=8a+b (1)

25=l1la+b (2)
(2) —(1): 8.5 = 3a
So: a= 2.8 (1 d.p.)
Substitute in (2):
Pe a (1 x >) +b

b = —6.2(1 d.p.)
The law that the experimental data obey is therefore approximately

y=28x-—6.2
92 Algebrall ‘

There is an alternative, equally valid, approach to finding laws of

the form y = ax + b, as another set of data illustrates.
Suppose that another scientist collected the following data for two
variables x and y:

Once again the scientist guessed that x and y are related by a law of
the form y = ax + } and plotted corresponding pairs of values of x
and y on a graph.

y
Q
 Algebra Ill 93

Since the points can be joined approximately by a straight line of

best fit, the linear law of the form y =ax+ bis confirmed.
Now in Book P1 you were shown that if a straight line has equation
y = mx +c then mis the gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept.
So if the equation of the line in the above graph is y=ax+bthena
is the gradient of the line and b is the y-intercept. Reading from the
graph the value where the line cuts the y-axis gives b = 8.3.
Draw a right-angled triangle, as shown, to calculate the gradient of
the line:
had. cnt
a = —— i = -2. 4
(Remember that the gradient of the line is negative, since it slopes
‘downhill’.)
So the linear law that the data satisfy is approximately
y = —2.4x + 8.3
or: y = 8.3 —2.4x
Either of these two methods is valid. However, you must remember
that if you use the first method then you need to choose two points
that lie on the line of best fit to produce two simultaneous
equations. It is not valid to take two values from the given data,
unless the line of best fit happens to pass through them once they are
plotted on the graph.

This is all very well, but of all the experiments conducted each year
only a very small proportion will yield data that fit a linear law.
However, many of the laws that we meet, although not linear, can
be adjusted so that the data do approximately lie on a straight line
when they are plotted on a graph. Once the line of best fit has been
drawn it is again very easy to proceed to find the equation (or law)
that the data fit.
The essential part of all such work on experimental data is trying to
guess the equation that the data fit and then, if this equation is not
of a linear form, rearranging it into a linear form.

Equations of the form y = ax? +b

If the data appear to satisfy a law of the form y = ax? + b, then by
letting Y = y and ¥ = x’ the equation becomes Y = aX + b, which
is the equation of a straight line. So if you plot Y(=y) on the
vertical axis against X(= x”) on the horizontal axis, the points
should appear to lie approximately on a straight line. It should be
possible to draw a line of best fit and proceed as before.
94 A\lgebra ll \

Example 1
A hosepipe squirts water horizontally and the height, y metres, of
the water above a fixed level at a distance, x metres, from the hose is
measured as follows:

It is thought that the law connecting x and y is of the form

y = ax’ +b. Show that this is approximately correct and find the
values of a and b.

The equation y=ax?+b can be transformed into the equation

Y = aX +b by letting Y= y and XY= x’. The equation Y=aX +b
is linear and so should produce approximately a straight line if the
law is correct. First, however, it is necessary to produce a new table
of values for which the two variables are Xand Y. Since Y = jy, it is
only necessary to copy down the values of y from the previous table.
However, since ¥ = x’, it is necessary to square the values of x from
the previous table to find the corresponding values of X for the new
table.

Since the points lie approximately on a straight line and it is thus

possible to draw a line of best fit, the data do obey a law of the form
= ax + 0,
 Algebra || 95

In order to find a and 5, notice that the line of best fit cuts the y-axis
at 6.8. So b= 6.8.

The gradient of the line is

1.9
Fp = 70.19 = -0.2 (I dp.)
So the data fit a law of the form y = —0.2x? + 6.8.

Equations of the form y = ax? + bx

If it is thought that the experimental data obey a law of the form
y = ax? + bx then it is necessary first to rearrange the equation so
that it can be written as a linear equation Y = aX +b. In this case,
dividing by x gives

ee 1x
x x x

So: eaten
x
Now let y= and X= x. The equation becomes Y=aX¥+b as
required.

Example 2
In an experiment a number of readings of the variables x and y were
taken. The results are listed in the table below.

It is thought that the data obey a law of the form y = ax? + bx.
Show that this is approximately so and hence find the values of a
and b.

If the law is y = ax* + bx then

= ax+b
x
By letting Y= Y and X=x you obtain Y=aX-+b, which is a
linear law.
It is now necessary to draw up a new table of values. The values of X -
in this new table will simply be the values of x from the given table,
since X = x. The values of Y in the new table, however, will be each
value of y from the given table divided by its corresponding value of
. Ds
x, since 1 =~.
x
96 Algebra ll

ES
SEeSE

EMG iaee
i droge
dead
fonda

329
3

ihebeded
eteotorde

bidd.
gis

aa
i

Since the points do lie approximately on a stra ight | ine the data do
2
approxima tely obey a law of the form y = ax + bx
1
The ~poin ts (1,-3) and (- Oi9a 1) lie on the liinێ oOf best fit
ve aX + b. So
—3=a+b (1)
and IN
(1) —(2):
:*? aa (2)
 Algebra || 97

ei Sue
3 3
aaa faoe
or ae ae
a =r 5a. G
a=-{=-17(ldp)
Substitutea = —3in (1):
—3=-3+b
b=-3+13
b=—-11=-13 (1dp)

Equationsof the formlLa J xt

x ya
If the experimental law is of the form henth = a then by letting
x 1° Ce
1 l
A= - and Y= Fsyou obtain ¥+Y= a This can rearranged to

1
ee ee
a
which is of the form y = mx +c and so, once again, is linear.

Example 3
Two variables, x and y, are thought to be connected by a law of the
form

Lao teont
a
Say oa

In an experiment the following set of data was collected:

Show that the data do approximately obey such a law and hence
find the value of a.

16 Chawlin |
The equation —+ —= —can be transformed into a linear equation
% a
1 i
by putting X¥= and Y =-. Then the equation becomes X¥+ Y= .
x J
1
or Y=—-X+-.
a
98 Algebra || n

The new table of values is drawn up by taking the reciprocal of x

(i :)and
the
reciprocal
ofy ie.>
1 ):
x a
Ca[alas[oaTas
fa Te

Since the points do lie approximately on a straight line, the data do

obeya lawoftheformwe = J
5aiePagal
|
The line of best fit cuts the Y-axis where Y = 0.13, that is, the
Y-intercept is 0.13.

So: BE03
a
Thus: 2
Vi 013 =7.7 (1 d.p.)
 Algebra | 99

Equations of the form y = ax”

rie the law connecting two sets of data takes the form’
= ax". Clearly this is not linear. With this form of law, where a
Fane is involved in the equation, you need to take logarithms of
both sides of the equation in order to reduce it to a linear equation.
So: In y = In (ax")
Iny = Ina+Inx"
Iny =Ina+n”lnx (A)
If you let Y=Iny and ¥ = Inx then equation (A) becomes
=Ina+nX
or: Y=nX+Ina
But since a is a constant then Ina is a constant. So Y=nX + Inaisa
linear equation of the form py = mx +c.

Example 4
It is believed that the two variables x and y are connected by a
relationship of the form y = ax” where a and n are constants. Verify
the law by drawing a suitable straight line graph and hence calculate

estimates
of
aand
n. opepa
0.283 0.155

Since the law is thought to be of the form y = ax” you need to take
logarithms.

Pape
In y = In (ax”)
Iny = Ina+Inx"
Iny =Ina+nInx
Let Y=Iny and X = Inx. Then the law becomes
= Ina+nX
In order to draw up a new table of values, you need to find the
natural logarithms (In) of the x-values and the natural logarithms of
the y-values:
100 Algebra || \

Since the points lie approximately on a straight line the data do

approximately satisfy a law of the form y = ax”.

The line of best fit passes through the points (2, 0.2) and (2.5, —1.3).
Substitute these into the equation of the line of best fit:

Y=Ina+nxX
0.2 =Ina+2n (1)
—1.3=Ina+2.5n (2)

(2) —(1): —1.5=0.5n

—1.5
(0)
So: n ning05 3)

Substitute n = —3 in (1):

0.2 = Ina + 2(-3)

0.2 =Ina—6

lina =. O92

So: a=e°? = 490(2 s.f.)

 Algebra || 1014

Equations of the form y = ab”

Another possible form of law is y = ab*. Again, when this form of
law occurs, that is, when a power is involved, you must take
logarithms in order to reduce the law to a linear form.

y=ab
Take logarithms: In y = In (ab*)
Iny = Ina+Inb*
So: Iny=Ina+xInb (B)
Let Y=Iny and X = x. Equation (B) becomes
Y = Ina + (Inb)X
or: Y= (Inb)X¥+Ina
Since a and b are constants, Ina and Ind are also constants. Thus
Y = (Ind) X + Ina is of the form y = mx 4+ ¢ and is linear.

Example 5
The population P thousands, to one decimal place, of a new town
T years after 1975 is summarised in the table.

It is believed that the above data are connected by a relationship of

the form
P=kc™
where & and c are constants.

By plotting In P against 7, obtain estimates for the values of k and c,

giving your answers to 2 decimal places. [L]
Since P = kc’ involves a power, you need to take logarithms.
In P = In (kc)
InP =Ink+ Inc?
InP =Ink+T7Inc
ie. = 74nd Y= Inf.

Then the equation

In P=Ink+TInc
becomes Y=Ink+XInc
or: Y= (Inc)X+Ink
102 Algebra II A

which is of the form y = mx +c.

To draw up the new table of values the values of X are just copied
from the values of T and the values of Y are the logarithms of the
values of P.

O ‘(er ies heed?Bia ee SES

The line cuts the Y-axis at 2.15.

So: Ink =2.15>k=e}5

k = 8.58 (2 d.p.)
 Algebra || 103

The gradient of the line is POOR

io
0.5 ca 55
r
So: lne=0.55

ESTIRS

6.15/33
c= 1.73 (2. dp.)

1 It is believed that two variables x and y satisfy a law of the form

y = ax + b where a and + are constants. Verify graphically that
this law is approximately correct and hence calculate estimates
of a and b.

2 Ina particular year, a study was made of all the settlements in a

Canadian province. The table shows the number N of each type
of settlement, and the average spacing S km between settlements
of each type.

Average spacing between

settlements (.‘Skm) i

Hamlet 14.5
Village
Town
Small Seat
County Seat
Regional City
Regional Capital

It is believed that S and N approximately obey a law of the form

S = cN* where c > 0 and k are constants.

(a) Plot a suitable graph to show that the above data do

approximately follow this law.
(b) Use your graph to obtain estimates for the values of c and
k, giving your answers to 2 significant figures. [L]
104 =A\gebraIl R

3 Two variables x and y are thought to satisfy a law of the form

y = ab* where a and b are constants. By drawing a straight line
graph show that this is approximately correct. Hence calculate
estimates for a and b.

4 In an experiment to find the focal length f of a lens, the

following object distances u and the image distances v were
recorded.

By drawing a straight line graph, find an estimate of f from the

formula
-4+-=
1
u y i
5 The table gives values of x and y which are related by an

equation of the form y = ax” + b. Find estimates of the

constants a and b by drawing a suitable straight line graph.

6 It is thought that the variables s and ¢ satisfy a relation of the

form
(Y=
where the constants a and b are positive integers. Show, by
drawing a linear graph, that this is supported by the following
table of measured values, and find the values of a and b.
 Algebra || 105

The table shows corresponding values of the variables V and R

obtained in an experiment. By drawing a suitable linear graph,
show that these pairs of values may be regarded as
approximations to values satisfying a relation of the form
R=a+bV? where a and b are constants.
Use your graph to estimate the values of a and b, giving your
answers to 2 significant figures. [L]
The expression y = px* + qx is an approximation to the relation
connecting two variables x and y. Using the values given in the
following table draw a suitable graph and from it estimate each
of p and q to the nearest whole number.

The table shows values of a variable y corresponding to certain

values of another variable x. By drawing a suitable linear graph,

verify that the values of x and y satisfy approximately a
relationship of the form
ae |
<= + =
x? yang

where a is a constant. Use your graph to estimate the value of a

to one decimal place. Estimate also the value of x when y = 5.1.
. [L]
106 Algebra Il \

10 The table shows approximate values of a variable y

corresponding to certain values of another variable x. By
drawing a suitable linear graph, verify that these values of x
and y satisfy approximately a relationship of the form
y = ax*. Use your graph to find approximate values of the
constants a and k.

[L]
re Pairs of values, x and y, are obtained in an experiment as shown
in the table.

It is believed that x and y are related by a law of the form

Igy=mligx+ec
where m and c are constants.
Write down a table of values for lg x and lg y.
By drawing a graph, show that the law is approximately valid.
Estimate values of m and c giving your answers to 2 significant
figures.
Using your values of m and c, express y in terms of x. [L]

The table shows corresponding values of variables x and y

obtained in an experiment. Draw a straight line graph to verify
that x and y are connected by a relationship of the form
y = ae’, where a and b are constants.
Using your graph obtain estimates of the values of a and b
giving your answers to 2 significant figures. [L]
Algebra || 107
 \

Review exercise

1 (a) Given that (x + 1) is a factor of the expression

(2x? + ax? —5x —2), find the value of the constant a.
Show that, with this value of a, (x —2) is another factor
of this expression and hence, or otherwise, factorise the
expression completely.
(b) When divided by (x —2) the expression
(x? + x* + 2x + 2) leaves a remainder R. Find the value
of R. [L]
2 Ina psychology experiment, a right-handed student was asked
to draw a square 10 times with his left hand to investigate
learning effects. The results shown in the table were obtained.

erro EdEN EeED

Tne
ermsn[2[2|| s5[49
[0[45
[42
[3959
The psychologist believes that these data should approxi-
mately follow a law of the form

t=ke"™

where k and V are positive constants.

(a) Plot a suitable graph to show that the above data do
approximately follow this law.
(b) Use your graph to obtain estimates for the values of the
constants k and V, giving your answers to | significant
figure. [L]

ia: witialder
teres| 1
7x — 15 7

ee Wee2\(x—= 1) ax
as a single fraction in its lowest terms. [L]
 Review exercise | 109

In an investigation of delays at a roadworks, the times spent

by a sample of commuters waiting to pass through the
roadworks were recorded to the nearest minute. Shown below
is part of a cumulative frequency table resulting from the
investigation.

Upper
class25|45|7.5
|85|9.5
nsjasssns
boundary
Cumulative
number
of
commuters
(a) For how many of the commuters was the time recorded as

11 minutes or 12 minutes?
(b) Estimate (i) the lower quartile
(ii) the 81st percentile, of these waiting times. [L]
Given that

(5° 24-3) (x?+ lex—2)= x*—15x?+gx?+px—6

find the values of k, p and gq. [L]
Given that, for positive x,

Igx+ 1g25= Ig(x°)

calculate x, without using a calculator. [L]
Given that (x —2) is a factor of f(x), where
fix) 23 x 14x42

find an equation satisfied by the constants A and B.

Given, further, that when f(x) is divided by (x—3) the
remainder is 10, find a second equation satisfied by A and B.
Solve your equations to find A and B.
Using your values of A and B, find 3 values of x for which
xy = 0. [L]
Show that fora é€N, a> 1 and p,q >0,

log,p’,2log,pq and 2log,pq°

are three successive terms of an arithmetic sequence whose

common difference is 2 log, q.

Given that pq* = a, show that the sum of the first 5 terms of
the arithmetic sequence with first term log, p’>and common
difference 2 log, q is 10. [L]
110 Review exercise | ‘

fore 9 —3x —12x?

9
~ (1—x)(1 + 2x)
: B C
Given that f(x) =A+ eee: + nee find the values of the
constants A, B and C. [L]
10 In an experiment to determine the relationship between the
resistance to motion, R newtons, of a plank towed through
water and its speed, Vms~!, the following data were recorded:

Assuming that R= kV", where n and k are constants,

(a) obtain a relation between In R and InV.
(b) By drawing a graph of In R against In V estimate, to 2
significant figures, the values of n and k. [L]
11 Solve the equation
225

giving your answer to 3 significant figures.

12 Summarised below are the values of the orders (to the nearest
£) taken by a sales representative for a wholesale firm during a
particular year.

Value of order (£) Number of orders

Less than 10
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-99
100 or more

(a) Using interpolation, estimate the median and the semi-

interquartile range for these data.
(b) Explain why the median and semi-interquartile range
might be more appropriate summary measures for these
data than the mean and standard deviation. [L]
 Review exercise | 111

13 A notifiable disease spread so that N, the number of people

infected ¢ days following January 15th, 1991, 0 <1 < 25,
obeyed the equation

dN
di kN

where k is a positive constant.

On January 15th, 1991, 128 people were infected and 10 days
later the number infected had grown to 380. Calculate the
value of k to four decimal places. Find how many people were
infected 25 days after January 15th, 1991. [L]
14 Given that lg 2 = 0.301 03, lg3 = 0.477 12 and
lg 5 = 0.698 97 calculate, without using a calculator, the value
of
(a) lg6
(b) Ilg25
(c) 1g1.5. [L]
15 Given that x = 2?, y=47
(a) express 4xy as a power of 2
(b) find iog,(xy>) in terms of p and gq. [L]
= ax
16 NX) Seis yee)

Express f(x) in partial fractions.

Hence evaluate | 0 f(x) dx. [L]
ad
17 Given that (x+3) and (x—1) are both factors of the
expression (x* + ax? —bx —a), calculate the values of the
constants a and b.
With these values of a and 4, find the values of the remainder

when the expression is divided by (x —2). [L]

18 Given that lg8 = 0.903 09, find, without using a calculator,
(a) lg2 —(b)Ig. [L]

19 Solve

237) +37— 10=0

giving your answer to 3 significant figures.

112 Review exercise |

20
t seconds

The table shows corresponding values of J and ¢t obtained

from an experiment. By drawing a suitable graph, show that

these values support the hypothesis met I and t are connected
by a relationship of the form J = ae“, where a and k are
constants.
Use your graph to estimate the values of a and k to 2
significant figures.
; Aah d/
Find, to 2 significant figures, the value of — when ¢ = 0.
dt
[L]
ee Oe
21 Vere=—————_-
{(x) rrrayiats R

16 B C
Given that f(x) alii ©:SNMbamreye

(a) find the values of the constants A, B and C.

(b) Show that | f f(x)dx =2+ n( 25
3). [L]
0
22 The following table shows the time, to the nearest minute,
spent reading during a particular day by a group of school
children.

8
15
25
18
12
7
5

(a) Represent these data by a histogram.

(b) Comment on the shape of the distribution. [L]
 Review exercise | 113

23 The cubic polynomial f(x) is such that f(2) = f(4) =0,

f(0) = 6 and f(—2) = —20.
Express f(x) as the product of three linear factors. [L]
Express

5x 3x 445
(x + 2)(4x? + 3)

as the sum of partial fractions.

25 Express

3 3x —1
2(x+1) 2(x-—1)(x—2)

as a single fraction, simplifying the numerator as much as

possible. [L]
26 A biologist estimated that the number of breeding pairs of a
certain rare bird on Ist January 1973 was 138, and that by
Ist January 1978 the number had fallen to 109. Suppose the
number, n, of breeding pairs of the bird r years after
Ist January 1973 is given by,

n= Ae™

where A and & are positive constants and nvis treated as a

continuous function of t.
(a) Write down the value of A.

(b) Show that, to 3 significant figures, k = 0.0472.

(c) Obtain an estimate of the number of breeding pairs of the
bird on Ist January 1982. [L]
27 Find the value of each of the constants A, B and C for which

l A Joes oe
[L|
1+x3° (l+x) (l-x+x?)

28 A marketing company always buys new cars on Ist August.

Before making any purchases on Ist August 1992, they
reviewed their fleet of cars. The following table shows the age,
x, in years, of the cars in the fleet.
114 Review exercise | ‘

aie
wo PDEs
sitetan| [ie
Find
(a) the mode
(b) the median and quartiles
(c) the mean
(d) the.standard deviation
of this distribution. [L]
29 Given that log,, x = p, express in terms of p,

(a) log,,(x4)
1

(c) log,,(mx). [L]

30 Solve 6(5°*) —20(5*) +14=0 giving each answer, where
appropriate, to 3 significant figures.
a1 Given that
2log, x = y and log,(2x) =y+4

find the value of x. [L]

32 Express in its simplest form
5x —3 7 2x —5
2x? —x —15~3x? = 7x 6
33 The population, p, of insects on an island, ¢ hours after
midday, is given by

p = 1000e

wherek is a constant.
Given that when ¢ = 0, the rate of change of the population
with respect to time is 100 per hour,
(a) find k.
(b) Find also the population of insects on the island when
t = 6. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. [L]
 Review exercise | 115

34 The periods of revolution, T days, of the planets in the solar

system about the sun, and their mean distances from the sun, ~
d (km x 10°), are shown in the table.

Period of revolution Mean distance

T (days) d (km x 10°)

It is believed that these data follow a law of the form

8S so tes

where k and a are constants.

By plotting a suitable graph, show that these data are
consistent with such a law, and determine an estimate for a
to 1 decimal place. [L]
35 Express as the sum of partial fractions
Z
x(x + 1)(x+2)
Hence show that

lates
ORR 2el Speen
RYAat >I

[L]
Given that f(x) = 2x? —3x? —11x+c, and that the remain-
der when f(x) is divided by x —2 is —12, find the value of the
constant c.
Show that, with this value of c, x + 2 is a factor of f(x), and
hence solve the equation f(x) = 0. [L]
37 Given that log x = p,
(a) express log(x) in terms of p.
Given also that the sum of the first 20 terms of the series

log x+ log(x*)+ log(x*)+... . is kp

(b) calculatethe value of k. [L]
116 Review exercise | \

38 Telephone calls arriving at a switchboard are answered by the

telephonist. The following table shows the time, to the nearest
second, recorded as being taken by the telephonist to answer
the calls received during one day.

Time to answer
Number of calls
(to nearest second)

Represent these data by a histogram.

Give a reason to justify the use of a histogram to represent
these data. [L]
39 Obtain the arithmetic mean and the standard deviation of the
set of numbers

eels. 4. Sy 16, gion Sten tes lO

and deduce the standard deviations of the following sets of

numbers:

faye Gel eos, (19.520. 221s) Jae

(D235 30) Pel) al.) hee 230
$C) Oo en ao he ep ihOMtoda. QheGer
hs
[L]
40 The period of oscillation, T seconds, of a heavy weight
attached to a wire of length / metres was investigated for
2 </<8. The results obtained are given in the table.

It is believed that / and T are related by an equation of the

form T = ki", where k and n are positive constants.
Plot values of In T against In/ and hence state, giving reasons,
whether or not / and 7 are related by an equation of the given
form.
By taking suitable readings from your graph, estimate the
values of k and n to | significant figure. [L]
 Review exercise | 117

41 The curve with equation ky = a* passes through the points

with coordinates (7,12) and (12,7). Find, to 2 significant
figures, the values of the constants k and a. [L]
42 At time t = 0 there are 10000 fish in a lake. At time ¢days the
birthrate of fish is equal to one tenth the number N of fish
present, and fish are harvested at a constant rate of 800 per
day. Assuming N to be a continuous variable, show that
dN
a N —8000
10—-=N-
Show that N = a+ be“, where a, b and ¢ are constants to be
determined.
Find the time taken for the population of fish in the lake to
increase to 16000. [L]
43 (a) f(x) =pet+qxet+rxts
The curve with equation y = f(x) has gradient 4 at the point
with coordinates (0,—5).
(i) Find the values of r and s.
The remainder when f(x) is divided by (x —1) is 12, and the
remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 2) is 15.
(ii) Calculate the values of p and g.
(b) g(x) = 2x? —x? —23x —20
(i) Show that (x + 1) is a factor of g(x).
(11)Factorise g(x) completely.
(iii) Solve the equation g(x) = 0. [L]
In a certain town an investigation was carried out into
accidents in the home to children under 12 years of age. The
numbers of reported accidents and the ages of the children
concerned are summarised below:

pwns |e [te|oe
Ageofchild| 945<2| 2to<4| 410<6| 6to<8 |8to<10|10t0<12
(years)
pectfee| om
fo fom|ow| |
accidents
(a) State the modal class.
(b) Calculate, to one decimal place, the mean age and the
standard deviation of the distribution of ages.
118 Review exercise |
\

(c) Draw a cumulative frequency polygon and from it

estimate, to the nearest month, the median and the
interquartile range for the ages of all children under 12
years of age concerned in reported accidents in the home.
State, giving a reason, whether you consider the mode or
the median best represents the average age for accidents in
the home to children under 12 years of age. [L]
45 (a) Given that (x + 4) is a factor of the expression
Bx tx + px +24

find the value of the constant p.

Hence, factorise the expression completely.
(b) When divided by (x + 2) the expression
(5x3 —3x” + ax +7) leaves a remainder of R. When the
expression (4x° + ax? + 7x —4) is divided by (x + 2)
there is a remainder of 2R. Find the value of the constant
a. [L]
46 Express in its simplest form

5 1
~4+x—-6 x24+5x+6
47

The table shows corresponding values of variables x and y

obtained in an experiment. Draw a straight line graph to
verify that x and y are connected by a relationship of the form
y = ae’*, where a and b are constants.
Using your graph obtain estimates of the values of a and b
giving your answers to 2 significant figures. [L]

2
48
Given
that f(x)GES
express f(x) in the form

padwplinet
BTapd
TG
(2c)7dbeteet
itel
Tipe)
where A, B and C are numbers to be found. [L]
 Review exercise | 119

49 Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which a body

cools is directly proportional to the excess temperature of the
body over the temperature of its immediate surroundings.
Given that at time ¢ minutes a body has a temperature T°C
and its surroundings a constant temperature 0°C, form a
differential equation in terms of T, ?, t, and the constant of
proportionality, k, k > 0.
Integrate this equation to show that
In(T —0) = —kt+c
where c is a constant.

Hence show that

T=60+ Ae
where In A = c.

At 2.23 p.m., the water in a kettle boils at 100°C in a room of

constant temperature 21 °C. After 10 minutes, the temperature
of the water in the kettle is 84°C. Use this information to find
the values of k and A, giving your answers to 2 significant
figures. Hence find the time, to the nearest minute, when the
temperature of the water in the kettle will be 70°C. [L]

50 Iny

The diagram shows a straight line graph of In y against x. The

line crosses the axes at points A(0,2) and B(3,0). Given that
y =pq*, where p and g are constants, find, to one decimal
place, the values of p and q. [L]
120 Review exercise |

51 It is given that
3x+7
Lx) eck Thnage

(a) Express f(x) as the sum of three partial fractions.

(b) Find | 19 dx.

(c) Hence show that the area of the finite region bounded by
the curve with equation y = f(x) and the lines with
equations y= 0, x= 0 and x = 1 is In2. [L]
52 Write

x* 4+8x+9
(x + 1)(x+ 2)
as the sum of partial fractions.
53 In a borehole the thicknesses, in mm, of the 25 strata are as
shown in the table below:

romero2?fs p>Pets le
Draw a histogram to illustrate these data. Construct a
cumulative frequency table and draw a cumulative frequency
polygon. Hence, or otherwise, estimate the median and the
interquartile range for these data.
Find the proportion of the strata that are less than 28mm
thick. [L]
54 Given that f(x) = 3x? —4x? —5x +2, show that (x —2) isa
factor of f(x).
Express f(x) as a product of three linear factors.
Hence, solve for x, the equation

3e** —4e* —5e*+2=0, xeER. [L]

55 Express
5 5x —7

3(x+1) 3(x-1)(x—-2)

as a single fraction in its lowest terms. [L]

 Review exercise | 121

56 (a) Show that log, 3 = log, V3.

(b) Hence or otherwise solve the simultaneous equations
2 log, y= logy 3 + log, x
Ri
giventhat x andy are positive. [L]
57 Geceelthat fey es _t on conetniecabentcd
Sed)
PTE PE ind constants A an

suchthat
() =5 sa etyMas
f(x) —— B (L]
58 The table gives the approximate values of v corresponding to
the stated values of u where wuand v are variables satisfying an
equation of the form

a
eeene ae
u Uu
Estimate to two significant figures values of the constants a
and b by drawing a straight line graph relating wv and v2.

Estimate the value of u when u*v = 23. [L]

59 Express as a single fraction, in its simplest form,
8 2
Paap eae

The weights of babies born in a hospital maternity unit over a

period of 1 month were noted, and are shown in the table.

Below 2.50
2.50-2.74
2.75-2.99
3.00—3.24
3.25-3.49
3.50-3.74
3.75-3.99
4 and above
122 Review exercise |

Plot a cumulative frequency polygon for these data and hence

estimate the median and interquartile range for the weights of
babies born, giving your answers to | decimal place. [L]
61 Carbon 14 is radioactive, and the count rate, N, detected from
the carbon 14 content of a piece of wood that is ¢ years old is
given by
N= Noe“
where Np is the count rate of new wood, and k is a positive
constant.

Given that the count rate N of a piece of wood is halved after

a period of 5600 years, calculate the value of k to 3 significant

figures. [L]
62 (a) Sketch the graph of y = 3°.
(b) Solve the equation 3*=5, giving your answer to 3
significant figures.
(c) Use the substitution y = 3* to solve, to 2 decimal places,
the equation

2(37) —1626 0 [L]

1
63 Express in partial fractions.
x (x + 3)
Hence show that
| sre
Gy = sin? [L]
1x(x = 3) 3
64 f(x) = px? + 11x? + 2px —5
The remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 2) is 15.
(a) Show that p = 2.
(b) Factorise f(x) completely.
(c) Deduce the solutions of the equation
f(x) = (x + 1)(x+ 5) [L]
65 In an experiment to find the focal length f of a lens, the
following object distances u and image distances v were
recorded:
 Review exercise | 123

By plotting the reciprocal of wuagainst the reciprocal of v

estimate a value of f from the formula

oa (L

66

The above table shows corresponding values of variables x

and y obtained experimentally. By drawing a suitable graph,
show that these values support the hypothesis that x and y are
connected by a relationship of the form y = a*, where a is a
constant. Use your graph to estimate the value of a to 2
significant figures.
67 f(x) = 2x? —px +q+4, where p and g are constants.
Given that f(2) =} and that the equation f(x) = 0 has equal
roots, find the two possible values of p and write down the
corresponding values of g.
Find, also, the value of the equal roots of the equation
f(x) = 0 in each case. [L]
(a) Write down the common ratio of the geometric series G,

Pya esermal
(b) Calculate, to 3 significant figures, the sum of the first six
terms of the series.
(c) Write down, in its simplest form, the common difference
of the arithmetic series A,

log; 2+ log;6+1log,18+...

(d) Show that the sum of the first ten terms of A is

10 log; 2 + 45 and evaluate this to 2 decimal places.

(e) One of these two series has a sum to infinity. Calculate, to

2 decimal places, this sum. [L]
124 Review exercise |

69 The rate of decay of a radioactive substance S is proportional

to the amount remaining so that
dx
—kx
abe

where x is the amount of S present at time ¢ and k is a positive

constant. Given that x = a at time t = 0, show that, if the time
taken for the amount of S to become $a is T, then

x=a(})? (L]
70 (a) Solve the equation
sy Oyo =O

(b) By putting y = 3* into the equation

So 160") +5 =0

show that
ay Oye = 0

(c) Hence, or otherwise, solve, to 3 significant figures where

appropriate, the equation
Soe 67 oe 5 = ( [L]

71 The following grouped frequency distribution summarises the

values of orders taken by the sales representatives employed
by a company during one particular year.

Value of order (£) Number of orders

Let X represent the mid-point of each group.

(a) Using the coding u = 2 a show that fu = 4355, where

f represents the frequency in each group. Estimate the
 Review exercise | 125

mean and standard deviation of the value of the orders. (You may
use Dfu? = 269 975.)
(b) Explain why these two measures might not be the best
ones to use when analysing these data.
(c) Which alternative measures of location and spread would
you recommend? [L]
42 The rate of cooling of a metal ball placed in melting ice is
proportional to its own temperature T°C. Show that, at
time f,

T = Ae

where A and & are positive constants.

The temperature of the metal ball falls from 50°C to 40°C in
twenty seconds. Find its temperature at the end of the next

twenty seconds. [L]

rt Express f(x), where
[2%
() =———_—__——
f(x) (1 —3x)(1 + 6x?)

in partial fractions. [L]

74 Express
7x +6 4 af
2(x+1)(x+2) 2(x+3)

as a single fraction in its lowest terms. [L}

75 The table below gives measured values of the variables uand
v, which are related by an equation of the form v = au + F
Find approximately the values of the constants a and b by
plotting uv against v7.

[L]

76 (a) Use the substitution y = 3* to find the solution, to 2

decimal places, of the equation

3%230") =4 =0.
126 Review exercise |

Give a reason why there is only one root of this equation.

(b) Sketch the curve with equation
y = log; x

(c) Given that

y = log, x and y = 4[1 + log; 9x]
find the value of x and the corresponding value of y which

satisfy these simultaneous equations. [L]

1 (a) Given that (x + 3) is a factor of the expression
5x° —px’ —53x + 84

(i) calculate the value of the constant p.

Hence, for this value of p,

(ii) factorise the expression completely.
(b) When the expression 4x? —5x? +ax+4 is divided by
(x —2) there is a remainder of R. When the expression
5x3 + ax? + 6x +4 is divided by (x —2) there is a
remainder of 3R. Find the value of the constant a. [L]

78 Find the lowest common multiple of

(x?—5x-46), Oe 2x) andi? —3x).
Express
1 i 2 ” 3
x?—5x+6 x*-2x x*-3x
as a single fraction in its lowest terms. [L]
a9 (a) Solve the equation log;(x + 1) =2.
(b) Calculate the value of log,(3) + log7(#). [L]
80 A controlled experiment was concerned with estimating the
number of microbes N present in a culture at time T days after
the start of the experiment. Some results from the experiment
are shown in the table.

Number
ofmicrobes
(NV)
| 900
| 20005000900016000
By plotting values of lg Nagainst the corresponding values of
lg T, draw a graph using all the data in the table.
 Review exercise | 127

Explain why the graph that you have obtained supports the
belief that N and T are related by an equation of the form

N= AT®
whereA and B are constants.
Use your graph to find an estimate for A, giving your answer
to | significant figure, and an estimate for B, giving your
answer to 2 significant figures. [L]
81 A seed merchant sells a particular seed in packets labelled
‘average contents 50 seeds’. A quality control officer samples
100 packets. The results are summarised in the table.

3
19
27
26
17
6
2

Find the median and the mode for the above data.
Calculate also the mean number of seeds in the packets, and
show that the standard deviation is 1.32 to 3 significant
figures. [L]

82 Express as a single fraction in its lowest terms

5 25
x(x—3) x(x —3)(x+2) 1]

83 Given that the polynomial P(x) is divisible by (x —a)’, show

that P’(x) is divisible by (x —a).
The polynomial (x*+x* —12x*+px+q) is divisible by
(x+ ‘dep Find the values of the constants p and gq. [L]
Given that logs p= x and logs q = y, express in terms of x
and y,
2
(a) logg /p + logs /q_ (b) logs (“) (c) logg(64pq) ~—[L]
128 Review exercise |

85 In a production process, bottles are filled with detergent by

means of an automatic pump. The quantities of detergent in a
sample of 200 bottles were measured and the following results
were obtained.

[camo]
oe[me[om
[oe[ve|90
worms
efs pels te] 2
Taking 905 cm? as origin, calculate the arithmetic mean and
the standard deviation for this distribution. [L]
86

GPP Ey
Prf>[==[aaslo
The table shows experimental values of two quantities x and y
which are known to satisfy the equation yx” = k, where n and
k are constants.
(a) Draw a graph of In y against In x.
(b) Use your graph to estimate values for n and k, giving your
answers to 2 significant figures. [L]
87 Express
eres: (eee)
S(x—3) 5(x-—1)(x+2)

as a single fraction in its lowest terms. [L]

88
5x —1
ULE= —>—_—_—
{(x) GP a1) axa)

Express f(x) in partial fractions. [L]

89 (a) Given that (3x +2) is a factor of 3x? + Ax? —4x —4,
show that A = 5.

(b) Factorise 3x? + 5x? —4x —4 completely.

(c) Given that 0° <t < 360°, find the values of ¢, to the
nearest degree, for which

3sin?¢+5sin°?t—4sint—4=0 [L]
90 The first three terms of an arithmetic series are lg x, lg 2(x + 1)
and lg 4(x + 6) respectively.
(a) Find the value of x.
 Review exercise | 129

(b) Find the value of the common difference of this series.

[L]
91 Express as a single fraction
a ke
x+2 2x+3
simplifying the numerator as much as possible. [L]
92 Calculate the mean and the standard deviation of the odd
numbers from | to 19 inclusive.
Deduce from your results the mean and the standard
deviation of

(a) the numbers 1, 2, 3,..., 10

(b) the even numbers from 10 to 28 inclusive. [L]
7 Given that (x+1) and (x—2) are both factors of the
expression ax* —x? + bx —a, calculate the values of the
constants a and b.
With these values of a and 5, calculate the remainder when the
expression is divided by (x —4). [L]
94 Two types of bottling machine are each designed to deliver
one litre of liquid to every bottle. To test the designs, one
machine of each type was used to deliver liquid to 1000
bottles. The data obtained are shown in the table.

Quantity delivered Number of times quantity was delivered

(Q ml)

998.0<0 < 998.5

998.5< 0 < 999.0
999.0< 0 < 999.5
999.5 <0 < 1000.0
1000.0 <Q< 1000.5
1000.5 <Q< 1001.0
1001.0 <Q < 1001.5
1001.5 <Q< 1002.0

(a) Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the volume

delivered by each machine, giving your answers to 2
decimal places.
(b) Explain briefly how your results in (a) might influence
your choice of type of bottling machine. [L]
130 Review exercise | ‘

95 The times taken by 40 people to complete a puzzle were

recorded to the nearest second. A grouped frequency
distribution of the recorded results is shown in the table.

Times to complete a puzzle

10-19
| 20-29
| 30-39
Pewort+ fete letete 50-59
| 60-69
|
fst70-79
| 80-89

Estimate the mean and the standard deviation of the times

taken to complete the puzzle by the 40 people. [L]

96 (a) (i) Given that log, x = 2, determine the value of x.
(11)Calculate the value of y for which
2 log; y—log3(y + 4) =2

(iii) Calculate the values of z for which

log; z = 4log, 3
(b) (i) Express log,(p’q) in terms of log, p and log, q.
(ii) Given that log,(pq) = 5 and log,(p?q) = 9, find the
values of log, p and log, q. [L]
97 (a) Express
x+3 l
AP AR Ree ee)

as a single fraction in its simplest form.

(b) Find the value of the expression in part (a) if x = —7,
giving your answer as a single fraction in its lowest terms.
[L]
98 A random sample of 120 broad bean seeds was collected. Each
seed was weighed to the nearest 0.01 g and the results are
summarised in the table.

1.10-1.29 7
1.30-1.49 24
1.50-1.69 33
1.70-1.89 32
1.90-2.09 14
2.10-2.29 8
2.30-2.49 1
2.50-2.69 1
 Review exercise | 131

Calculate an estimate for the mean and standard deviation of

the weights of these broad bean seeds, giving your answers to ~
3 decimal places. [L]
(a) Using the result e™* = x, express in their simplest form
(i) elnx+iny
(ii) e Inx
(b) The number JN of bacteria in a certain culture at time ¢
hours is given by N = 600e“, where c is a constant. Show
that at any instant the number of bacteria is increasing at
a rate proportional to the number of bacteria present at
that instant.
The number of bacteria increases from 600 when t = 0 to
1800 when ¢ = 2.
(i) Show that c = }1n3.
(ii) Show that the number of bacteria present at ¢hours is
600B* , where B is a constant and state the value
of B. [L]

Time after formation of protactinium

sample, f seconds

Number of particles detected per

second, NV

An isotope of protactinium decays rapidly into a stable

isotope of uranium. A particle detector set up to monitor such
a decay recorded the levels of activity summarised in the table.
It is believed that the number of particles detected per second,
N, obeys a law of the form
N= Noe™

where ¢ seconds is the time after the formation of the

protactinium sample and No and k are positive constants.
By plotting a suitable graph, show that the data in the table
are consistent with such a law. Use your graph to obtain
estimates of No and k to | significant figure. [L]
 \

The binomial series for

a positive integral index

5.1 Binomial expressions

From the algebra covered in Book P1, you will be quite familiar
with terms like y°, 3y!, 4p”, —5z?, etc., where each term is called a
monomial. That is, it is an expression consisting of a single term.

Expressions like 1+x, 2— 3x, a+bx are called binomial because

they each consist of just two terms joined by a + ora —sign. As you
will have read in Book P1, expressions with many terms, such as
3 —4x + x? + x? or xt —x? —2x —5, are called polynomials.

Often you will find that in the course of your work you need to
expand expressions such as (1 + x)’ or (2 —3x)°, or more generally
(a +b)”, where n is a positive integer. We start by considering some
simple examples, where binomial expressions are squared and
cubed.

Example 1
Expand(a) (1+x)* (b) (1+).
(a) Removingthe bracketsgives
(1+x)? =1(1+x)+x(1+x)
=l+x+x+x
ibd, Qatar
(b) Using the result found in (a):

(1+x)? =(1+x)(1+x)
= (1'+x)(1+ 2x+x’)
= 1(1+2x+x) + «(1+2x+ x’)
=14+2x42x7?4+x+4+2x4%°
Hence: (1+x) =143x 43x72
+3
 The binomial series for a positive integral index 133

Example 2
Expand(a) (1—x)? (b) (I —x)?
These expansions could be done by multiplying out the brackets as
in example 1. It is quicker, however, to take the results from
example | and replace x by —x. Then you have:

(a) (1—x)?=142(—x) + (—x)?=1-2x +2?

(b) (1—x)*>
= 1+43(—x)
+ 3(—x)?+ (-x)?
=1-—3x+3x-x+

Example 3
Expand(1—2x).
This expansion can be done by putting —2x in the place of x in the
expansion of (1 + x)°. Then you get:

(Sy a3 (2x) + 3(—2x)? + (2x)

= 1 —6x + 12x*—8x°

Simple bionomial expansions such as (1 oxy and (1 4e%xy°are

obtained by multiplying out brackets. Then other similar binomial
expressions may be expanded by using these results, as shown in
examples 2 and 3. Although these illustrations are really simple, the
methods used are of great importance and you will see them used
again both in this chapter and in other contexts.

Exercise 5A

1 Byusingthe expansionof (1+ x)’, expandeachof the

following:
(a) (143)? (b) (1-Sx)’ © (1-2)
Matis. ©. [b= (= 2)
2 Usethe expansionof (1+ x)*to expand:
(a) (1+2y)> (b) (1-x*)? ©) ~(14+3x7!)°
3 Byconsideringtheproducts(1+ x)(1+ x)?and (1+ x)(1+ ra
find the expansionof (a) (1+ x)* (b) (1+ x)
4 Usingtheresultsyouobtainedin question3,or otherwise,work
out (a) (1—3x)* (b) (1+.2x)”.
134 The binomial series for a positive integral index ‘

5.2 Pascal's triangular array

From your work in this chapter, you can build up these expansions:

(i xy = lee
(1+x)? =142x4+2+
(14x) =143x43x+2
Also: | (1+x)°=1
You can summarise this by writing down only the coefficients, in
this way:

Expansion Coefficients in ascending powers of x

(+2) I
(liekx)! I l
EES, I 2 I
Get
x)? l 3 3 i
(1+x)* l 4 6 4 I
Ginx)” exant 5 10 Os a 5 1

I Be ae Sela & le, ils RTHSOP

ONY
te cc ate cot
This continuing triangular array is known as Pascal’s triangle and it
provides you with a means of determining any coefficient in the
expansion of (1 +x)” for integral mup to, say, n = 20 (or more if
you have the time!) but a better method is available for larger n as
you will see later in this chapter.

Each entry F in the array, except the ‘ones’ at each end, is the sum of
the two entries on either side of F in the previous line. For reference,
call line (1 + x)” line 0, (1 +x)! line 1, (1 + x) line 2, etc. Each new
line of the array is formed from the previous line in this way. For
example, the 10 in line 5 comes from adding the 6 and 4 in line 4.

Example 4
Expand (1 + x)’ in ascending powers of x. Hence find the first four
terms of the expansion of (1 + 4x)’ in ascending powers of x.

Line 7 of Pascal’s triangle is 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 and hence the

expansion of (1 +x)’ in ascending powers of x is

lb 7x + 21x? +:35x° + 35x* + 21° + 7x* + x!

 The binomial series for a positive integral index 135

If you replace x by 4x, you find that the first four terms of the
expansion of (1 + 4x)’ are:

1 + 7(4x) + 21(4x)? + 35(4x)?

= 14+ 28x + 336x? + 2240x?

Example 5
Determine the first four terms of the expansion of (1 —x)” in
ascending powers of x. Show that the estimate B of 0.999!3 obtained
by using these four terms of the series is 0.987077 714.

By considering the next term in your series show that B is not correct
to 9 decimal places.
The first four entries in line 13 of Pascal’s triangle are:
l, ise 286
and hence the first four terms in the expansion of (1 —x)’? are
1 — 13x + 78x? —286x°

Put x = 0.001 in this expansion:

(1 —0.001)'? = 0.999 = 1 —0.013 + 0.000078 —0.000 000 286

= 0.987077714, as required
The fifth Pascal triangle number in line 13 is 715 and the fifth term
in the expansion of (1 + xy? is 715x*. When x = 0.001, this term is
0.000 000 000715
and so 0.999!? = 0.987077 714715. So 0.999!3 is
0.987077 715 (9 d.p.) and estimate B is not correct to 9 decimal
places.

5.3 The expansion of (a + 6)”, where

n is a positive integer
If you multiply directly and remove the brackets, you can easily
establish that:
(a+b) = a +2ab+B?
(a+b) = a + 3a°b + 3ab + b?
(a+b) = a’ + 4a3b + 6a*b? + 4ab> + b4

(a+b) = a> + 5a*h + 10a*h* + 10a°b* + Sab* + b°

Using Pascal’s triangular array and continuing this process, you can
produce expansions for (a + b)” where n = 6, 7, . . ..
136 The binomial series for a positive integral index

Example 6
Expand in descending powers of x: (a) (2x + 3)4 (b) (x —x71)?
(a) Write a = 2x and b = 3 in the expansion of (a+ b)*. This gives:
(2x+ 3)*= (2x) + 4(2x)3(3)+ 6(2x)?(3)?+ 4(2x)(3)°+ (3)4
= 16x* + 96x? + 216x* + 216x +81

(b) Write a=x and b = —x7! in the expansion of (a+5)’. This

gives:
(x—x7!) = x9+ 3x°(—27!)
+ 3x(—x1)?+ (Ha)?
= 13x
Gudea

Exercise 5B

Expand(1+ 5x)’.
Useyourexpansionto simplify(1+ 5x)?+ (1—5x)’.
Expand (1 —4x)", for n = 2, 3,4.
Expand(2—3x)°and (3+ 2x)’.
Henceexpress3(2—3x)°—2(3+ 2x)’ in termsof x.
Find in ascending powers of x the first four terms in the
expansions of (a) (1—2x)®° (b) (2—x)’.
Find in descending powers of y the first three non-zero terms in
the expansion of (1 —4y)’ —(1+ 4y)’.
Use the binomial series of (1 —2x)* to evaluate 0.988 to 7
decimal places.
Use the first four terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 4x)’
in ascending powers of x to determine an approximation for
(a) 1.004! (b) 0.996!”
justifying in each case the accuracy of your approximation.
Simplify (4 —3x)? —(3 + 4x)’.
Find and simplify the first three terms of the expansion of
(5x —as in descending powers of x.
10 The first three terms in the expansion of (A + x)” in ascending
powers of x are 64+ 192x + Bx. Find the values of m, A and
B.
11 Simplify:
aye tey/3) + (h-aegdh4
(b) (V2+ V3)"+ (v2 - v3)"
 The binomial series for a positive integral index 137

12 Find the expansion of (z —1)? in descending powers of z.

13 Find the coefficients of the terms indicated in the following
expansions:
(a) (1 —2x)'* ; x? term
(b) (2+3x)° ; x3 term
(c) (1 —2x3)? ; x®term
(d) (3 —4x)’ ; x®term
14 Find the term that is independent of x in the expansion of

(3x —4)°

15 Evaluate

| 1(25°41)
dx
0
3.4 Expanding (a+ 6)” by formula
for positive integral n
As you have already observed the first few lines of Pascal’s
triangular array are:

line

0 ]

] l l

fs 1 2 1
3 I 3 3

- I 4 6 4
oe a ee PRBS ans ersGoa
ep
The question you may have asked, and, in fact, you should have
asked is ‘What are the entries in the nth line?’. By observation, you
can see that the th line will have (nm+ 1) numbers, of which the first
is 1 and the second is n. The third number is

n(n —1)
Lx2
and the fourth is
n(n —1)(n —2)
be 3
138 The binomial series for a positive integral index

For example in line 4 you have

ASC AOC3 aS 2Or

1, 4
ey sc 2 [DOSS SOI SOA
That is 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.

Test the formula for yourself for different values of n. The general
term in the expansion of (1 + x)” is taken to be the x” term, where r
is any positive integer less than or equal to n.

The coefficient of x’ in the expansion of (1 + x)” is

n(n—1)(n—2)x ...(n—r+1)
WpCoeES Boeee Ney 3
The number | x 2x3 x... x r, that is the number obtained when
all the integers from 1 to r inclusive are multiplied together, is
written in shorthand form as r! and called ‘factorial r’.

If this notation is used, then you find that the coefficient of x” is:

r!
_ I—n-r—t)...2x1
n(n W(n=2)...art
na=nNn—r—l)o..2x1
n!\

This is the form in which you should learn and memorise this
coefficient. You will not be expected to prove or derive this formula
for the coefficient of the x” term in the expansion of (1 + x)” but you
must be able to apply it soundly.

Notation

You will find that the coefficient

n!
ri(n—r)!
is often written as

() & *6
There will probably be a button on your calculator marked "C,.
Also ‘factorial 0’, 0!, is defined to be 1.

= You
should
remember
that(3)=Cpeaaa
r ri(n—r)!
 Tke binomial series for a positive integral index 139

Example 7
Evaluate the following coefficients:

@5) (2)
Using the formula, you have:

(a)(3)MEIGS
5 5! Niei6s
120 Dae
(6) e 9 519-5)!
9! 120x247
362 880
b =O Os

The expansion of (1 + x)" in ascending powers ofx is

(l+x)"=14+()x+(Q)r?t ... +(x +... +2"
r

Example 8
Determine the first four terms in the expansion of (1+.x)*' in
ascending powers of x. Hence find the coefficient of x3 in the
expansionof (2—3x)(1+.x)”!. ‘
Usingthe binomialexpansion:
(Miskex)= Cx Ct Catal.
a1 +-2ix +2106 49133074+...
Now:
(2—3x)(1+x)! = (2—3x)(1+ 21x+ 210x*+ 1330x3... )
The coefficientof x3= 2(1330)—3(210)= 2030 |
Example 9
In the expansion of (1+ x)” in ascending powers of x, the
coefficients of x? and x? are equal. Find the value of n.
The coefficient of x? is

n ~ Nnn!
(3) —2)!
The coefficient of x? is

Seaed |
n!| n!|
Since
these
areequal: 2(n—
2)!=317—
3)!
140 = The binomial series for a positive integral index \

That is: 2!(n—2)!= 3!(n—3)!

(n=12)! 3!
(n—3)! 2!
tS 3
So: nO

Exercise 5C

Find the first three terms in the expansion of (1 —x)” in

ascending powers of x.
Given that (1 + x)" = bs Ax By 4+ Ce oho tind.4.28 and
C.
Find, in descending powers of x, the first three terms in the
expansion of (5x —3)’.
Simplify(3+ 2x)*+ (3—2x)’.
Obtain, in ascending powers of y, the first four terms in the
expansion of (a) (1 —sy)’ (b) (Payless
Obtain, in ascending powers of x, the first four terms in the
expansion of (1 + x)'°.
Find an approximation of (0.998) '° from your expansion to the
best degree of accuracy possible, justifying your decision.
Expand and simplify the first three terms, in descending powers
of x, in the expansion of (x + 2x7!)'!® —(x —2x71),
Given that (3 —ay = ay/3 +b, find the values of a and b.
Show that

vo—)
wae | =3-2/2 v

and that

Vial
f2~ 1 =3+2/2 uy

Hence find the exact value of

aa Dyas)
 The binomial series for a positive integral index 141

10

Find the term that is independent of x in the expansion of P(x),

(a) when n = 3 (b) when n = 12.
11 Use the binomial expansion to find the value of
(a) (1.001)'* , correct to 8 decimal places
(b) (9.999)'°, correct to 10 significant figures.
12 The coefficients of the x and x” terms in the expansion of
(1+ kx)” are 44 and 924 respectively. Find the values of the
constants k and n and the coefficient of the x? term in the
expansion.
13 Expand (1 + ax)’ in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x°.
In the expansion of (b + x)(1 + ax)’ in ascending powers of x,
the first and second terms are 5 and 71x respectively. Find
(a) the values of the constants a and b
(b) the x* and x? terms in this expansion.
14 The coefficients of x, x? and x? in the expansion of (1 + x)” are
the first three terms of an arithmetic series. Show that n = 7.
15 The first three terms in the expansion of (1 + kx)” are 1, 14x
and 84x? respectively. Find the values of the constants k and n
and the coefficients of the x* and x* terms.
16 Find the coefficient of x!? in the expansion of (x —Pies
Evaluate this term when x = 6 and y = 37!.
17 Find the expansion of (1 + y)°.
By writing y= x + x’, find the first four terms in ascending
powers of x of the expansion of (1 + x + x?)°.
By putting x = 0.01 in your four terms, find an approximation
for (1.0101)°.
18 Part of the expansion of (a+ bx)° is 32 + 40x + 20x”. Find the
values of the constants a and b and the remaining terms of the
expansion.
19 Find the first four terms in descending powers of x of the
expansionof (x?+ 1)”.
142 The binomial series for a positive integral index \

20 The first three terms of the expansion of (1 + kx)" in ascending

powers of x are 1, 42x and 77x’.
Find the values of the constants k and n and the terms in x? and
ae
Trigonometry |

In Book P1 you learned the basics of trigonometry. This chapter will

extend your knowledge. Three more trigonometric ratios are
introduced, with their graphs. Formulae for compound angles are
derived. Finally, identities that relate the various trigonometric
ratios to each other are formulated by using Pythagoras’ theorem
together with the identities for double and half angles. These enable
you to solve other sorts of trigonometric equations, in addition to
those that you learned to solve in Book P1.

6.1 Secant, cosecant and cotangent

There are six trigonometric ratios in total. You have already met the
ratios sine, cosine and tangent. The three others are secant, cosecant
and cotangent. These are defined as follows:

m secant x (written sec x) =

cos x

1
™ cosecant x (written cosec x) = ——
sin x

= cotangent x (written cot x) =

tan x
So:
Lay me ; =
pie ~ co0s137°— cos43°
1
= o00e73135
So I dps
a0. ari ves=
wey
sie ~ gin231° ~—s
sin51°
1
~ 07 1A
1287 Odip)
144 Trigonometry | \

: 1 1
a tan253° tit 73°
1
= +397085
= +0.306 (3 d.p.)

6.2 Drawing the graphs of sec x,

cosec xXand cot x
Section 6.1 shows how to find the secant, cosecant or cotangent of
any angle. This section shows you how to draw the graphs of these
functions.

Graphing sec x
Here is a table of values for the function y=secx when
0 < x < 360°. Each value of y is given to two decimal places, where
appropriate. :

[a [Yo| [nr[5if [sr[aow

a Ps[i[oror
Dr fusheils
[=[pair Pospial
aPoe
[2fefus[
If you plot these figures on a graph, it looks like this:

y=secx

The curve will repeat itself again and again for values of x above
360° and below 0. The function has a local minimum of | and a local
 Trigonometry! 145

maximum of —1. The minimum occurs at 0, 360°, 720°, 1080°, etc; in

other words, at +360n°, where n is an integer. The maximum occurs
at 180°, 540°, 900°, etc.; in other words, at 180° + 360n°.
The curve does not meet the x-axis. It has asymptotes at
90°, 270°, 450°, etc.; in other words, at 90° + 180n°. It has a period
of 360°.

Graphing cosec x
Here is a table of values for the function y =cosec x when
0 < x < 360°. Again each value is given to 2 decimal places, where
appropriate.

[a [or
[Fn[ssiow:[2or[or[a [ar
fel fetusfusfia[s
fo[=pai pahala]
The curve looks like this:

y =cosec x
:aS Fi: .i eo
i SSS : meee
a3 pee =

; i | i ;
ease eee: Stitt: t eee | tet ; Strptisats:

; Es H
Sas : ; i : $27

; : sas

i :
j

Again the main feature of the curve is that it is periodic. It has a

period of 360°. Its local minimum is again | and its local maximum
—1. But this time the minimum occurs at 90°, 450°, 810°, and so on;
in other words, at 90° + 360n°. The maximum value occurs at 270°,
630°, 990°, and so on; in other words, at 270° + 360n°.

Again, the graph does not meet the x-axis. It has asymptotes at 0,
180°, 360°, etc.; that is, at +180n°.
146 Trigonometry |

Graphing cot x
Here is a table of values for y = cot x when 0 < x < 360°.

[ea [of [io [nr[aoa [se[iars

Pf fl fos]
©Fel-rpnf
=fica]
+fos]
©fos1Fray
The curve looks like this:

y=cotx

Again, the curve is periodic with period 180°. It cuts the x-axis at
90°, 270°, 450°, and so on; in other words, at 90° + 180n°. It has
asymptotes at 0, 180°, 360°, and so on; that is, at +180n°.
You must memorise the main features of the curves y = secx,
y=cosecx and y=cotx- their shape, their maximum and
minimum values and where they occur, the points at which
y=cot x cuts the x-axis, and the position of the asymptotes. For
an advanced course in mathematics you must be able to sketch these
three curves from memory.

1 Find, to 4 significant figures, the value of:

(a) cot 39° (b) sec 47° (c) cosec 63°
(d)* sec 23> (e) cot 149° (f) cosec 323°
(g) sec 253° (h) cosec 129° (i) cot 300°
(j) cosec 283°
 Trigonometry! 147

2 Find, to 4 significant figures, the value of:

(a) cot 1.6° (b) sec3.4°
(c). cosec 2;3° (d) cot4.8°
(e) cosec 5° (ft) sec."
(g) cot 3.8° (nyecoto.
(i) sec 6.83° (j) cosec 8.23°
3 Find the value(s) of x, in degrees to 0.1°, for 0 < x < 360°
where:
(a) secx = 1.813 (b) cosec x = —2.164
(c) cotx = —1.23 (d) secx = —1.114
(6) secx =— 1,132 ty coty.= 0,147
(g) secx = 1.614 (h) cosec x = 1.816
(i) cotx =ke2i3 (j) cosecx = 1.142
4 Find the value of x, in radians to 3 decimal places, for
0 < x < 2n where:

(a) secx = 1.624 (b) cosecx = —1.624

(c) cotx = 0.718 (d) secx = —1.934
(e) cosecx = 2.016 (f) cotx = —1.913
ig) secx ==17323 (h) cosec x = —1.762
(i) cotx = —0.323 (j) secx = —2.053

6.3 The compound angle formulae:

sin(A + B), cos(A + B), tan(A + B)

O Ris. A

In the diagram the angles TOR= A and POT = B are each acute
and the angle POR = (A + B)is also acute. PT is perpendicular to
148 Trigonometry |
\

OY, PR is perpendicular to OZ, TS is perpendicular to OZ and QT

is perpendicular to PR.

Since QT is parallel to OS,

LQTO=/LTOS=A
Since / PTO = 90°, PTO = 90° —A. Since PQT is a triangle,
L£PQT+ ZPTQ+ ZQPT = 180°
That is: 90° + (90° —A) + ZQOPT= 180°
180° — A+OPT = 180°
ZOPT=A
PR
Now: sin(A+ B) = OP
=O OR
er
—hOTLS
_ = OP
PO TS
= OP OP
SE ote ct oe
PT OP OT OP
= cos Asin B+ sin AcosB

mwSo: sin(A+ B) = sin Acos B+ cos Asin

B
Similarly: OR
cos(A+ B) = OP
OS—RS
ve BOP
maOS —QT
Ie

OS QT
SOP OP

EOS OLes (Cag

Pe
\OT’ OP PT’
cos(A+ B) = cosAcos B—sin AsinB
OP
We have shown that
sin(A + B) = sin Acos
B+ cos Asin B
and cos(A + B) = cos Acos B— sin Asin B
 Trigonometry! 149

for A and B acute. However, these identities are, in fact, true for all
values of A and B.

So replacing B by —Bin the identity for sin(4A+ B) gives

sin(A —B) = sin Acos(—B) + cos A sin(—B)

or:

n sin(A—B) = sin Acos B—cos Asin

B
and replacing B by —Bin the identity for cos(A + B) gives

cos(A—B) = cosAcos(—B)—sinAsin(—B)
= cosAcos B—sin A(—
sinB)
a cos(A—B) = cosAcosB+ sinAsin B
Now
sin(A+ B)
teed B) = cos(A+
——_ B)

= sin AcosB+cosA sinB

~ cos Acos B—sin Asin B

sin ActesB 2 tos.Asin B

— cosAtvesB cwosdcosB
cos.4ces B sinAsin B
cos4tesB cosAcosB

tan A + tanB
= stg NS ad 1 —tanAtanB

Replace B by —B:

tan A + tan(—B)
alt? asttetane)

__tanA —tanB
~ 1—tanA(—tan
B)

“ tan(A—B)= tanA—
= tanB
1+ tan A tan B
150 Trigonometry | "

Example 1
Evaluate tan 75° without the use of a calculator.

tan 75° = tan(45° + 30°)

tan 45° + tan 30°

~ 1 — tan 45° tan 30°

Nese
a v3
Od)
Ewer!
SiS
Example 2
Giventhat angles4 andB are acuteand sin A= # and cosB= &,
find, without the use of a calculator, the value of

(a) cos(4+B) (b) tan(A —B).

5 25 <<
4
7
i
x Aa
Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
x +16 =25 y 249 = 625
eg fece516
Nea y=24
(a) cos (A + B) = cos Acos B—sin Asin B
= 6 x 35) —Gx 35)
= eee
Se entedOE:
peateetta
125 5
tan A—tan B
b
(b) tan
an (A—B)
) =——_—_____
1+ tan AtanB
4_ 24
SO
“At Ge%)
8
Nis
<
Z
1

—+ ais
 Trigonometry! 151
Lp-

| “ls
ee
ie
ZN
= ~

Example 3
Find the exact value of

sin 157° cos 97° — cos 157° sin 97°

sin 157°cos 97° —cos 157°sin 97° = sin (157° —97°)

V3
= sin 60 ie

Example 4
Given that sind =}} and 90° < 4 < 180°, and tanB = + and
180° < B < 270°, find the value of (a) sin(A4+B) (b) cos(A —B).

12 -

ares a
x 3

If A and B were acute, then by Pythagoras’ theorem:

x? +12? = 13? go AtES
x? + 144= 169 y =16+9
x? = 25 y =25
x=5 y=5
If A were acute then sin Awould be it and cos A would be az But
since 90° < A < 180°

snd =? and cosdA=-—%

Similarly, if B were acute then sin B would be 2 and cos B would be 2.

However, 180° < B < 270°. So
snB=-—2 and cosB=-2
(a) sin(A + B)= sin AcosB+cosAsinB
=H(-)+(-H-9
sil
Pe ©a ae
mee |
we Ge
152 Trigonometry |
\

(b) cos(A —B) =cosAcosB+sin Asin B

1 Find, without using a calculator, the exact value of:

(a) sin 75° (b) cos 75°
(c) tan 105° (d) sin 15°
(e) cos 105° (f) tan 13°
(g) sin 165° (h) cos 165°
2 Find, without using a calculator, the exact value of:
(a) sin 40° cos 50° + cos 40° sin 50°
(b) cos 70° cos 10° + sin 70°sin 10°

tan 80° + tan 40°

(©) T= tan 80° tan 40°

(d) cos 20° cos 40° — sin 20° sin 40°

(e) sin 50° cos 20° — cos 50° sin 20°

tan 47° — tan 17°

sc 1 + tan 47° tan 17°

3 Simplify:
(a) sin @cos 30 + cos @sin 30
(b) cos 58 cos 26 + sin 50 sin 20

tan 40 — tan 20
OT aa tae
(d) 3sin 7@cos 26 — 3 cos 76 sin 26
(e) 4sin 66 sin 46 + 4cos 60 cos 40
(f) 2sin@sin 46 + 2cos@cos 40
4 If A and Bare acute angles such that sin A = 523and sin B = },
find the exact value of:
(a) sin(A + B) (b) cos (A —B)
(c) tan(A + B) (d) cot (A —B)
 Trigonometry! 153

5 Ifsin A= 3 and cos B = 4 where 4 is obtuse and B is acute, find

the exact value of:
(a) sin(A —B) (b) sec (A + B)
(c) tan(A —B) (d) cot (A + B)
6 IfcosA= %andsinB= 34where
4 isacuteandB isobtuse,
findtheexactvalueof:
(a) sin(A + B) (b) cosec (A —B)
(c) cos(A —B) (d) sec(A + B)
(e) tan(A —B) (f) cot(A + B)
7 Find, without using calculus, (i) the greatest, (ii) the least value
that the following can take, and state the value of 6,
0 < 6 < 360°, for which these values occur.
(a) sin@cos 70° + cos @sin 70°
(b) sin @cos 20° —cos @sin 20°
(c) sin 25° cos @+ cos 25° sin 6
8 Find, without using calculus, the least value of the following
and the value of 6, 0 < 6 < 360°, for which this value occurs.
(a) cos 50° cos @+ sin 50° sin 8
(b) sin @sin 43° + cos @cos 43°
(c) 3cos@cos 105° — 3 sin @sin 105°

6.4 Pythagoras’ theorem

vind) ie

In this triangle
Y—sin@ and ~ —cos
r r
Now Pythagoras’ theorem states:
e4+y=P
154 = Trigonometry
|

Dividing by r’ gives

Dy teeBO
po pt pe
;
or: 2
de 2
sal
“Eteaetde
Thatis: 2 D)|
(=)+(*)z=
r r
Using the facts that Y —sind and ~ = cos 6 gives:
r
cos’ 6+ sin? 0= 1

or, more usually:

= sin? 9 + cos*9= 1
Divide both sides by cos? 6:
sin?9 Cost | 1
cos2
6Resta cos2
6
sin 0\*
Go) Sled tan é

That is: tan? 6+ 1 =sec?6

or, more usually:
B sec? 9 = 1 + tan’ 0
Again, starting from sin’ 6 + cos? 9 = 1, divide both sides by sin? 6:

bum
sin
cos 6 71
sin?@ sin?

+ (c= (gh)
sin 6 sin 0

That is: 1 + cot? 6= cosec? 0

or, more usually:

a cosec” 9 = 1 + cot? 0

Although these three identities have been proved for @acute, they
are, in fact, true for all values of 8. You will not be asked to prove
them, but you must learn them and use them confidently. They are
very useful in the study of Advanced level mathematics. It is
therefore very important that you remember them. You will be
expected to use them in proving other simple identities, in the
solution of equations and in calculus.
 Trigonometry! 155

The general strategy when you are asked to prove an identity is to

take the left-hand side (LHS) of the identity and try to rearrange it
to obtain the right-hand side (RHS) of the identity, or vice versa if
this looks as though it may prove more fruitful.

Example 5
Prove that

tan’ 6 —cot? @= (sec @—cosec 0) (sec 6+ cosec @)

LHS= tan*6—cot?@
= (sec*@—1)—(cosec”6—1)
= sec”9—1 —cosec”6+ 1
= sec”@—cosec”6
= (sec0—cosec#)(sec@+ cosec6)
= RHS

Example 6
Prove that
2 —tan?A= 2sec? A—3tan? A

RHS= 2sec?A—3tan’A
= 2(1+tan?A)—3tan?A
=2+42tan?A—3tan?A
= 2~—tan?
A
= LHS

Prove the identities:

1 cos?6+3sin’ 6 = 3 —2cos*6
2 cosecé —siné =cosé@coté
3 cot? 4+ cos? @= (cosec @—sin 6)(cosec 6 + sin )
4 sec? 6 —sin? 6 = tan? + cos? 6
5 sec*@ —tan*
0 = 2sec’ 0-1
6 (cosé +sec0)* = tan? 4 + cos? +3
7 cos*@—sin* 6 = cos? 6 —sin? 6
8 cosec? 6(tan? 6 —sin’ @)= tan? @
156 Trigonometry |
\

: 3 ; 2
— sin@
1+sind ci J —sinotohEARp
cos0 cos0
10 (tan6 + sec 6)(cot 6+ cosec 6) = (1 + sec 4)(1 + cosec 6)

6.5 Double angle formulae

In section 6.3 you were introduced to the identity
sin(A + B) = sin AcosB+cosA sin B
Now let B = A; then:
sin(A + A) =sinAcosA+cosAsinA
That is: sin2A = sin AcosA + sin Acos A

or:

a sin2A = 2sin Acos A

Similarly:
cos (A + B) =cos Acos B—
sin AsinB
Again, let B= A:
cos (A + A) = cos Acos A —sin AsinA
That is:

a cos 2A = cos’ A — sin* A

Now sin? A+cos? 4 =1

or cos? A= 1-—sin? A

So: cos2A= (1 —sin?A) —sin? A

zi cos2A = 1—2sin? A
Also, since sin? A + cos? A = 1,
sin? A= 1 —cos” A

So if cos2A = cos? A —sin’ A, then

cos 2A cos? A'=

(1—cos’A)
= cos’ A—1+cos*A
or:
g cos2A = 2cos* A—1
 Trigonometry | 157

Finally, you learned in section 6.3 that

tanA+tanB
tan PLE
(4 + 2) = ————_______.
1—tanAtanB

Let B = A; then:

tan A + tan A
tan aA)
(A + A) = ———————__
1 — tan Atan A

So:

2tan A
& tan2A =
1 — tan? A
These five results are known as the double angle formulae, because
they allow you to convert from double angles (2A) to single angles
(A). Once again, you must learn these.

6.6 Half angle formulae

From the double angle formulae you can find the half angle
formulae.

cos2A= 1—2sin*A
So: 2sin*?A= 1—cos2A
or: sin’ A=}(1 —cos2A)
Let A = 40.Then:

2 sin?46=1(1 —cos@)
Also: cos2A= 2cos?A—1
So: 2cos*A=cos2A+ 1
or: cos*A= }(cos2A+ 1)
Again,let A= $6.Then:

z cos? $0 =} (1 + cos@)
So, given the value of cos@, you can now find the value of sin50

and cos}6. This will be particularly useful in integration and in the

solution of equations.
158 Trigonometry |

Example 7
Evaluate exactly 2 sin 15° cos 15°.

Since 2sin Acos A = sin24,

then: 2 sin 15°cos 15° = sin(2 x 15°)
= Sin305
1
2

Example 8
Given that @ is acute and sin@ = op find the exact value of sin 20.

By Pythagoras’ theorem:

5? = 13"
x?+25= 169
x2 =169—25= 144 aah
Beal
So: cos = #

Example 9
Prove the identity: cot A—tan A= 2cot2A

RHS = 2cot2A

ae
~ tan2A
“3 1 —tan? A
cn 2tan A
= 1 _ tan*A
~ “\2tanA 2tanA

pune: tan? A
~ AtanA = PtanA
l
= A a tan A

= cot A—tanA
= LHS
 Trigonometry! 159

Example 10
Eliminate @ from x = cos 26 — 1, y = 2sin@.

x = cos 26 — 1

= (1—2sin*6)—1

x = —2sin’6
Nowy = 2sin@
5 = sind

(5)2 = sin?6

-
So: 2
=ned 2(5)
94%

—2y*
4
4x+2y? =0
or: 2x+y%=0

1 Find, without using a calculator, the exact value of:

(a) 2sin 75°cos75° (b) cos?224° —sin*224°
©) 2 tan675° (d) 1 —2sin?
15°
c) ——_—___+—
| —tan?671° —2se

(e) 2cos?105° (f) sec1125°cosec1124°

1 —tan 15° eg ore
(g) Coe (h) sin*75
ZA coe = 3 and @is acute, find the exact value of:
(a) sin 26 (b) cos 20 (c) tan26
3 If tané= bEand @ is acute, find the exact value of:
(a) sin 20 (b) cos 260 (c) tan26
4 Given that siné = x and that @ is obtuse, find the exact value

of:

(a) sin20 (b) sec 20 (c) cot20

5 Given that tan@ = —} and that @is obtuse, find the exact value
of:
(a) sec20 (b) cosec 20 (c) tan260
160 Trgonometry |
\

6 Given that sin 20 = 1 and that @is acute, find the exact value of:
(a) sind (b) cosé (c) tand
Find the possiblevaluesof tan}@whentan = 3.
Find the possiblevaluesof tan4@whentand = 3.
Obtain an expression for sin 30 in terms of sin@ and hence find
the value of sin 36 if sin @= }.
10 Obtain an expression for cos 34 in terms of cos @and hence find
the value of cos 30 if cos 6 = 4.
11 Eliminate 6 from the following pairs of equations:
(a) x =sin20+2, y=cosé
(b) x =1+ cos, y =3¢08 20
(ec) x= tan 20, y = tan?
(d) x=3+¢08 20, ye sec0
(e)) x = cosecv, y = 1 —cos26

Prove the following identities:

cos 2A
12 ——\
cos A — sinA =cosA+sinA 2

13 2 cosec 29 = sec 8 cosec 0

14 cot@ — tan @ = 2cot 20

15 tan 20 sec 0 = 2sin @sec 20

2 tan 6
16 eh
<e = 1 + tan? 6

l 1
17
cos@?—sin@
cosé+sin@
Sen 8h20
sin 20
18 1 —cos 20 Sis

3tan @—tan?@
19
tan36=
cea 1—3tan20
sin 24 + sin 0
20 icos 20+ cosé+ 1 St ang
 Trigonometry! 161

6.7 How to solve more complicated

trigonometric equations
In chapter 7 of Book P1 you were shown how to solve trigonometric
equations such as:

sin2x=5 for 0<x<2za

and : tan (3x —40°) = 0.61 for 0<x< 360°

Now that you know a number of trigonometric identities, you can

solve some further trigonometric equations. In all such equations,
the strategy is to reduce the equation to one trigonometric ratio
only, using the identities proved in this chapter.

Example 11
Solve the equation
6cos?é+sind—5=0 for 0<6@< 360°

6cos’?@+sind —5=0

6(1 —sin? 6) + sind -—5=0

6 —6sin°6+ sind —5=0

—6sin’4+ sind+1=0
or: 6sin’@—sind—1=0
(3sin@+ 1)(2sin@—1)=0
So either 3sin?+ 1=0 or 2sind—-1=0
that is: sind=—% or sind=}
Thus: g = 199.5",3405" of = 30" 150"
moO
f= 3 Ard, 199.5, 340.5".
Example 12
Solve the equation
cos 8 cos 30° — sin @sin 30° = 5

for —180° < 6 < 180°.

cos cos 30° — sin # sin 30° = 5

=> cos(4+ 30°)=4

162 Trigonometry |
\

That is: 6 + 30° = —60°, 60°

So: 6 = —90° or 30°

Example 13
Solve the equation
sec’ §= 3 —tand

for 0 < @< 360°.

Since sec? 6= 1 + tan? 8,

sec’ 9= 3 —tand

= 1+ tan? @= 3 —tané
tan? + tand—2=0

(tan@ —1)(tan@+ 2) =0

tang =) or tang = —2

eas 22) Ore = OG 290.0%

So: DOG 5 225 , 290.6

Example 14
Solve the equation

cos(6 + 60°) = siné

for 0 < 6 < 360°.

cos(# + 60°) = sin@

a cos8cos60°—sin@sin60°= sin@
So: (cos@x +)—(sin@x 8) = sind
That is: cos @—/3sin@ = 2sin@
cos@= 2sin6+ V3sin0
cos@= (2+ /3)sin@
l _ sin@
2£4/3" cos?

tan@d =
pe 2+3

So: G= 15" or t95>

 Trigonometry | 163

Example 15
Solve cos 26 = tan26 for0 <@< 7.

Since tan 20 = wal :

cos 20

cos 29 = tan 20

sin 20
=> as 20 = cos 20

cos? 26 = sin 26
1 —sin? 26 = sin 20
sin? 26 + sin20—1=—0

sin 20 _rltvil+4)
2
_-14¥v5
ne 2
= 0.61803 or —1.61803
Reject sin 20 = —1.61803(sin x has a minimum value of —1)
20 = 0.666 23 or 2.475 35

6 = 0.333 11 of: 1.23767

So: 6 = 0333" or L233" dn)

Solve these equations for 0 <@ <360°, giving 6 to 1 decimal place

where appropriate:

1 sin@cos 15° + cos @sin 15° = 0.4

2 cos8@cos 33° — sin@sin 33° = —0.2

tan 47° — tan@ ;

: 1+tan47°tand 4. cost) —45°) = 7, 08

5 sin(@+ 30°) = 2cos@ 6 2cos(6 —60°) = sind

7 sin(@+ 15°) =3cos(@—15°) 8 2sindcos@=1-—2sin’A
9 sin2@+siné —tanéd=0 10 sin26+siné =0
11 cos20 = 2sin@ 12 tan20+tand=0

13. 3cos?6 —2sind-—-2=0 14 3sec*0+1=8tand

15 2+ cos@sin6
= 8sin’6 16 sin26=cos@
17 - 3cos20—7cos? —2=0 18 sec?6= 4tané
19 2sin26 = tané 20 sin26—tand=0
164 =Trigonometry
|
\

21 cosec*9= 3cot@—1 22 3cos20+2sin?6+1—=2sin@

23 (sin@+ cos6)”= 4 24 2tan@+ sin20secO = 1+sec0
25 sin(26 —30°) = cos(26 + 30°
26 coté+3cot20—1=0 27° tan(30 —20°) = 2-1
28 3tand+4sin@d =0
Trigonometry II

In chapter 6 you were introduced to a number of new trigono-

metrical results. This enabled you, among other things, to prove
trigonometrical identities and solve further trigonometrical
equations. This chapter goes back to the more practical side of
trigonometry, which you encountered in Book P1 when you tried to
find the lengths of sides and the sizes of angles in triangles. The
knowledge that you gained in the first book only allowed you to do
this for right-angled triangles. This chapter introduces you to the
sine rule and cosine rule which, in turn, will allow you to find the
lengths of sides and the sizes of angles in triangles that do not have a
right angle. It also shows you an alternative way of calculating the
area of a triangle.

After that you will learn to apply trigonometry to practical

situations in three dimensions, and the chapter ends with an
introduction to using cartesian coordinates in three dimensions.

7.1 The sine rule

In this chapter we shall frequently use a triangle (A) ABC:

a B

For brevity, {BAC will simply be called angle A, ABC will be

called /B and / ACB will be called ZC.The side BC will be called a,
because it is the side opposite / A, the side AC will be called b and
the side AB will be called c. This is standard notation.
166 Trigonometry ||

A LI B
xX
In this AABC, both angle A and angle B are acute. CX is the
perpendicular from.C to the side AB.

bet CX =k
| tiwAw.DCOn

h ;
b = sin A

So: h=bsinA
In ABXC,

—-=sinB
a
So: h=asinB
Thus asinB= bsin A
: asinB bsta4_
+ sin A: : ——
sin A sin4_
~ sin B: am = z
i ; sin AsinB sinB
So: os b
sind sinB
In a similar way, by drawing the perpendicular fom B to the line AC
you can show that

aes
sinA sinC

Putting these two results together, you get:

Gene b eek:
sind sinB sinC
 Trigonometry Il 167

Now suppose that /B is obtuse:

A . B X

CX is the perpendicular from C to the side AB. (This time the side
AB has to be extended.)

Let CX = A, as before.
In AAXC,
h
5 = sin A

So: h=bsinA

In ABXC,
h
* sin(
—= sin(180°—B)

But sin(180° —B) = sinB

h
So: —=sinB
a
or h=asinB
Thus, as before: asin B = bsin A
b
and so:
sind sinB
Again, if you draw the perpendicular from B to the side AC then
you can show that
a ;
sind sinC

Consequently, once again you have

a b c
sinA sinB sinC

This is known as the sine rule.

168 Trigonometry II

Remember, although these results have been proved by using a

construction line that is perpendicular to one of the sides of the
triangle, in neither case was the triangle ABC right-angled. The sine
rule applies to any triangle.

You can use the sine rule, in general, if the given triangle contains
two known angles and one known side and you need to find another
side. It can also be used where the given triangle contains two
known sides and one known angle, which is not the angle between the
two sides (often called the ‘non-included’ angle), and where you need
to find another angle.

Example 1
Calculate, in cm to 3 significant figures, the length of the side AB of
the triangle ABC in which /ACB=62°, ABC =47° and
AC ="Pem.

By the sinerule:
ReeeMac
sin62° sin47°

So:
: poe
ee ee Se 7
ae ina =x sin 62°

_ 7sin 62°
~ sin 47°
= 8.4509

= 8.45 cm (3 s.f.) s

Example 2
Calculate, in cm to 3 significant figures, the length of the side AC of
the triangle ABC in which BC=6.4cm, /ACB= 43° and
BBAG =)",

Since the sum of the three angles in any triangle is 180°, F

71° +.43° + LABC = 180° a

So: / ABC = 180° — 114° = 66°

By the sine rule: b

b 6A
sin66° sin 71°

aoe *B66?
=OF=sin
66°pai| ea B
 Trigonometry || 169

_ 6.4 sin 66°

~eesin71°
= 6.183 cm

= 6.18 cm (3'sf.)

When the information given about the triangle is two sides and the
non-included angle, you must be careful. It is sometimes possible
from such information to obtain two solutions. That is, it is
sometimes possible to find two different triangles with the same
given data, as the next example demonstrates.

Example 3
Calculate, in degrees to 1 decimal place, the size of the angles CAB
and ACB in the triangle ABC, where AC = 4cm, BC = 5cm and
LABC = 42°.

ae , =) As 4 A
cde sinA sin 42°

; sinA sin 42°

That is: 5 = 4 4cm

sin A sin 42°

So: 3 4 ba

(ey Bae:
Scm
; 5 sin 42°
sin A= mi

sin A= 0.8364

So: A=56.76° and C = 180° —42° —56.76°

= 0.0 41 op.) a= 81.2" {1 dip.)

OR
(since sine is also positive in the second quadrant):

A = 180° — 56.76° = 123.24°

= 123.2°(1 dp.)

and: C = 180° — 42° = 123.24°

= 14.8° (1 d.p.)
170 =Trigonometry
Il \

Thus there are two possible triangles that can be drawn in this case
with the given information, as shown below.

Example 4
Find the length of AB and the sizes of ACB and / BAC for the
triangle ABC in which AC = 6.3cm, BC = 4.8cm and / ABC = 53°.

48 6.3 ¢

sinA sin 53°

Bo:
sinABISilk.
£e 63

sin A . r Sits oye: ajcm

a ee 65
4.8 sin
=. Malai a 53°
Ks 63
4.8 x 0.7986 es
Says. e Cc 48cm B
sin A= 0.6084
So: 23747

= 37.5° (1 d.p.)
and: C= 180%—37 AT 53
= 89.5° (1 dp.)
OR Atle aa
= 142.5°
which is impossible because

142.5° + 53° = 195.5°

which is more than 180°, and so C cannot exist. So, to find 4B we

write
 Trigonometry || 171

AB S03
sin89.5°sin53°
AB
sin895°sin a.=age sn89.5
895° ee

oyeae3 Si 5°
sin53°
= 7.89cm (3 s.f.)

So in this case it is only possible to draw one triangle from the given
information.

Calculate the lengths of the unknown sides and the sizes of the
unknown angles in these triangles:
c

S
 172 Trigonometry II

iG

ae
<i

12.4cm
8.4cm

“ 19.3 cm
B
A 6.3cm B

G
9 10 C
7.3c0m
12:7 cm 9.4 cm 5.9 Ee

B cs B

Gi
11 os 12

68.7°
15.3 cm 12.7cm

B
A B A
17.4cm 21.3cm

13 C 14

11.4cm
13.6em 19.1 cm
B

as B
A

15.6cm
A
 Trigonometry || 173

15 28
wee
14.7 cm

24.6cm

17 Cc

8.1cem

A (/
4.3cm B

19 ee cone ‘

32cm 8.7cem 12.4 cm

21cm
174 =Trigonometry
||

7.2 The cosine rule

(G

a
b

A = B
t = pD

< ae

In AABC, CD is the perpendicular from C to the side AB, CD = h

and AD = x. Angle B is acute. In AADC you can use Pythagoras’
theorem to write

ye Rah (1)

In ABCD, you can use Pythagoras’ theorem to write

h’ + DB? = a”

But: DB=c-x
So: W+(c—xy =a (2)

From (1): P= —x
Substitute for h* in (2):

bPxe (e—x)*=a"
That is: beet ex
or fab to 2s (3)
But in AADC,
: = cosA

OL:
x ==0cos4
Substitute this into equation (3):
a’ = b* + c* —2c(bcos A)

or a =b’ +c? —2becosA

 Trigonometry II 175

Now consider the case when 4 is obtuse:

In AABC, AB=c, BC =a, AC =b, CD is the perpendicular from

C to the line BA (which is extended or produced, as it is called in
mathematics), DA = x and CD =h.

In AADC, you can use Pythagoras’ theorem, to write:

+x =bh (1)
In ABCD, you can use Pythagoras’ theorem, to write
h+(x+cP =a (2)
From (1): r= —x
Substitute this into equation (2):

BP—x+(x+ceP=a
So: We x ex ee ee S
or =P +e 42cx (3)

Now in AADC, ; = cosCAD

So: x= bcos CAD

= bcos(180° —A)
= —bcosA
By substituting this into equation (3) you get:
a =b +c’ + 2c(—bcos A)
or a =b? +c’ —2becosA
as before.

This is the cosine rule. It can written as:

B a’ = b* + c* —2becos A
OR B? =a’ + c* —2accosB
OR =a +b —2abcosC
176 =Trigonometry
||

Now if

a =b’ +c’ —2becosA

then: a —b?—c = —2becosA

So: -a +b? +0? =2becosA
or whi nae =cosA
2bc

brea
So: cosA="halleoi
This is another form of the cosine rule. You can get two other
similar formulae if you rearrange the other two forms of the cosine
rule. So you can get:

S ei cee
ia 2bc
2 Diez?
OR fp pti ig
2ac
2 2 2
a+b —-c
OR cos (A er

You can use the cosine rule when you are given the lengths of two
sides in a triangle and the size of the angle between them. You can
then find the length of the third side of the triangle, using either

i = bh’+ ce —2becos A

or b* =a +c’ —2accosB
or C= a +b —2abcos C

You can also use the cosine rule when you are given the lengths of
all three sides of a triangle and want to find the sizes of its angles. In
this case you can find the angles using

ie geo
cos A = ———_—_——_
2be

2 2 2
—b
or roti:punk
BM
2ac
2 2 2
a b* —c¢
or cov ers
2ab
 Trigonometry || 177

Example 5
Find the length of the side BC of the triangle ABC in which
AB=7cm, AC =9cm and /BAC = 71°.

By the cosine rule:

a = b’ +c? —2becos A

= 9° +77 -—2x9x 7cos71°

= 81 + 49 —126cos 71°

= 130 —126 x 0.3255

= 130 —41.02

a = 88.98

So: a = /88.98 = 9.43cm (3 sf.)

Example 6
Find the length of the side AB of the triangle ABC in which
BC = 15.30m, AC =9.4cmand <ACB = 121°.

By the cosine rule:

Cc =a’ +b —2abcosC

= 15.32 +9.4? —2 x 15.3 x 9.4c0s 121°

= 234.09 + 88.36 —287.64 cos 121°

= 322.45 —287.64(—cos 59°) 15.3.cm

= 322.45 + 287.64 cos 59° ‘ee

= 322.45 + 287.64 x 0.5150

= 322.45 + 148.14

c* = 470.59

So: C= 21 teane( 355.)

178 Trigonometry ||

Example 7
Calculate the size of /ABC of the triangle ABC in which
AB =3.6cem, BC =5.2cm and'*GA =43 cm.

By the cosine rule:

ae sh
Cosa
2ac

5.27 + 3.6 —4.37 B

ND SES bt s:6

__ 27.04 + 12.96 — 18.49 5.2cm

“i 37.44 3.6m

21.51
cos b= = ().5745
37.44
So: B= 54.9° (1 d.p.) A Asem C

Example 8
Find the size of / ABC of the triangle ABC in which AB = 13.7cm,
BC =¥2.1cm and AC =—193 cm:

By the cosine rule:

& tree if
cos B= ——_—_—_——_- :
2ac

12.17 +13.7 —19.3?

iS 25412106138

146.41 + 187.69—372.49 3
iS 331.54

B.—38.39 137Ge 12.1cm

331.54

cos B = —0.1157 A .
19.3cm
So: B= 96.6° (1 dp.)

Frequently you will be faced with questions that ask you to ‘solve’
the triangle. This means that you need to find al/ the sides and
angles that are not given in the question.
 Trigonometry
|| 179
If you are given a triangle and told either

(i) the lengths of all three sides or

(ul) the lengths of two sides and the size of the angle between them

then you can generally solve the triangle by using the cosine rule
again and again. However, you will often find that when you have
used the cosine rule once, you will then be able to find the other
sides and/or angles using the sine rule. As the sine rule is much easier
to use than the cosine rule, this is the way that you are
recommended to proceed. Nevertheless, if you are one of those
masochists who roam the earth, you can stay with the cosine rule!

Example 9
Solve the triangle ABC in which AC = 12cm, BC = 19cm and
LACB = 48°.

We need to calculate c, and the sizes of CAB and / ABC.

By the cosine rule: &

C=a +b —2abcosC

= 197 + 127-2 x 19 x 12cos 48°

= 361 + 144 — 456 cos 48° ‘ pe

= 505 — 456 x 0.669 13
= 505 — 305.12

c?‘Apes
= 199.87 aor
A 12 fe
So: c = 14.137 = 14.1cm (3 sf) oe

The smallest angle in A.ABC is B because it is opposite the smallest

side.

By the sine rule:

b et
sinB sinC
ienliior
sinB sin 48°

So:
sin Bossin48°
501437
12 x sin 48°
and a 14
180 Trigonometry
Il
sO Beal (sts

Consequently A = 180° —39.1° —48°

A= 92,9" (3-81.)

Example 10
Solve the triangle ABC in which AC = 9.5cm, BC = 5.5cm and
ACB = 145°.

5.5cm
ae,
A 9.5cm Cc
We need to calculate c and the sizes of / BAC and / ABC.

By the cosine rule:

C=a +b —2abcosC
= 5.5°+9.5* 2x 5.5 x 9.5cos 145°
= 30.25 + 90.25 — 104.5(—cos 35°)

= 120.5 + 104.5 x 0.819 15

c* = 206.10

So: c = 14.356 = 14.4cm (3 s.f.)

By the sine rule:

aaa
sinA sinC
Ss,2 14:35
sin A i sin 145°

sin A _ sin 145°

=k 55. 14.35

; , 5.5 sin 145°

That 1S: sin A = ina.

Ave 12.69 ee 127 (1 <0.)

Consequently: B= 180° — 145° — 12.7°

B= 22,35
 Trigonometry || 181

7.3 The area of a triangle

A

B « c
« >
a

You should know that one formula for the area of AABC is $ah,
where / is the height of the triangle. This formula is not always the
most useful one.

In the diagram,
- = Sint

So: h=bsinC
Thus another usefulformulafor the area of a triangleis:
Sa(bsinC) = 4absin C
This has two other forms:
SbesinA
and ac sin B

1 Calculate x, in cm to 3 significant figures, in the following

triangles:
(a) (b) oy
4cm x 10cm a 7cm

6cm x

(c) (d)

x 4cm
182 Trigonometry ||

a
2 Calculate

(a)

(Cc)
»
10cm

Aem
Sy
the value of 0, to 0.1°, in the following triangles:

5cm
3.5cm

S5cm
(d)
3.5cm

Scm
~

5.5cm
2.5cm

3cm

(e) > (f) Sem

4cm 6
5cm a cm

8.5cm
7cm
 ‘ah Trigonometry Il 183
(g) (h)

8cm 7cm 14cm

9cm

9cm
@)
1 Q)
e 8cm

13cm 7cm
Scm
14cm
9cm
=

3 Solve the following triangles, giving lengths in cm to 3

significant figures and angles to 0.1°. Find also the area, in cm?
to 3 significant figures, of each triangle.

(a) B (b) <

a
2cm 4cm

a 3.5cm si A“ide C
S5cm

(c) B (d) 4 10cm B

rr
Scm
llem

‘ 9cm = Cc ©

(©) 77cm

> B

4cm
o :

7.4 Problems involving bearings

N
You should have already met bearings in your study of mathematics
for GCSE. So you should know that there are two ways of giving a
bearing. The first is by giving the angle, measured from the north or
south towards the east or west.

So, for example, the bearing of P from A is N37°E. z

184 Trigonometry Il
\

Likewise, the bearing of O from B is S41°W:

41°

to
The alternative way, which will be used in this book is to give the
bearing as a three-figure angle measured from North in a clockwise
direction. So the bearing of P from A in this system is 037°.

Likewise, the bearing of Q from B in this system is 180° + 41°,

ihatus, 221:

In the same way, the bearing of R from C is 360° —23°, that is, 337°:

When you are faced with a problem involving bearings, the first
thing to do always is to draw a diagram. On the diagram you must
draw a North line at each point from which a bearing is given. Once
you have drawn the diagram the problem will usually reduce to
finding lengths and/or angles in a triangle using ratios in a right-
angled triangle or the sine rule and/or the cosine rule.

Example 11
Three points P, Q and S are on the same level. The bearings of S
from P and Q are 062° and 307°. The distance SP is 190m and the
distance QS is 85m. Calculate the distance PQ and the bearing of Q
from P.

The bearing of S from Q is 307°, so the angle between SQ and the

North line is 360° —307° = 53°.
 Trigonomety || 185

Also, because the two North lines at S and Q are parallel, 6 = 53°
(alternate angles). Similarly, because the two North lines at P and S$
are parallel, a = 62°.

So: £PSQ = 53°+ 62° = 115°

By the cosinerule:
s =p? + os 2pqcos S$
= 85°+ 190°—2 x 85 x 190.cos115°
= 7225 + 36 100 —32 300(—cos 65°)
= 43 325 + 13 650.5
s* = 56975.5

So: 5S= 238.69 = 239m (3 s.f.)

By the sine rule:
sin @_ sin 115°
85 238.7

: 85 sin 115°
So: sin 8 = 9387

85 sin 65°
= et2387
sin 8 = 0.3227:
So: Bs=918:8°
So the angle between the North line at P and PQ is
18.8° + 62° = 80.8°. That is, the bearing of Q from P is 081°
(nearest degree).

Example 12
Two coastguard stations A and B are 5kmapart and B is due east of
A. From A the bearings of two ships P and Q are 025° and 061°
respectively and from B the bearings are 290° and 338° respectively.
Find the distance between the ships.
Q
186 Trigonometry ||

From the diagram you can see that

/ PAQ = 61° — 25° = 36°

and LPAB=900 —25° = 65"

also: P= 290 = 2/0 20"

and 6+ @ = 338° — 270° = 68°

So: @ = 68° — 20° = 48°

In APAB, 2PAB = 65°, CPBA = 20°

So: L APB = 180° — 65° — 20° = 95°

Use the sine rule in AAPB:

ALA Ses
sin20° sin95°

5 sin 20°
P=—
sin 95°

pois:sin 20°
Sas ee

=. 71 6ikm

In AAQB, ABQ = 68° and /QAB = 90° —61° = 29°.

So: £AQB = 180° —68° = 29° = 83°

Use the sine rule in AAQB:

wid Oieietud
sin68° sin 83°

5 sin 68°
AOQ =— sin 83°

= 4.670 km

Use the cosine rule in AA PQ:

PQ? = 1.716" + 4.6707 —2 x 1.716 x 4.670 cos 36°

= 2.944 + 21.80 —12.966

PQ’ = 11.78

So: PO = 3.43km (3 s.f.)

 Trigonometry Il 187

1 Three landmarks P, Q and R are on the same horizontal level.

Landmark Q is 3km and on a bearing of 328° from ae
landmark R is 6km and on a bearing of 191° from Q. Calculate
the distance and bearing of R from P, giving your answer in km
to one decimal place and in degrees to the nearest degree. [L]
2 From a ship, the following distances and bearings are obtained
simultaneously:
Lighthouse 4 15 nautical miles, 032°
Lighthouse B 10 nautical miles, 272°
Calculate, to the nearest tenth of a nautical mile, the distance
between the lighthouses. [L]
3 Two points 4 and B on a straight coast are 2km apart, B being
due east of A. A ship is observed on bearings 169° and 211°
from A and B respectively. Calculate the distance of the ship
from the coast.
4 A man walking due north on a straight road sees a mast on a
bearing of 035°. After walking 600m the bearing of the mast is
071° from the man’s new position. Find the distance of the mast
from the road.
5 A ship sails 3 nautical miles from P to Q on a bearing 071° and
then 4 nautical miles from Q to R on a bearing 292°. Calculate
the distance PR and the bearing of R from P.

6 From a lighthouse 4 at a given time, two ships P and Q lie on

bearings 300° and 020° respectively. Given that P is 6km from
the lighthouse and Q is 3.5 km from the lighthouse, calculate the
distance between the ships at the given time.
7 Three points A, B and C lie on level ground and B is due south
of A. The point C lies 350m from A on a bearing 065° and the
distance BC is 450m. Calculate the bearing of B from C.
8 A ship P is 3km from a lightship and on a bearing of 345° from
the lightship. At the same time a ship Q is 5km from the
lightship and on a bearing 067° from the lightship. Calculate the
distance and bearing of P from Q.
9 A ship A is 9km from a lighthouse P on a bearing 075° and a
ship B is 5.5 km from the lighthouse on a bearing 200°. Find the
distance and bearing of A from B.
188 Trigonometry ||

10 Two lighthouses A and B are 7km apart and B is due east of A.

From A the bearings of two ships are 031° and 073° respectively
and from B the bearings are 275° and 343° respectively. Find the
distance between the ships.

7.5 Applying trigonometry to

problems in three dimensions
One of the major problems that you will have with work in three
dimensions is identifying which angles or which lengths you need to
calculate. It is therefore of the utmost importance that you sketch
good diagrams. A good diagram is one that is positioned in such a
way that you can see the angle or length which you are trying to
calculate.
Once you have identified the angle or length that you are trying to
calculate, you will find that it always lies in a triangle. Once again, it
is important that you sketch this triangle separately; from this point
on you can work from a two-dimensional figure, just as you have
been doing so far in this chapter.
If you follow these simple steps then problems in three dimensions
will be simplified and become much more straightforward.

The angle between a line and a plane

One of the two most frequent calculations that you will have to do is
to calculate the angle between a line and a plane.

P s

The angle between the line AB and the plane PORS is defined to be
the angle between the line and the projection of the line on the
plane. The projection of the line AB is the shadow that it casts on the
plane when a light is held above it pointing at the plane and at right-
angles to the plane. In the example shown, the line AB casts the
 Trigonometry || 189

shadow BC on the plane. So the angle between the line AB and the
plane PQRS is defined to be the angle between the line AB and the
line BC, that is, the angle 0.

Example
13 A B
8cm
F
75eae
HZ G =
8cm
The cube ABCDEFGH has sides 8cm long. Calculate the angle
between the diagonal BH and the plane EFGH.

The projection of the line BH on the plane EFGH is the line FH. So
the required angle is /BHF = @.This lies in the triangle BFH. F

Before you can calculate @ in ABFH you need to know the lengths
of two sides. At the moment only one is known: BF = 8cm. So you
need to calculate either BH or FH.
8cm
Look at the triangle FGH:

The triangle has a right angle at Gand FG = HG=8cm. ~ H ae G

So, by Pythagoras’ theorem:

FH? = 8° + 8°
= 17s R

FH = 11.31 cm

Now look at ABFH:

8cm
8
Ray te tas

= 0.7071 e Zs 11.31em ra

§ = 35.27? = 35.3° (1 dp)

190 Trigonometry ||

Example 14

VABCD is a right pyramid (one where the vertex V lies vertically

above the centre of the base of the pyramid) on a square base of side
6cm. The vertex V is vertically above the centre of the base Y. The
height of the pyramid is 10cm. Calculate the angle between a
sloping edge of the pyramid and its base.

Since the pyramid is on a square base and it is a right pyramid, the

angles between each of the sloping edges VA, VB, VC, VD and the
base are the same.

Consider the edge VC. The projection of VC on the base ABCD is

the line XC, where X is the mid-point of AC. So the angle you need
to calculate is the one between VC and XC. That is, /VCX = @.

However, in AV XC the only known side is VX = 10cm and the

only known angle is /VX¥C= 90°. So you need to calculate either
AC or VC.

Consider AADC.

By Pythagoras’ theorem:

AC =64+6

7] 2

AC = $4552.cm

So: AC = 424276cni1
 Trigonometry || 191

Now consider the AVXC. 4

tan@ = aoe 10cm

4.242
= 2:3570 F. :
4.242cm

So: @= 67.01° = 67.0°(1 dp.)

The angle between two planes

B

Two planes always meet in a common line. The two planes in this
diagram, ABCD and AEFD, meet in the line AD.

Take any point X on the common line. From X, draw a

perpendicular (XY) to the common line AD which lies in the first
plane ABCD. Now draw a perpendicular XZ to the common line
AD which lies in the second plane AEFD. The angle between these
two perpendiculars is the angle between the planes ABCD and
AEFD.
192 Trigonometry Il

Example 15

The cuboid ABCDEFGH is 8cm long, 4cm wide and 3cm high.
Calculate the angle between the planes EFCD and DCGH.
The planes EFCD and DCGH meet in the common line DC. Choose
the point C on this common line.

The line FC is in the plane EFCD and is perpendicular to DC.

The line GC is in the plane DCGH and is perpendicular to DC.
So the angle required is that between the lines FC and GC. It is is
AGGF=8. S

In triangle CGF,
tand=4
=e 13333
So: 6 = 53.132 = 931 Cladp:)

Example 16
V

Ae)
51! 1ig

VABCD is a right pyramid on a square base of side 6cm. The edge

VA is of length 8cm and the vertex V is vertically above the centre
of the base Y. Calculate the angle between the plane VAB and the
base.
The planes VAB and ABCD meet in the common line AB. Take the TrigonometryIl 193
point X as the mid-point of AB. The perpendicular to AB at X
drawn on the plane VAB passes through V because AVAB is
isosceles.

The perpendicular to AB at X drawn on the plane ABCD passes

through Y, the mid-point of the base. The angle you want is the one
between VX and YX. That is, /VXY = @.
V
Consider AVAX:

By Pythagoras’ theorem:

= 55

VX = 7.416 cm
Xx 3cm A
Now look at AVYX: V

3
a § = ——
TATG
—(0.4045 7.416cm

So: G==66.13" = 66.1" (1 dp)

(\

Exercise 7D

The cuboid ABCDEFGH has GH = 9cm, FG = S5cm and

Br= 35cm.
Calculate, to 0.1°, the size of
(a) the angle between BH and the base EFGH
(b) the angle between the plane EFCD and the plane DCGH.
194 Trigonometry |l

H 12cm G

The cuboid ABCDEFGH has GH = 12cm, FG = 9cm and

BF=8cm.

Calculate, to 0.1°, the size of

(a) the angle between AG and the plane ABCD
(b) the angle between the plane BCHE and the plane EFGH.

10cm D

The triangular prism ABCDEF has a rectangular, horizontal

base CDEF and a vertical rectangular end ABFE.
Given that DE = 10cm, CD = 5cm and AE = 2cm, calculate,
to 0.1°, the size of

(a) the angle between the line AC and the base

(b) the angle between the plane 4BCD and the base
(c) the angle between the line BE and the line BD.
 Trigonometry || 195

The base ABCD of the triangular prism ABCDEF is a

horizontal rectangle and the end EFAD is a vertical rectangle.
Given that X is the mid-point of BC, that EF = 12cm,
DE=5cm and CD = 7cm, calculate, to 0.1°, the size of
(a) the angle between CF and the base ABCD
(b) the angle between XF and the base ABCD.
The right pyramid VABCD has a square base ABCD of length
9cm. The length of VA is 11 cm. Calculate, to 0.1°, the size of
(a) the angle between VA and the base
(b) the angle between the plane VAB and the base.
The right pyramid VABCD has a square base ABCD of side
7cm. The height of the pyramid is 10cm. Calculate, to 0.1°, the
size of
(a) the angle between VA and the base
(b) the angle between the plane VAB and the base.

The right triangular prism ABCDEF has a horizontal,

rectangular base BEFC. The ends are vertical isosceles triangles
with AB = AC =7cm and BC=8cm. The prism has length
11cm. Calculate, to 0.1°, the size of
(a) the angle between the plane DBC and the base
(b) the angle between DC and the base.
196 Trigonometry ||

The figure shows a ‘lop-sided’ pyramid ABCDE, which has a

horizontal rectangular base ABCD in which AB = 3cm and
BC = Scm, and with the vertex E vertically above C, so that
CE = 8cm. Calculate:
(a) the lengths, in cm to 2 decimal places, of BE and AE
(b) the angles, to the nearest tenth of a degree, between
(i) AE and the plane ABCD
(ii) AE and the plane BEC. [L]
S R

P Q

PQLM and PQRS are rectangles, with the plane POLM

horizontal. The lines LR and MS are equal and vertical. Given

thaf$PO = 16m, OL = 12m and LR = 21m; calculate

(a) OM
(b) QS
(c) the angle between the line SQ and the plane POLM
(d) the angle between the plane PORS and the plane POLM.
[L]
 Trigonometry Il 197

10

The figure shows a pyramid VABCD, with a rectangular base in

which AB = 6cm, BC = 4cm. The point O is in the plane
ABCD, the line VO is perpendicular to the plane ABCD, and
VO = Scm. The point M is the midpoint of BC.
(a) Sketch two cross-sections of the pyramid, one through V, O
and M, and the other through V, A and C.
(b) Calculate, in cm to 2 decimal places, the lengths of VM, AC
and VC.
(c) Calculate, to the nearest tenth of a degree, the angle AVC
and the angle between the planes VAD and VBC. [L]
11 Three points A, B and C on horizontal ground are such that
AB = 10m, BC = 21m and cos / ABC =?. The point P lies on
BC and APB = 90°. Calculate

(a) the length of AC

(b) the length of AP.
A vertical pole VA, of height 19m is placed at A. Calculate, to
the nearest tenth of a degree, the acute angle between
(c) VB and the horizontal
(d) the plane VBC and the horizontal. [L]
12 A pole TA of length 11 m is held in a vertical position with A on
horizontal ground by three wires PT, QT and RT of equal
length. The points P, Q and R form an equilateral triangle of
side 13 m. Calculate:
(a) the length, in metres to 3 significant figures, of each wire
(b). the size of the angle, to 0.1°, between a wire and the
horizontal
(c) the size of the angle, to 0.1°, between the planes TPQand
POR.
198 Trigonometry ||

13 A

ABCD is a regular tetrahedron with the plane BCD horizontal

and E is the mid-point of BD. Prove that AAEC 1s isosceles.
Hence, or otherwise, calculate in degrees to 3 significant figures,
(a) the angle between the edge AC and the horizontal
(b) the angle between the plane ABD and the horizontal. [L]

7.6 Cartesian coordinates in three

dimensions

In Book Pl you were introduced to the ideas of coordinate

geometry. Coordinate geometry is the study of the geometry of
points, lines, curves and planes using algebraic methods. In Book P1
you looked at lines or curves in two dimensions (2D) only. Now we
have a look at some figures in three dimensions (3D).
If two axes at right angles to each other are laid on a plane, then you
can identify any point in the plane, using coordinates that show how
far the point is from each axis. One of these axes is usually called the
x-axis, the other is called the y-axis and the point where the axes
meet is called the origin and is labelled O.
A similar set-up can be used in three dimensions by adding a third
axis, the z-axis, at right angles to both the x- and y-axes.
 Trigonometry Il 199

To define a point P in space, you must state the perpendicular

distance of the point from the yz-plane, its perpendicular distance
from the xz-plane and its perpendicular distance from the xy-plane.
This defines the position of the point uniquely.
Perpendicular
distance from

Perpendicular
distance from
xz-plane

Perpendicular
distance from
xy-plane
As in two dimensions, part of each axis is positive and the rest is
negative. The part of the x-axis from O in the direction of the arrow
in the diagram is the positive x-axis and the rest is the negative x-axis;
the part of the y-axis from O in the direction of the arrow is the
positive y-axis and the rest is the negative y-axis; and the part of the

Positive
z-axis
Positive y-axis

Negative x-axis

Negative y-axis Negative

z-axis
© Positive x-axis
200 Trigonometry |
\

z-axis from O in the direction of the arrow is the positive z-axis and
the rest is the negative z-axis.
The perpendicular distance of a point in space from the yz-plane is
called the x-coordinate, the perpendicular distance of the point from
the xz-plane is called the y-coordinate and the perpendicular
distance of the point from the xy-plane is called the z-coordinate.
The coordinates of a point are written (x,y,z) where the first
number is the x-coordinate, the second number is the y-coordinate
and the third number is the z-coordinate. This is the point P(2, 5, 4):

It is usual to define the directions of the coordinate axes like this:

(i) Oy is a 90° rotation anticlockwise from Ox in the xy-plane when

viewed from the z-positive side of that plane.

(ii) Oz is a 90° rotation anticlockwise from Oy in the yz-plane when

viewed from the x-positive side of that plane.

(iii) Ox is a 90° rotation anticlockwise from Oz in the xz-plane when

viewed from the y-positive side of that plane.
 Trigonometry Il 201

Finding the distance between two points

Suppose you want to find the distance AB between the points
A(2,1,3) and B(4, 5,8).

Draw a cuboid that has AB as a diagonal and has each of its faces
parallel to the coordinate planes. In the diagram,

(i) the faces LMBR and ANP@ are parallel to the yz-plane,

(ii) the faces MBPN and LRQA are parallel to the xz-plane,

(iii) the faces LMNA and RBP@Oare parallel to the xy-plane.

So: AL= NMS 4-2 =2

LM = AN=5-1=4

MB= AQ=8-3=5

In AAMB:

AB’ = AM’ + MB”

AB’ = AM* + 5°

In AALM:

AM =AL? + LM
AM = 2° + 4?
202 = Trigonometry
|| \

So: AB’ = (2? + 47) 5?

=4+ 16+ 25
and AB = V/45

To find a formula that can always be used to find the distance

between two points, you can generalise the process by using two
points with coordinates (x,, 1,21) and (x2, V2,Z).
igs

4 B (X2,2)

x.

As before, draw the cuboid with AB as diagonal and with each face
parallel to the coordinate planes.

So: AL=NM=x,-x,
EM=AN=y2-),
MB= AQ=2)-—2
In AAMB:
AB’= AM’+ MB’
AB*= AM’+ (z>—7)°
In AALM:
AM?= AL?+ LM
AM?= (xy—x1) + (2 —y)°
So: AB’= [(x.—m1)’+ (2-1) ] 4+(2-21)
or
ia AB= V(x2 —41)?+ 2 —1)" + (22—21)"
 Trigonomety || 203

Example 17
Find the distance between the points 4(1,3,5) and B(2, 6, 7).
Using the formula:

AB= \/[(x. —x1)"+ (v2—y) + (2)—21)']

= y[(2- 17 + (6-3 +(7-5)7
=/(17 +37 + 27)
= V(1+9+4)
=V14
= 3.74(3s.f.)

Example 18
Find the distance between the points 4(6,—1,—3) and B(2,4,—1).
Usingthe formula:
AB= y/|(x)—1)" + (2-1)? + (z. —21)’
= J|(2— 6) + (441)? + (-143)"]
=a-AY, eSht
2")
= J(16 +25 +4)
= 45
=6.71(3s.f.)

Example 19
The length of the line joining A(3,1,4) to B(1,t, —2)is 7. Calculate
the two possible values of f.
By the formula:

AB =(3-1) 4 {ify 4444-2)

= 24 (1Sorry ee
=441-—214+7+36
=f —2t+41
Butif AB=7then AB’= 49
So. P —2+41=49
?—2t-8=0
(t+ 2)(t—4)=0
t=-—2or4
204 Trigonometry |l

Example 20
The point A has coordinates (1,2,1), the point B has coordinates
(—1,—1,3) and the point C has coordinates (2,3, —1).Calculate, to
0.1°, the size of the angle ABC.
AB i= (al cal) ail 2 =
= [(-2)° + (—3)?+ (2)"]
=44+9+4
AB = 17

BOS Ol 43-1 + (18)

= 3744?+(44)°
=94+164+16
BC =41

AC 0} 1) 62) ae ty
= +1? +(-2)
=1+1+4
AC’ =6

Using the cosine rule:

cosABC=phe Om
Ux a/Alixea/ M7
52
~ 52.801 yas V6
cos ZABC = 0.9848

So: TABC299924 10.07(1 d.p.) V41

Exercise 7E

Find the distance between A(1,2,5) and B(2, 3,4).

=
N
WD
Hah Find
Find
Find
the
the
the
distance
distance
distance
between
between
between
A(3,1,5) and B(1, 7, 3).
A(3, —2,—4) and B(6, 1,0).
A(—1,—3,5) and B(2, —5,4).
Find the distance between A(—3,2,—6) and B(—4,—3,7).
The point A has coordinates (2,1,7) and the point B has
coordinates (3, t,4). The distance AB is 7. Calculate the two
possible values of t.
 Trigonometry || 205

In the isosceles triangle ABC, the point A has coordinates

(5,2, —1), the point B has coordinates (1,3, —r) and the point C
has coordinates (2,5,3). The sides AB and BC of the triangle
are equal in length. Calculate the value of t.
In the triangle ABC, A is the point with coordinates (1,2, —1),
B is the point with coordinates (2, —4,1) and C is the point with
coordinates (1,3, —2). Calculate the size of /ABC.
The point A has coordinates (3, —2t, —5) and B has coordinates
(—4,2,—7). The distance AB is 9. Calculate the two possible
values of t.
10 The point A has coordinates (1,—7,2) and the point B has
coordinates (1, 2t,4). The distance AB is 5. Calculate the two
possible values of t.
11 In AABC, A is the point with coordinates (2, —3,1), B is the
point with coordinates (—5,4,3) and C is the point with
coordinates (1, —2,—3). Calculate the size of / BAC.
12 The point A has coordinates (1,1,3) and the point B has
coordinates (1,5, —2). Show that AOAB is right-angled, where
O is the origin.
13 The point A has coordinates (5,3,—3) and the point B has
coordinates (—t,t, 32).
(a) Find an expression for AB’.
(b) Find the value of ¢ that makes AB’ a minimum.
(c) Calculate the minimum value of AB’.
14 The point A has coordinates (3,2¢,1) and the point B has
coordinates (—2t, 5, t).
(a) Find an expression for AB’.
(b) Find the value of ¢ that makes AB? a minimum.
(c) Calculate the minimum value of AB?.
15 The point A has coordinates (3 + t,2,6 —#)and the point B has
coordinates (5,1 + t, —3).
(a) Find an expression for AB’.
(b) Find the value of ¢ that makes AB? a minimum.
(c) Calculate the minimum value of AB’.
16 The point A has coordinates (3,0,0), the point B has
coordinates (0, 3,0) and the point C has coordinates (0,0, 7).
Find, to 0.1°, the size of the angle between the planes OAB and
ABC, where O is the origin.
206 =Trigonometry
|

17 The point A has coordinates (5,0,0), the point B has

coordinates (0, 7,0) and the point C has coordinates (0, 0, 5).
Find, to 0.1°, the size of the angle between the planes OAC and
ABC, where O is the origin.
18 F (2,11,5) G (6,11,5)

A (2,7,1) D

In the cube ABCDEFGH the point A has coordinates (2,7, 1),

the point E has coordinates (2,7, 5), the point F has coordinates
(2,11,5) and the point G has coordinates (6, 11,5).
(a) Write down the coordinates of the points B, C, D and H.
(b) Calculate, to 3 significant figures, the length AG.
(c) Calculate, to 0.1°, the size of GAC.
19
F G (9,5,3)

Darn ae? ae C(9,5,-2)

Al(5:=3,=2) DKS
35-2)

In the cuboid ABCDEFGH the point A has coordinates

(5, —3,—2), the point C has coordinates (9,5, —2), the point D
has coordinates (9, —3,—2) and the point G has coordinates
(9-5, 3)
(a) Write down the coordinates of the points B, E, F and H.
X is the mid-point of GH.
(b) Calculate the size of the angle between the planes ABX and
ABCD.
20 In the triangle ABC, A has coordinates (2,1, —3), B has
coordinates (1,0,4) and C has coordinates (—3,2, 1). Calculate
the size of ACB.
Trigonomety || 207
Differentiation

8.1 Composite functions

In chapter 3 of Book P1 you learned how to form and to evaluate
composite functions.

Example 1
Given that f(x) =x? and g(x) =3x-—1, then the composite
function fg is given by
fo(x) = {se See 1)
The composite function gf is given by
gtx) =e ean |

You have now reached the stage where you will need to differentiate
composite functions. In chapter 8 of Book P1, you learned these
important results:

x
du dy
nadepone

Consider how you could differentiate (3x —ie using your

knowledge from Book P1.

First write y = (3x—1)

Expand to give y= 9x7 = 6x 1

Differentiate: dy = 18x —6 = 6(3x —1)

 Differentiation 209

This approach is laborious, and it gets worse! Consider, for

example, differentiating (3x —1)° in this way. Especially when the
actual answer, 18(3x —iy", can be obtained so simply by the
method you are about to learn.

8.2 Differentiating composite

functions using the chain rule
Suppose that y is a function of ¢ and that ¢ is a function of x. The
idea of taking an increment (small change) was introduced in Book
P1. Now suppose that a small change 6x in the variable x gives rise
to small changes dy and 6r¢in the variables y and ¢ respectively.
éy 6y Ot
Al ae
im bx ot Ox

As éy, dt and 6x — 0 we may assume that

dy dy dy dy q 6t dt
6x dx’ ot di 6x dx
This leads to the important result
2 whpled tual
dx dt dx
This is called the chain rule. You will find that almost every
differentiation you undertake will involve some use of the chain
rule. You need to know this result, but you will not be expected to
prove it.

= Knowing how to use the chain rule is of prime importance.

Example 2
Differentiate (a) (3x —1)? (b) (3x —1)° with respect to x.

(a) Write y = (3x —1)? and t=3x-1

Then: y=f and t=3x-1
Differentiating gives:
dy hes
Pie 2t and aa 3

Using the chain rule gives

dy _ dy dt
dx dt dx ais
210 Differentiation

But t = 3x — 1, so

dy_ 6(3x —1)

dx
as we found earlier on page 208.

(b) Write y= (3x —1)° and t= 3x—1

Then: year andr 3x =!
: et ee dibs
Differentiating: an 6f°and2 ita3
Using the chain rule:
dy. Gynt ie ges 5
ee 6r x 3 8t

But ¢t= 3x —1; so

dy 5
dx
—= 183-1)
18(3x-1

Example 3

Find aa wherey = In(x?—3x +5).

Write ¢t= x* — 3x +5; then:

y=Int and t=x*-3x+5

peLek dy.) day

Differentiating: ae and nai 2x —3

Using the chain rule:

dy dy dt 1
emaiati aba ce oa

But t = x* —3x +5; so:

dy a yar 3
dx x2—3x+5

Example 4
A,
Find eS where'y ey ="er":
Ales

Write t = \/x = x?; then:

Differentiating: —=
 Differentiation 211

dy
and —=e'
as
Using the chain rule:
dy_dy dry 1
tite we aL. 2./x
But t = ,/x; so:
d
LR) ape
dx 2,/x

Example 5
: l
Find the gradient of the curve y = ——— at the point where
; (3x + 2)
x= 3

Write t= 3x + 2 and then y= °°.

Differentiating: = =3and
= =—
28
Using the chain rule: =
dy dy dt | =
"SGT, Pas
But t = 3x +2; so:
dy Re
—
2a = —6(3x+2)?
(3x+ 2) =
(3x+ 2)
l
The gradient of the curve y =, at the point where x =}
3x +2

is found by putting x = 4 in the expression for ax

That is, at x = 4,
ee ee:
one 2 o

Differentiatewithrespectto x:
Pesdocet2 ODig
ety a (3=x)" Aeon 1
1
ht faa uy + UG-(x—4)" 7 (3-—-x)t +8x—7
212 Differentiation

3
5-x
10 (6x2+1)4 11 In(x—2) 12 e&
1
ASMaia 1c —6
ijacs 14 In(j6—x7) 15
VON ae 9 3 —4x3
NI 2
WetA in 18 olla 919,ee i Oe

STONE 1\- ae a
peeks ed We YOR ish ee I
% a (1 + x?)

25. In(3x°— 4x+3) i

26 In(x +x =y *)27In(e*+5) 28 e®*

29 Sei 30 ply
(6x3—5) Inx
1 d
31 Given that y = ————,,, find the value of = at x = 4.
(1+Vx)
d
32 Given that y = In(x? + 4x), find the value of = at x =H.

d
33 Given that y = e* ~*, show that the value of x if = = 11s Vand

dy =—l,ifx=0.
dx
d
34 Given that y = (7x2—1)},find the value of =~ ate

35 Findee —5x)“ at x=—-1.

8.3 Differentiating products

You know already how to differentiate sums and differences of two
functions, u and v, of x using the formula

d du dv
a. MEX= Gta
Now you will learn how to differentiate uv, where u and vy are
functions of x.

Consider y = uv, where u and vy are functions of x.

Suppose that you make a small change, 6x, in x and this in turn
gives rise to small changes dy, du and év in y, u and v respectively.
Then: y+ dy= (u+ 6u)(v+ bv)
= uv+ udv+ vdu+ dudv
 Differentiation 213

or: dy = uv + udv + vdu + dudv — y

But y = wy, so

dy = udv + vdu + dudv

by __ ov du bu
So:
. ay
ox gaPipe steths
ea Bpis
bu bu dv
s 6x—0, 5 OYpeek 6x—0
éy
edie dy 6éu du
ae de év dv
oe dx
So:
: dy_ du, a
dx dx dx
This is known as the product rule. You should learn it because you
will often need to use it. You are not expected to know how to prove
this formula in examinations.

Example 6 dy
Given that y = 3x3(2x—5)*, find eRe

Putu=3x°;ead Sipe
dx
Put v= (2x—5)*;then by the chainrule:
= = 4(2x—5)3(2)= 8(2x—5)?

dx dx dx
= 9x?(2x—5)*+.3x?-8(2x—5)?
= 3x*(2x—5)*[3(2x—5)+ 8x]
= 3x7(2x—5)*[6x—15+ 8x]
= 3x*(2x —5)*(14x —15)

Notice that you will usually need to ‘tidy up’ your answer after
applying the product formula.

Example 7 dy
Given that y = e~?*,/(x?+ 1), find oT
du §
Write u = e~2*; then — = —2e°*
dx
Put v= V(x?+1) = (x?+1)3
214 Differentiation

,
Bythechainrule: d
sake a
+ 1)3(2x)
se
V(x? +1)

dx dx dx
(2) yO?41) te
=f 2 —2x 2 1 =202 x

ake
out t th
thecommonfactor e 2x
area toOgive
Tak factor——_—— gi

dy e 2x
So ae ma eee 2 ba |)
ep ies ta (Kg doce)
Ve + 1)

8.4 Differentiating quotients

: a eatl 2
You can write the quotient —, where u and v are functions of x, as:
v
u =
yoa-= uy
v
By the product rule then,
dy yl du d yl)
dx dx dx
As y is a function of x, you can write t= v7!.

Then: dt
A me
en -
Bythe chainrule,
GA Gt av yd
dx. "dv ‘dx dx

So: dy du dy
advsSS a ie 4 eeecake
ie

Le age
py dx vw?dx

du dy
é Ee eres
 Differentiation 215

This result is known as the quotient rule. Here are some examples of
how to use it.

Example 8
x*—1 dy
Given
i ththat
y = ——
Pret | findoe
—.,

Put u = x*—1, then: wer 32

dx

Put v = x*+1, then: d

ase
dx

Apply the quotient formula:

du dy
dy_ "dx "dx
dx y2

dy —2x(x? + 1) —2x(x? - 1)
dx (x2 +1)
2x3 + 2x —2x3 + 2x
— (x41)

22
So: dx oa(x24 1)?

Alternatively, you could write y = (x? —1)(x2+1)7' and use the

product rule. Then:

u=x-1 —=2x

d
y= (x*+ 1)! and, by the chainrule, = S52x(x? 4a)”S
216 Differentiation

dy du dy
dx ‘dx dx
S Ux(xe4 by ohGP 1) ax a
axa exten)
eee PT oe 241)
_ 2x(x?+1) —2x(x?—1)
(x2 +1)
2x3 +2x —2x3+ 2x
sina cah
4
a ese1p

As you can see, the quotient rule formula reduces the amount of
algebraic processing you have to do and this is why the first method
is recommended.

Example 9
J/(3—4x) fa
Given
thaty=In(2x—3)’ -
Putu= /(3 —4x)= (3- 4x); then:os =}(3- 4x)72(—
4)
—2(3 —4x)?

dy 2
Put v = In (2x —3); then: cE gree

using the chain rule in each case.

y du : dv
ays diya dx
So:
nd ——
dx = y2 x

1 — 12
_-2(3 —4x) tin(2x —3) - oe
fin (2x —38)|*
=2In(2x-—3) 2,/(3 —4x)
— (3-42) 2x +3
== 6 ee 2 oa
[In(2x —3)]

Se2(2x —2m (Ox 3) 273= 4x)

(2x —3)./(3 —4x)[In (2x —3)/?
 Differentiation 217

Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:

Pei) 2 A(28 3) xrer

4 (2x—1)Inx 5 e*Inx 6 (x+1)In(3x—1)
get ax—
1)" 8 (2x—3)(x24+1)? 9 x(x24+1)4
10 (2x—3)/(x? —1) it (k= 1) 7%
12 (x —2)'(x+2)8 13 (2x?—1),/(4x—3)
14 Yin(@—1) 15 (x—1)'e? | 1g
OG—
x2 3 ex
17 l-—x 18
: —~
2 —x? ad ~—
2x+1

Pee)In (1— x? ipsax 0p ee

x x41 J/(x —1)

2x-—1 Jx 3e*—|
23 24
x? —1 A+] 3e*+1

6 ev In(x?+ 1) a
1) ae ea bees)
In (2x+1) x*—1 seat

39 J(4x°. —1) 3 2 + 1)
In (x-
In(2x—3) e+

31 Given that y = a : 1? find the values et

of x for which op = BUD

32 Given that y=(1+ 2), ; d

find an expression for ~ Hence find
the value of ‘es when x = 0 and when x = 3.
x

33 Given that y = x°(x — ae find the values of x and y when

dy
—=0.
dx
a
-f d
34 Given that y=2 —, find the value of <Y when x = 9.

35 Given that f(x) = xIn (x? —4), find the value of f’(2).
218 Differentiation

8.5 Related rates of change

You learned in Book P1 that the derivative is used to measure rates
of change. By using the chain rule you can find rates of change that
are related to other rates of change, as the following examples
illustrate. Sometimes you may also need to use the product or
quotient rule.

Example 10
The radius of a spherical balloon is increasing at the rate of
0.2ms~!. Find the rate of increase of (a) the volume (b) the surface
area of the balloon at the instant when the radius is 1.6m.

(a) The volume V m? of a sphere, radius rm, is given by the formula

V=4ar.
3
We know that = = 0.2 and also, by differentiating, that:

a = 4rr°

Use the chain rule:

av_ dV ar
dt dr dt
Whenr = 1.6, the rate of change of V with respect to ¢ is

Fa=4n(1.6)?(0.2)
m3s7!
=06.43 ms"

(b) The surface area Am? of a sphere, radius rm, is given by the
formula A = 4n7r’.
d
We know that = = (0.2 and also, by differentiating, that:

a = $nr

Use the chainrule:

dd_ dA dr
a drs “dy
Whenr = 1.6,the rate of changeof A with respectto ¢ is
- = 87(1.6)(0.2)m*s~!
= 8.04 m’s7!
 Differentiation 219

Example 11
dx
Given that P = x(x? + 4)?,find - when x = 2 and Aas me

, dP
First you need to find a using the product rule, so write:
u=x and v= (x? +4)!
Then:
du Gv 4.5 a;
om and Bag he + 4) 2(2x)
= x(x" + 4)7Nie

dP du dv
dx "dx dx
= (x27
44)?+x2(x?+ 4)

Atx = 2, dP
Soe ae 1 et 8) 1

g?

g 2x2 2. 2!
OPa ,aP ax :
rrber suer (chainrule)
=3x2x3
~9x2 or 9\/2

8.6 Second derivatives

For the function f, given by y = f(x), the first derivative is f’(x) or

od and we write
dx A
Y
eo !(x)
pede
The second derivative of y with respect to x is obtained by
differentiating f’(x) and is denoted by f”(x); we write:

4 (2)<r
220 Differentiation
\

2
d
dx (2:
Zi iswritten
inshorthandas<d3and
form read
as‘dee
twoy
2

by dee x squared’. “4 is called the second derivative of y with respect

x
to x.

This notation can be extended; for example:

d (d’y\ _ d’y
dx \dx2} —dx3

and this is called the third derivative of y with respect to x.

n
y or as
The nth derivative of y with respect to x is written as
dx”
f”)(x). You will do more work on higher derivatives in Books P3
and P4.

Example 12
1
Express ete in partial fractions and hence find the
(1 —2x)(1+x)
dy d*y TIx+1
values wee and 79?
dg
— where i —(@—2x)(1+x) ole —0.

Using the work from chapter 1, you can write

7x+1 ¥ A Pe B
(1—2x)(1+x) 1-2x 14x
So 7x + 1 = A(1 + x) + B(1 —2x) is true for all values of x.
peat: 26 aeapee ees
Med: f+1=A(1+})+054=3
Hence: iE? DoulaIR Aate a
(l—2x)(1+x) (
= (lox olen)
Using the chain rule of differentiation:

dy
aa = 3(=2)(=1) oan ee
6 2
~(2x (1x)
 Differentiation 221

dy °Gt. 2
. ag i aa

ay_d(a\_a[ 6 | 2
Be ck i} =3x)" (1 +x)?

d’y d —2 —2

Usingthe chainrule:
d?y os a3
ee i 6(—2)(—2)(1 —2x)~~+ 2(—2)(1+x)
iB Sorte wuricing
(V2x4° (14x)
d’y 24 4
mix = ()- er ee Ree

8.7 Points of inflexion

For any point P on the curve y=f(x) eer
at which 22 =f) and
* dx?
a3 # 0, the point P is called a point of inflexion. At points of
x
inflexion, the value of = is stationary: it is neither increasing nor
x
decreasing.
Here are two illustrations of points of inflexion.
(i) The curve y = x° at the origin.
222 Differentiation
dy dy
At OFgs POS agains
3
But 3 = 6 £0, so O is a point of inflexion.
x
d’y d*y
oe = 3 2 brs PY== oe
(ii) Thecurve y= x —x has 7x2 = 0%= 2,50 -3 Val x=:
2
Lo|—
Atx=3,y=—-%
d y
Also —=60
a3 a

At P(;, —#)thereis a point of inflexion.

8.8 Finding the nature of stationary

points
The second derivative is very useful when you want to find out what
kind of stationary point you have identified on a curve: maximum,
minimum or point of inflexion. Suppose we have y = f(x) and
f'(x,), f’(x2)and f’(x3) are all zero. If the corresponding values of y
are yj, y2 and y3 respectively, then (x1,1), (x2, 2) and (x3, 3) are
stationary points of y = f(x).

If f’(x,) < 0, then y; is amaximum value of f(x).

If f’(x2) > 0, then y2 is a minimum value of f(x).

If f’(x3) = 0 and f’”(x3) 4 0, then y3 is an inflexion point.

Example 13
Find the turning points and the points of inflexion on the curve
DEX
week Dios
 Differentiation 223

Using the product rule: “=x y=e*

du Cages.
Ay = 2% as =e

ae eles + ol = 2xe* + x’e*

De doe
= xe*(x + 2)
: points
For turning Caras= = 0.
v3
re"(t +2) =0-x=0 or x=-2
Remember that e* > 0 for all x because the graph of y = e* lies
above the x-axis. So the turning points are O(0,0) and A(—2,4e~°).
dy = e*(x*
"E ee + 2x)

mad? y
For the points of inflexion, you need to solve the equation aa 0.

Using the product rule again:

u=x° +2x ——"
du dy
—=2x+2
dx ‘= —=e
dx :

d*y du dy : :
eae—_
= p— tue —_= (2x4 + 2)e*&+ (x°= + 22x)ex

= (x*+ 4x 4+2)e*
e* > 0 = possible points of inflexion occur at

x+4x4+2=0
z=tevl6=8)
Tap
So there may be points of inflexion at the two points

¥= —)—VJ2, y = 0.38

x=—2+¥72, y0.19

ae
d =qyl?+4x
Gad d +2e4]=
Be erate ete fds£9)(2)
dx(by the product rule) dx
224 Differentiation
\

3
So: 2 = e*(2x+4) + (x?+ 4x + 2)e”
%

= e*(x?+ 6x,+ 6)

da
At x =—2+4
V2and at x =—2—V2youcan showthat a #0
and therefore the points (—2—V2,0.38) and (—2+ V2,0.19) are
points of inflexion on the curve y = x7e*.

8.9 Parallel and perpendicular lines

In Book P1 you were shown how to find the gradient of a straight
line and how to find the equation of a straight line in the forms
y=mx-+cand y—y; = m(x —x). The gradient of a line is defined
as change in y divided by change in x over some specific interval.

Over the interval P to O shown, the y increase is QR and the x

increase is PR.

y increase

In the diagram, the gradient of line PQ is

y increase QR
x increase, = —-=tan/OPR
———— .PR Qg

Extend line QP until it meets the x-axis at the point S. Then

/ PSO = £ QPR = 89,say, because PR and the x-axis are parallel.

The gradient of the line PQ then is tan, where @is the angle made
by the extended line QP and the positive direction of the x-axis.
 Differentiation 225

Lines that are parallel have the same gradient, tan, as shown.

= That is, two lines with gradients m, and my, are parallel if, and
only if, m, =m).

Consider now two lines, one of gradient m, which are perpendicular

and intersect at the point A.

The line with gradient m meets the x-axis at B, ABC = 0 and the
perpendicular line meets the x-axis at C. Now tanO=m. By
definition the gradient of AC is tan ¢, where ¢ is the angle between
AC and the positive direction of the x-axis. But by geometry,
¢ = 90° + @(angle sum of triangle is 180°).

So the gradient of AC is

sin(90° + 0)
tan(90° + 8) =
cos(90° + 4)
Al sin 90° cos 6 + cos 90° sin 8
~ cos 90° cos 8 —sin 90° sin 6
226 Differentiation

But sin 90° = | and cos 90° = 0.

cos 6
So: Gradient of AC = ——
sin 0
1
tan 0
, 1
The gradient of AC is a

Lines that are perpendicular have gradients which are the negative
reciprocals of each other.
m= That is, two lines with gradients m, and m2 are perpendicular if,
and only if, mymz = —1.

Example 14
Find the equation of the line through the point (3,—2) which is
(a) parallel to (b) perpendicular to the line y = 2x —4.
The line y = 2x —4 has gradient 2 and any line parallel to it has
gradient 2.
(a) We require a line through (3, —2)with gradient 2. The equation is
yt+2 =2(x —3)
because a line of gradient m, passing through the point (x), 1) has
equation y —yj = m(x —x1).
(This was shown in Book P1, chapter 4.)
(b) Any line perpendicular to the line y= 2x —4 has gradient —}
(since (—4) x 2= —1). The required equation is
y+2=—-3(x-3)

Example 15
Show that the lines with equations
x+3y+1=0
3x =n —1 = 9
meet at right angles.
The gradient of x + 3y + 1 = 0 is found by rearranging the equation
in the form

Porix
Ayiy!3l
If you compare this with y = mx +c, you see that the gradient is
_ i. Similarly, 3x — y—7 = 0 can be rearranged as

y= 3x — ]

and the gradient is 3.

 Differentiation 227

The lineshavegradients—}and 3. The productof theseis

—-4x3=-1
So the lines are perpendicular.

8.10 Tangents and normals to curves

The gradient at any point on the curve f(x) is
Gey
dx —f (x)

Att P(a,b)
P(a,b sling
Trgaliles

As you learned in Book P1, the gradient of the tangent to the curve
at P is the same as the gradient of the curve at P.

m= The equation of the tangent at P to the curve is

y—b=f'(a)(x —a)

By definition the normal to the curve at P is perpendicular to the

I
tangent. The gradient of the normal is therefore —"(ay ’ as th the
product of the gradients of lines at right angles is —1.
um The equation of the normal is
228 Differentiation

Example 16
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y = x(x — 1)? at the point (5, 10).
dy Pies
First you need to find using the product rule:

w= x v= (x-1) ne

du dpa | i
dx | =
etise dx NS
SE i ee ) [Pee

dy du dv
So: Pe oe Pala i

= (x- Lies (ae 1)

dye
At(5, 10): 24+3xi=8
5 Sie
The equation of the tangent at (5,10) to y= x(x —1)? is
y—10=2(x-5)
that is, 13x —4y —25=0

Thenormalhas gradient—«. Theequationof the normalis

y—-10=-(x-5)
that is, 4x+ 13y —150=0

1 The sides of a square are increasing at a constant rate of

0.1cms~!. Find the rate at which the area of the square is
increasing when each side of the square is of length 10cm.
2 A circular oil-slick is increasing in area at a constant rate of

3m?s~!. Find the rate of increase of the radius of the slick at the

instant when the area is 1200 m°.

3 You are told that A = 14x’ and that x is increasing at

0.5cms~!. Find the rate of change of A at the instant when
ceo CM.
4 Each side of a contracting cube is decreasing at a rate of
0.06cms~!. Find the rate of decrease of (a) the volume (b) the
outer surface area of the cube when the sides of the cube are
each 4cm.
 Differentiation 229

5 The volume of an expanding sphere is increasing at a rate of

24cm? s~!. Find the rate of increase of (a) the radius (b) the
surface area when the radius of the sphere is 20cm.

6 Given that y=(3t—1)? and += 4x3,find the value of &

a
when x = 81.
7 (a) Given that

Inx
y=—,x>0
es

find the value of x for which si ='(),

he

(b)

; Inx
The diagram shows the curve y=——. The curve crosses
it
2
the x-axis at A; at B, By =O atc, use 0. Determine the
dx dx?

coordinates of A, B and C.

ee
8 Show that the curve y =— has a maximum value of —e at
x
x=-l.
9 Given that

R= Bx
OP ag6Ox

dy
find the values of x and of y when ; ae 0. Investigate the nature
of these stationary values of y. .
230 = Differentiation \

10 When the depth of liquid in a container is xcm, the volume of

liquid is x(x? + 25) cm®. Liquid is added to the container at a
constant rate of 2cm*s~!. Find the rate of change of the depth
of liquid at the instant when x = 11.
2x
11 Express oe 4 in partial fractions. Given that f(x) = x4
>¢ —_

find f’(4) and f”(0).

12 Given that

ae

2
find the value of a ae x ses
d
13 Given that

ae ei

a2
find, in terms of e, the value of uy and eed at x= 1,
dx dx2
14 Find the equation of the straight line:
(a) parallel to the line y= 4x —5, passing through (2, 3)
(b) parallel to the line y= 4 —6x, passing through (—1, 3)
(c) parallel to the line 2y + 3x = 7, passing through (2, —S).
15 Find the equation of the straight line:
(a) perpendicular to the line y = 3x + 5, passing through (1,7)
(b) perpendicular to the line y=2— 5x, passing through
(3, =35)
(c) perpendicular to the line 3y+2x=7, passing through
(1, =
16 (a) Show that AABC, where A is (0,2), B is (8,6) and C is
(2,8), contains a right angle.
(b) ADEF,whereD is (—2,0),Eis (5,y)and Fis (34,—3})is
right-angledat E. Determinethe valueof y.
(c) Quadrilateral ABCD, where A is at (4,5) and C is at
(3, —2), is a square. Find the coordinates of B and D and
the area of the square.
 Differentiation 231

17 Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point
(3,4) on the curve

y=(?+7)}

18

yRavixt 2)”

O x

The curve y = \/(x + 2) meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at

B, as shown.
(a) Find the coordinates of A and B.
At the point P on the curve, the x-coordinate is —1. The tangent
to the curve at P meets the x-axis at C and the y-axis at D. P
(b) Find the equation of the tangent.
(c) Determine the length of CD.
The normal at P to the curve meets the y-axis at E.
(d) Determine the distance BE.
19 Show that the line x + y = 0 is the normal to the curve y = xe*
at the origin O.
20 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y =x\Inx at the point P, whose x-coordinate is e.
The tangent and normal meet the x-axis at Q and R
respectively. Find the length of QR and the area of APQR.
21 Given that y = 4e** — Se~**, show that

2
arn

22 On the curve y = (3x+ 1)?, the points P and Q have

x-coordinates of 1 and 8 respectively. Find the equations of the
normals to the curve at P and Q.
23 Prove that the curve y = 4x° + Ax°*has two turning points for
\ <0 and none for \ > 0. Given that \ = —3, find the
coordinates of the turning points and distinguish between them.
232 Differentiation
\

24 The curve y = e*(px” + qx +r) is such that the tangents at

x = 1 and x = 3 are parallel to the x-axis. The point (0,9) is on

the curve. Find the values of p, q and r.

25 (a) Find the equation of the tangent and the normal at (, 1) on

the curve y =
l-x°
(b) Find the coordinates of the point where the normal meets
the curve again.
26 For the curve y = ——— find:
(x + 3)
(a) the coordinates of the stationary point
(b) the coordinates of the point of inflexion.
27 For the curve y = so :

(a) show that

dy ~2(1- xe
ax (ft x2)
(b) find the coordinates of the stationary points and distinguish
between them.
28 The curve y = x7 Inx is defined for positive values of x.
(a) Determine the coordinates of the stationary point.
(b) Find the equation of the tangent at the point (e, e’).
29 Given that
_ ox sae 4
Y=@+DG2
+1
express y in terms of partial fractions.

Hence determine the value of - atixt=- ft

30 Find the values of A, B and C for which

3x7-2x+1 A BC
f(x) = ———_ = <
x2(1 —x) bs xt
Hence find f’(2) and f”(2).
 Differentiation 233

8.11 Differentiating trigonometric

functions

This circle, centre O and radius R, has the angle POA = x radians,
T
where x < > The tangent to the circle at P meets OA produced at

the point 7. The radius OP is perpendicular to the tangent PT. The

line PQ is perpendicular to OA. In APOQ, PQ = Rsin x; in AOPT,
PT = Rtanx. Think about the areas of parts of the diagram. You
can see that
area AOAP < area sector OAP < area AOPT

+R?sinx < SR*x <4R’tanx

sinx
So: sinx < x
cosx
Divideby sinx, whichis positive,as x < 5
x

sinx cosx

As x —0, cos x — 1 and x

so ——— 1
sin x
or you could say
x

lim
x0
(—)
\sinx
=.)
This limit is of vital importance in finding the derivative of sin x
because if you consider
y= sinx
y + éy = sin(x + 6x)
= sin x cos 6x + cos x sin 6x
[using the identity for sin(A + B)]
234 Differentiation \

When 6x is small enough, cos 6x = | and since

lim (5 =) a
6x0 bx
sin 6x & 6x.

So when 6x is sufficiently small,

yt dy & sinx + 6xcos x

éy & sin x + 6x cosx —y

But y = sinx

So: 6
éy = 6xcosx and oY~~cosx
6x
BS ee; @dy\ ——dy _

a (sinx) = cosx
dx =

Now
cosx
=sin5 —x).Write
r= sin(S
—x)
1 Pak. !
Pup = ae x; then y = sint and differentiating gives

dt dy
<eeiet andHye:
Bythechain
rule:
dy dy qe
ae=Ge dt_ ~008=—008(5
= 1—
x]
Butcos(=—
x)=sinxandsoeS —sinx
2. a dx
d
m—/(cosx)
dx
;
=—sinx
In your examination, you need to know the derivatives of sin x and
cosx but you will not be expected to prove the results just
established. The derivation of these results has assumed that the
angle x is always measured in radians. In all future work connected
with differentiation and integration of trigonometric functions you
must always take x to be measured in radians. Expressions such as
sin x, cos’ 8, tan 3y all imply that x, 0 and y are in radians and you
should never use degrees in this level of work, except in practical
 Differentiation 235

trigonometry and, perhaps, in solving trigonometric equations,

when you are instructed to give the answer in degrees.
You should memorise the following important results obtained by
using the chain rule:

5
m= —/(sinnx) (sinnx)
= ncosnx

m —/(cosnx) = —nsinnx

= —(sin” x) =nsin"'
= xcos
x COS
Xx

d
a ay(cos"
x)=—ncos""!
xsinx
The derivative of tan x is found by using the quotient rule because
sin x
y=tanx =
cos x
Take u = sinx ¥= cosx ps
du dv 4
Then: —=cosx —=-—sinx
dx dx

du dy
dy i—
“dx — i——
“dx
dx y2
cos? x —(—sin?x) cos?x+sin’x
a cos? x cos? x

But cos? x + sin? x = 1 and so:

I
qx (tan) ere

Similarly you can show that

d 2
—
2 (cot(cot
x) = —cosec*x
x)

The derivative of sec x is found by using the chain rule:

F = eecx= Ades=
cosx (cosx)
Put ¢ = cosx and then y =r!
236 Differentiation

So: dy =—-:—
dy dt = sinx
dx dt dx _ cos*x
in 1 sin x
~ cosx cosx.
= sec x tan x

Similarly you can show that

* (cosec x)
— (cosecx) = —cosecx cot x
dx
You should learn all these results:

iS
m@ ) =secxtanx
—(secx)
d
> (cosecx) = —cosecx cot x
fs
= d (tan x) = sec”x

a ~(cot
x)=—cosec”
x
Example
17
Differentiate with respect to x:

(a)cos'x (b) tan(x—3) (C) x2sin3x

4
(a) Write y = cos* x and cosx = t

Then: y= “and t= cosx

d dt
= = 4 and qx = 7 Sinx

Using the chain rule:

dy dy
ee dt_ 303
een ae 4t’sinx

So: Des
dx
—4
c os?xsinx
(b) Write y = tan(2x —3) and 2x-3=f
Then: y=tant and t=2x-—3
d
—
dt
=sectandSeng
dx
 Differentiation
237
Using the chain rule:

dy _dyar
Thc FwaS eel

So: dy
= 135 —
a 2 sec“(2x —3)

(c) Take y = x* sin 3x and write

u=x*, v=sin3x
du dv
Th en ; —_—_
Efe= 2x, —==
e 3 cos 3x

Using the product rule:

dy _ du, dy
dea dx x

dy ;
So: — = 2xsin 3x + 3x*cos 3x
dx ;
Example 18
Given that y=sinx+cos2x, 0<x<v1, find (a) the stationary
values of y (b) the nature of these stationary values.
; d
(a) By differentiation: = = cos x —2sin2x

But sin 2x = 2sin x cos x

So: d = C08x—4sin.xcosx = cosx(1 —4sin x)

qa
x
d
At stationary values of y, = = ()

So: cosx=0 or sinx=}

x=5 or 0.253or 2.889
Stationary values are

y=0 or WA2s yor= 1.125

The coordinates of the stationary points are

(5.0), (0.253,
1.125),
(2.889,
1.125)
238 Differentiation \

d ;
(b) By differentiation of <Y —cosx —2sin 2x, you have
dx
d2
agi = —sinx—4cos2x

ee 0053) a 2 eeea

n dy
At => ‘dx = je 0
At x = 2.889, . 2 350

dy d*y
At (0.253,1.125), 4-=0,55<0
This stationary point is amaximum.
T
At (5,0), oady d*y

This stationary point is a minimum.

dy d*y
At ((2.889,1.125),
) —dx = 0,dx— <0

This stationary point is a maximum.

Differentiate with respect to x:

1 sin3x 2 sin}x 3 cos4x 4 cos}x

5 tan2x 6 tan- 7 sec5x 8 cosec}x

3 2
9 cot6x 10sec; 11cot 12cose
medy
Find as in each of these questions:
x

13_y =sin’ x 14 y=sin’x 15 y= /(sinx)

16 y=cos*x jh eyarsonee 18 y= (cosx)3

19 y y=tan’
= tan?x 20 y y=
= y(tanx)
V(t Veeher
21.y.=

1
22 y= sin’5x 23 y= 4 24 y=cosec*x
cos x
 Differentiation 239

Differentiate with respect to x:

25 sin? 2x 26 cos? 3x 27 tan? 2x
28 sec? 2x 29 sin(3x + 5) 30 cos*(2x—4)
31 tan?(1 —2x) 32 “cole32 33 cosec? 4x
34 sin? x + cos? x 35 (cot x —cosec x)
2
2
36 (sin x —cos x)
Differentiate with respect to x:
37 sin? xcosx 38 3
sinxcos’ x 39 tani xaseCu,
40 sec xcosec x 41 xsin’x 42 x? cosx

43 x*tan2x Pe sin x
45
sin x Xx

46 + 47 cos 3x
48 tan 2x sec 3x
cos x x3

49 sin? xcos? x 50 e*sinx ex

cos? x
> ex In(2x —5)
52 sin’ xInx ———— 54
sin x --Cos:x cos? 3x
; : d*y
55 Given that y = sin3x, show that ae —9y.
x

56 Given that y = Acos2x + Bsin2x, where A and B are

constants, show that

d?y
—+4y=0
dx? st

57 Find the value of sin@ when 7 sec 6 — 3 tan@ is a minimum.

58 Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve

y =sinx, 0 < x <§, at the point where sin x = 2,

d
Find the value of —[sec” x + tan? x] at x = 3n
59 Pr 4°

l
60 Differentiate
abitnobZz
1—cos2x
eee . dx
d F{1+cotx
-a ~ sin2x—1
2

62 Giventhat y= (A+ x)cosx,whereA isa constant,

showthat
2

Bs + y is independent of A.
da
240 Differentiation

63 The tangent to the curve y = tan 2x at the point where x = }

meets the y-axis at the point Y. Find the distance OY, where O
is the origin.
64 The normal to the curve y = sec? x at the point P(, 2) meets the
line y = x at the point Q. Find PQ’.
65 Find the equation of the normal to the curve
y =e*(cos x + sin x) at the point (0, 1).
66 The volume of a cone with base radius acos@ and height asin 0
is V, where

V= ima cos @sin0

Given that @ can vary and a is a constant, find the maximum

value of V in terms of a.

67 Find the coordinates of the turning points of the curve

y = e** cos x in the interval 0 < x < 27 and distinguish between
them.
68 Show that the function f given by

f(x) = sinx —xcosx

is increasing throughout the interval 0 < x < 5.

8.12 Differentiating relations given

implicitly
d
Up to this point you have learned how to find ie from a function
i
given explicitly as y = f(x).
dy
For example: eae 3 eee
dx ‘ 2

But if y = x°, then x = ys so that differentiating with respect to y

gives
dx “=. =
dy ae

That is, gx = zs we
dy 3y3 3x2
° 2 2
Since x- = 74,
 Differentiation 241

In this case then,

oes
dx dx
dy
We can generalise this result by considering a small change 6x in x
giving rise to a small change 6y in y.

Not; éy 6x
oticethat
thai—-—=
iy 1
: dy 1
So: 6x 6x
éy
You also know that

Ba
: (2)
dy\ The
_ dy es Bee
Se(=)
5 ae
es:

So it is generally true that:

Often you are not given y as a function of x. Instead, relations

between the two variables x and y are given implicitly. For example:

x+y? = 16x

sin(x + y) = cosy

These relations can be differentiated directly by using the chain rule

and the product or quotient rules if required.

If, for example, you want to differentiate y> with respect to x, you
can use the chain rule, first differentiating y> with respect to y to get
: — : dy
3y’, then differentiatingy with respectto x, to get ax

Thus: = (y?)= 3y’ 2 by the chain rule

Similarly:
=(y")
=ny"™
- bythechain
rule
242 Differentiation

If you want to differentiate xy with respect to x, you can use the

product rule and write

d d d
a ) reac!) y+x a)
dy
eet yx ma
s
dy
pgs

Example 19
d
Find - in terms of x and y for (a) x? + y? = 16x

(b) sin(x + y) = cosy.

(a) Differentiating with respect to x:

2x+2yoY=16
So: y 2 =8-x
dy 8-x
do ay
(b) Using the chain rule:

dx any Wax ‘

=cos(x
+y)[ 4z|
dy
res
d (cosy)
= —siny
(2)
dy
So when you differentiate the relation sin(x+y)=cosy with
respect to x you get:

(1+2)cos(x
dy +y)= siny
~~eedy
d
That is: fe [cos(x + y) + sin y]= —cos(x + y)

dy —cos(x+y)
dx cos(x+y)+siny
 Differentiation 243

Exampie 20
Find the equation of the normal at the point (2,1) on the curve |
y? + 3xy = 2x? —1.

First differentiate with respect to x to obtain:

dy+3(v4
292 ByYa
x2)=4x
Taking x = 2, y= 1 gives

dy dy
o+3(1+22)
ia. seal
dy dy _ dy 5

So the gradient of the tangent to the curve at (2, 1) is 2.

..Gradient of normal at (2,1) is —§.

The equation of the normal is

y—-l=—7(x=2)

That is, Sy + 8x = 21

Example 21 d
Given that y = a*, a> 0, find od
dx
Taking logs to the base e gives

Iny =Ina@=xIna
Differentiating with respect to x, using the chain rule,

1
5ae dy
fin epSena

= Ages ae |
dx

ms This is an important result, which you should memorise:

=) =a'Ina
244 Differentiation

8.13 Differentiating functions given

parametrically
You will often come across relationships between the variables x
and y where x and y are given in terms of another variable ¢, where f
is called a parameter. For example, the curve x? + y* = a’, which is
a circle centre the origin and radius a, can also be represented by the
equations

X= dCOs{, y=asint, Oran

where ¢is a parameter.

You can move from the parametric equations to the (x, y) equation
(the cartesian equation), by eliminating ¢ (if this is possible and
simple). In this example, you know that

cosi= = sini= Z
a a
and cos?t+ sin? t= 1

so ep 2ae 2
a a
giving oy RYncaa:

Parametric equations are often used to reduce the amount of

working needed to solve problems, particularly in coordinate
geometry.
d :
By usingthe chain rule, expressionsfor = can be easilyobtained:

dy
Cy eeie
ye ded aed
dt
dt 1 : :
because — = ——, as shown in section 8.12.
ae in
dt

Example 22
Find the gradient at the point P where t = —1, on the curve given
parametrically by

x= —t, y= Pee
Hence find the equation of the tangent and normal at P.
 Differentiation 245

Differentiating the x and y relations with respect to 1,

dx
a; tl dy
ap et =2
dy
dy dt -3f-2¢
dxy-dx ” i= 1
dt
At f=—1,x= 2, y=—2)
and
Cs ee
dx Ses
The equation of the tangent at P is
yt+2=—-3(x-2)
The normal has gradient 2 and its equation is

y+2=2(x—-2)

Example 23
Find the equation of the tangent at the point P where t = 4, on the
curve
x =2cost—cos2t, y=2sint—sin2t, O0<t<7
Differentiating both x and y with respect to f:

oe=—2sint+2sin2z,
ay=2cost—2cos2t
dt dt
Using the chain rule:

dy dt _2cost—2cos2t cost—cos2tr
dx dx 2sin2t—2sint sin2t—sint

Att=4,x=V2,y=V2-1—= 1
Ya
em _ 1
dy 1 ¥2+1_ V2+
2+1 aayee
Fak bt a es
Theequationof thetangentat P is:
| y—(v2 —1)= (v2+1)(«- v2)
y—V24+1=x(V24+1)-2- v2
Thatis, x(/2+1)—y=3
246 Differentiation

Find 2 for each of these relations:

Be

1 y=2x+1 peer eS Soy 1G

Axe 2x te 5 sinx cosy = 1 6e7%=4
7 sin(x+y) =4 8 Inylnx =3 PeIny=x
10 y(x+y) =12

d
Find oe for each of the following where t, 9 and u are parameters;

a,b and c are constants.

11 KS sl St 12 Masts Viete
c
3a p
14 x=acost, y=bsint

15 x =asect, y= atant 16°x% = cost, y= "sin ¢

Me x= fcost, y= tsint

18 x =a(0—cos8), y=a(1+sin8@)
19S Se y= et —6 20 x =sin’6, y =cosOsin§@
21 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = 2* at the
points P and Q where x = 2 and x = S respectively. These
tangents meet at the point R. Find the x-coordinate of R.
22 Find the equation of the normal to the curve x= 3t—-?,y=P
at the point where ¢ = 2.
23 A curve is given by the equations

where ¢ is a parameter.
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve at the
point P where t = —1.
Find the cartesian equation of the curve.
24 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve

x=(1-4f), y=4r
at the point P, where t = —2.
25 The tangents at the points P and Q in the first quadrant, where
x = 1 and x = 4, respectively to the curve y* = 4x meet at the
point R. Find the coordinates of R.
 Differentiation
247
Find the equation of the tangent at (2, 1) the curve
y(x ty)’ = 3(x3- 5)
Find eu in terms of ¢ for the curve

oe See
giaat ae BS
Deduce the equation of the normal at the point where 1= 4. — 2

For the curve xy(x + y) = 84, find 2 at (3,4).

Differentiate with respect to x:
(a) 10* (b) 2° (c) 5-*
For the curve 2cos ysin x = 1, find the equation of the normal
at (3,9).
248 Differentiation
Differentiation 249
Review exercise 2

1 Differentiate with respect to x

(a) = (b) In(1 + tan? x) IL]

2 When a metal cube is heated, the length of each edge increases

at the rate of 0.03cms~!. Find the rate of increase, in cm? Sue
of the total surface area of the cube, when the length of each
side is 8cm. [L]

3 (i) Given that x +2 a

(:ar:1\°
(a)expand ) and
use
your
expression
toshow
that
ae 18
a
(b)expand
(:+:)
Use your expansion and the previous result to find the value of

Neatene

(11) Given that

(1+3x)?=1+Ax+B240084...,

find the values of the constants A, B and C. [L]

 Review exercise 2 251

4 Giventhata is acuteand tana = 3,provethat

3 sin(@+ a) + 4cos(@+ a) = 5cosé [L]
Cc

7cm

a 30° 70°ma
A 3cm D
B
The figure shows AABC in which AB = 3cm, BC = 7cm. ABis
produced to D so that CBD = 30° and BDC = 70°.

Calculate, to 3 significant figures,

(a) the length, in cm, of AC
(b) the length, in cm, of BD
(c) the area, in cm’, of AACD [L]
6 Find the equation of the normal at the point P with parameter t
on the curve with parametric equations

x=, y=2!

Show that, if this normal meets the x-axis at G, and S is the

point (1,0), then SP = SG.
Find also the equation of the tangent at P, and show that, if the
tangent meets the y-axis at Z, then SZ is parallel to the normal
at P. [L]
7 Find the coordinates of the turning points on the curve

y+ 3xy —-x =3 [L]

8 Use the binomial expansion to express x4(1 —x)* as a

polynomial in x.
Hence, or otherwise, verify that

x4(1—x)*= (1+
x7) (x®—40°+ 5x4540° +4)-4 =[L]
252 = Reviewexercise2

A B

The figure shows a pyramid HABCD standing on horizontal

ground. The points A, B, C and D are the corners of its square
base. The length of a side of the square is 12 m and its diagonals

intersect at O. Each sloping edge makes an angle of 28° with the

ground. Calculate
(a) the height, OH, in m to 3 significant figures,
(b) the size, to the nearest degree, of the angle which the plane
HCB makes with the ground.
The point E lies on AD and is such that AE: ED = 1: 4.

(c) Calculate the size, to the nearest degree, of /OEH. [L]

10 Differentiate with respect to x

x2
(a) e**cos x (b) 2x+ 1 (L]

11 Given that sin x = 0.6 and cos x = —0.8,evaluate cos(x + 270°)

and cos(x + 540°). [L]

12
Inthebinomial
expansion
of(1==| inascending
powers
of
x, the coefficient of x? is 5. Given that 7 is a positive integer,
(a) find the value of n
(b) evaluate the coefficient of x* in the expansion. [L]
13 The radius of a circular ink blot is increasing at the rate of
0.3cms~!. Find, in cm?s~! to 2 significant figures, the rate at
which the area of the blot is increasing at the instant when the
radius of the blot is 0.8 cm. [L]
 Review exercise 2 253

14 A vertical wall, 2.7m high, runs parallel to the wall of a house

and is at a horizontal distance of 6.4m from the house. An
extending ladder is placed to rest on the top B of the wall with
one end C against the house and the other end, A, resting on
horizontal ground, as shown in the figure.

Cy
< >
6.4m

The points A, B and C are in a vertical plane at right angles to

the wall and the ladder makes an angle 6, where 0 < 6 < 5, with
the horizontal. Show that the length, y metres, of the ladder is
given by
a) 6.4
~ sin@ cos@

As @ varies, find the value of tan@ for which y is a minimum.

Hence find the minimum value of y. [L]
15 Three points A, B and C are on horizontal ground. The distance
AB is 60m. The bearing of B from A is 040°. The distance BC is
90m. The bearing of C from B is 120°. D is the point on CB
produced which is nearest to A. Calculate
(a) the distance AD, in m to 3 significant figures
(b) the distance AC, in m to 3 significant figures
(c) the bearing of C from 4, to the nearest degree. [L]

16 ; 4 x\" :
In the binomial expansion of (1 + 4 , where k is a constant

and n is a positive integer, the coefficients of x and x? are equal.

(a) Show that 2k =n—1.
For. the case when n = 7

(b) deduce the value of k.

(c) Hence find the first three terms in the expansion in
ascending powers of x. [L]
17 Solve the equation cos @+ sin$0 = 0 where —27 < 0 < 27,
giving your answers in radians. [L]
254 Review exercise 2

18

A; 15cm B

The figure shows a cuboid ABCDWX YZ in which AB = 15cm,

BC =8cm and CY =7cm. CY is vertical. Calculate

(a) the length, in cm, of AC

(b) the length, in cm to 3 significant figures, of AY
(c) the size of the angle between AY and the horizontal, giving
your answer to the nearest degree
(d) the area, in cm? to 3 significant figures, of triangle YAB.
Given that M is the mid-point of AB, calculate
(e) the length, in cm to 3 significant figures, of the perpen-
dicular from M to AY. [L]
19 A line through P(—2,4) is perpendicular to the line whose
equation is x —2y = 5. Given that these two lines intersect at
the point Q, calculate
(a) the coordinates of Q
(b) the distance PQ. [L]
20 Find the distance AB where A is the point (2, —7,4) and B is the
point (—3, —5,6). [L]
21 Findoe!when
dx
(a) y =sin3xcos x + cos3x sin x
e3*
(0) yay (LI
22 A curve has parametric equations
x=3e%-1 y=e*-21
Find, in terms of f,
dx dy dy
@ a Oe (c) ay
The gradient of the normal to the curve at the point P is —5.
(d) Find the value of ¢ at P, giving your answer in the form
t = Ink, where k is a constant. [L]
 Review exercise 2 255

23

A D

In the figure, ABCD is a plane quadrilateral in which

AB = 10cm, BC = 8cm, CD = 6cm, AC = 11cm and.
£ACD = 70°. Calculate
(a) the size of angle ABC
(b) the length of AD
(c) the area of the quadrilateral
(d) the length of the side of a square which has the same area as
the quadrilateral. [L]
A symmetrical pyramid stands on its base, which is a regular
pentagon of side 20cm. The height of the pyramid is 50cm.
Calculate, to 3 significant figures,
(a) the angle, in degrees, between a sloping edge and the base
(b) the length, in cm, of a sloping edge
(c) the angle, in degrees, between a sloping face and the base
(d) the area, in cm’, of a sloping face. [L]
25 Given that (1.01)*° = 1.3478 to 5 significant figures, show that
the magnitude of the error in using the first three terms of the
binomial expansion of (1 + x)*” to estimate the value of (1.01)°°
is less than 0.01. Find also the numerical value of the coefficient
of x° and x?° in this expansion. [L]
26 (a) Solve, for 0 < x < 360, the equation

2cos(x + 50)° = sin(x + 40)°

giving your answers to one decimal place.

(b) Solve, for 0 < x < 27, the equation
cos 2x = 2 sin” x

giving your answer in terms of 7.

256 Review exercise 2

(c) .

In the figure AQ = AP= PB=acm, AC=2acm and

£BAQ = LCAQ = @. Given that

(area AAPQ) =1(area AABC)

find @to one decimal place. [L]

27 The distance between (7,—3, —5)and (—2,—4,¢), where ¢ is a
constant, is /278. Find the values of ¢.
28 A curve has equation x? + 2x?y*+ y3 = 0.
dy
that —= —1 at (—1,-1).
(a) Show at 5 1 at (—1,-1)

(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at (—1,—1).

[L]
29 Given that (1 + 2x) =1+Ax+ Bx? +Cx3+..., find the
values of the integers A, B and C. [L]
30 Differentiate with respect to x
in 2
(a) ate % (b) x2e3* (c) cos(3x2) [L]

31 The points A, B and C lie on horizontal ground and are such

that AB = 19m, BC = 16m and CA = 21m.
(a) Calculate the size of / ACB.

A vertical mast AH of height 11 m is placed at A.

(b) Calculate the size of the acute angle between the planes
HBC and ABC, giving your answer to the nearest 0.1°.
[L]
32 A petrol tanker is damaged in a road accident, and petrol leaks
onto a flat section of motorway. The leaking petrol begins to
spread in a circle of thickness 2mm. Petrol is leaking from the
tanker at a rate of 0.0084m7s~!. Find the rate at which the

radius of the circle of petrol is increasing at the instant when the

radius of the circle is 3m, giving your answer in ms~! to 2
decimal places. [L]
 Review
exercise
2 257
33 The curve C has parametric equations

es air. peed a reR,t40,

where¢ is a parameteranda is a positiveconstant.

ev.
(a) Find+ in termsof f.
The point P on C has parameter t = 2.
(b) Show that an equation of the normal to C at P is
2y=8x—15a
This normal meets C again at the point Q.
(c) Find the value of ¢ at Q. [L]
(i) Given that 0 < @< 360, find all the values of 0, to 1 decimal
place, such that
(a) cos(@+ 30)° = 0.6
(b) siné® + 2cosé° = 0
(ii) A pyramid ABCDE has a rectangular horizontal base
ABCD and its vertical height is 6cm. Each sloping edge is
inclined at 40° to the horizontal. Given that 4B = 6xcm and

BC = 2xcm, calculate, to 3 significant figures,

(a) the value of x
(b) the acute angle between the plane EAB and the horizontal.
[L]
35 The power output of a generator, P watts, is given by

E?R
(R+r)
where E volts is the constant electromotive force of the
generator, r ohms is its constant internal resistance, and R ohms
is the variable load resistance.
dP
Find
aR’
Hence find R in terms of r when the power output is a

maximum. [L]
258 Review exercise 2

36 In the binomial expansion of (1 + kx)", where k is a constant

and nis a positive integer, the coefficients of x and x? are equal.
(a) Show that k(n —1) =2.
Giventhat nk= 23,find
(b) the value of k
(c) the value of n. [L]
37
A 14cm B

ie (\
D EB (C

The figure shows a trapezium ABCD in which AB is parallel to

DC. The perpendicular from B to DC meets DC at E. Given

that AB = 14cm, AE = 20cm, / BCE = 63° and ADC = 43°,

calculate, to 3 significant figures,
(a) the length, in cm, of AD
(b) the area, in cm’, of the trapezium ABCD. [L]
38 Airfield C is situated 50 km from airfield A on a bearing 048°.
Airfield B is situated 100km from airfield A on a bearing of
300°. Calculate

(a) the distance, in kilometres to 3 significant figures, from B

tore
(b) the bearing, to the nearest degree, of C from B
(c) the area of AABC giving your answer to the nearest
10 km?. [L]
39 Find, in terms of 7, the complete set of values of 0 in the interval
0 < 6 < 2r for which the roots of the equation

x? + 2x sin@ + 3cos?6 =0

are real.
Show that the roots of the equation

x? + (Scos20+ 1)x +9cost6 = 0

are the squares of the roots of the equation

x* + 2x sin @+ 3cos? 6 = 0

[L]
 Review exercise 2 259

40 (a) Differentiate with respect to x

(i) In(x?) (ii) x* sin3x
(b) Find the gradient of the curve with equation

5x* + 5y” —6xy = 13

at the point (1,2). [L]

41 Differentiate e?* cos x with respect to x.
The curve C has equation y = e?* cos x.
(a) Show that the turning points on C occur where tan x = 2.
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to C at the point where
ash). [L]
42 Show that an equation of the normal to the curve with
‘
parametric equations c
x = ct, y= i t £0, at the point («.<) c
is
c 2 3
ee a ee
P

[L]
43 The edges of a cube are of length xcm. Given that the volume of
the cube is being increased at a rate of pcm*s~!, where p is a
constant, calculate, in terms of p, in cm’s~!, the rate at which
the surface area of the cube is increasing when x = 5. [L]

Given
that
y=(:+1)+(x-a where
x€R,x£0,
(a) prove that y = 2x? + 6x7! |

(b) find the values of y for which ee = 0. [L]

45 (a) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x,

simplifying your answers where possible:
~ V(14+ x?) r 2+.cosx
@) x? uae 3 —sinx

(b) If y = e**sin 4x show that

d’y dy
=a.
dx? pe
dx ay —@)

[L]
260 Review exercise 2

46

18cm

B 24cm Cc

The horizontal base ABCD of a pyramid VABCD, shown in the

figure, is a rectangle with AB = 18cm and BC = 24cm. The
diagonals AC and BD meet at M and VM is vertical.
Given that VB = 17cm, calculate
(a) the length, in cm, of VM
(b) the size, to the nearest degree, of the angle which the plane
VAB makes with the base of the pyramid
(c) the area, in cm? to 3 significant figures, of AVAB.
(d) Hence, or otherwise, calculate the perpendicular distance,
in cm to 3 significant figures, from 4 to VB. [L]
47 The points A(5,3,1), B(1,4,—1) and C(—1, 2,1)
are such that
AB = BC. Find, to 3 significant figures, the possible values of
the constant t.
48 (a) If A is the acute angle such that sin A =i and B is the
obtuse angle such that sin B= > find without using a
calculator the values of cos(A + B) and tan(A —B).
(b) Find the solutions of the equation
tan 6 + 3cot@ = S5sec@
for which 0 < 6 < 2r. [L]
49 Expand (a+ b)°, simplifying each coefficient.
By taking a = | and b = —0.003 and showing all your working,
find the value of (0.997)°, giving your answer to 8 decimal
places.
Evaluate (0.003)°, giving your answer in the standard form
p x 10%, where 1 <p < 10 and q is an integer.
State the number of decimal places required to express the exact
value of (0.997)° when it is written as a decimal number.
[L]
 Review exercise 2 261

dy
50 (a) If y = tannx, expressboth AYand dx?
d’y
——
* in terms of n and y
only and prove that
d’y dy
det, de

(b) Find the stationary values of the function y = x*e~*. [L]

51 V

B
—

J 10cm

A eC
10cm

The base ABC of the pyramid VABC shown in the figure is a

horizontal equilateral triangle and V is vertically above M, the
mid-point of the side AB of the base. Given that
AB = BC =CA= 10 and VM = 11 cm, calculate

(a) the length, in cm correct to 3 significant figures, of VA

(b) the length, in cm, of VC
(c) the size of the angle, to the nearest degree, between VC and
the horizontal
(d) the volume, in cm? correct to 3 significant figures, of the
pyramid VABC. [L]
52 (i) Giventhat (: +5)
1 =p,

(a) expand(» + -) 2 anduseyourexpansion

to showthat

ieee:
x + oe)=p —-
2
ine |
(b) expand(« + :) andhencefind,in termsofp, thevalue
1
ofx4=}vat
(ii) (1+qx)’=1+ ipx + (4—p)x?+... +4q’x’,
wherep and
q are constants.Findthe possibleae ofp and g. [L]
262 Review exercise 2

53 In each part of this question give all the answers, to 1 decimal

place, in the interval 0 < x < 360.
(a) Find the values of x for which

cos x° = —0.85

(b) Find the value of x for which

COS.X.= 0.Sawanda: tanx —.—0:75

(c) Write the equation

6 sin? x° + 5sin x° + 3 =6cos? x°

as a quadratic equation in sin x° only.

Hence find the values of x for which

6 sin’ x° + 5sinx° + 3 = 6cos? x° [L]

54
A D

2km

\ ZL)
B P O é
<- —»
6km

The diagram shows a house at A, a school at D and a straight

canal BC, where ABCD is a rectangle with 4B = 2km and
BC = 6km.
During the winter, when the canal freezes over, a boy travels
from A to D by walking to a point P on the canal, skating along
the canal to a point Q and then walking from Q to D. The
points P and Q being chosen so that the angles APB and DOC
are both equal to 0.
Given that the boy walks at a constant speed of 4kmh7! and
skates at a constant speed of 8kmh7!, show that the time,
T minutes, taken for the boy to go from A to D along this route
is given by

15(3
mu“4
sin
0
T= aaa, Z
ano)
otoe
 Review exercise 2 263

Show that, as @varies, the minimum time for the journey is

approximately 97 minutes. [L]
<e) Show that

(cos¥+cosY)*+ (sin¥+sinY)*= 4cos?(5 *)

Withoutusinga calculator,
showthatcos15°=eens
andthatcos15°cos75°= 1. [L]
56 (i) Differentiate with respect to x
sec x + tan x eins
(a) sec x —tan x DS

(ii) If the length of the perimeter of a sector of a circle is l, find

the largest possible area of the sector. [L]
=¥ A curve is defined with parameter rfby the equations
x=at’, y=2at

The tangent and normal at the point P with parameter f; cut the
x-axis at T and N respectively. Prove that
PT
PN = |t1| [L]

58 The points O, P and Q have coordinates (0,0), (4,3) and (a, b)

respectively. Given that OQ is perpendicular to PQ,
(a) show that a* + b* = 4a + 3b.
Given also that a= 1,
(b) find, to 2 decimal places, the possible values of b. [L]
59 The volume, Vcm’, of water in a container is given by the
expression
V= lay

where h cm is the depth of the water. Water is pouring into the

container at a steady rate of 90cm? s~!. Find the rate, in cms™!,
at which the depth of water is increasing when h = 3. [L]
60 The lengths of the sides of a triangle are 4cm, 5cm and 6cm.
The size of the largest angle of the triangle is 6.
(a) Calculate the value of cos @.
; ay/7
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that sin @= eae where a and

b are integers. [L]

264 Review exercise 2

61 To make the sea trip from port A to port B, a ship has first to
sail 10.7 km on a bearing 042° to a point C and then 6.2km ona
bearing 293° to the port B. Calculate
(a) the distance AB, in km to 3 significant figures
(b) the bearing of B from A, giving your answer to the nearest
degree
(c) the time, in minutes to the nearest minute, taken by a train
which travels in a straight line from A to B at an average
speed of 80kmh7!
(d) how far east B is of A, giving your answer in km to 3
significant figures. [L]
62

In the figure, ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB = 8cm,

Boaocm BAC= 9 om i DCA =.75 and ADC = 65°.
Calculate
(a) the length, in cm to 3 significant figures, of AD
(b) the size, to 0.1°, of ZBAC
(c) the length, in cm to 3 significant figures, of BD.
Given that BD meets AC at the point O, calculate
(d) the size, to 0.1°, of ZAOD. [L]
63 Expand (1 + ax)? in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x.
The coefficients of x and x? in the expansion of
(1 + bx)(1 + ax)®

are 0 and —36 respectively.

Find the values of a and b, given that a>0 and b < 0. [L]
 Review exercise 2 265

64 (i) Solve, for 0 < x < 360, giving your answers to 1 decimal
place, where appropriate, the equations
(a) tan2x° = -]
(b) 2cos? x° = sinx° cos x°
(c) 3sinx° + 3 = cos? x°
(ii) A cuboid has a square horizontal base of side 2cm and a
height of 3cm. Calculate, in degrees to 3 significant figures, the
angle that a diagonal of the cuboid makes with
(a) the base
(b)= a vertical face of the cuboid. [L]
65 (a) Find, in degrees, all positive angles not greater than 360°
which satisfy the equation sin 36 = sin? 6.
(b) Find, in radians for —27 < x < 27 the solutions of the
equation

cos6 + sin}@ = 0 [L]

66

The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation

COS X

~ 5—sinx’ = 5°
(a) By considering the values of sinx and cos x for which

a = 0, show that
dx
-$V6<yv< 4v6
(b) Show that the normal to the curve at the point where
x =4mnmeets the y-axis at the point (0, —27). [L]
266 Review exercise 2 \

d ,
67 (a) If y = sin? nxcos2nx, show that “- can be expressed in the

form n(sin ax —sinbx), where a and b are multiples of n.

(b) If xy? = (x —1)’, prove that

Yaeye t (2)
Adie xeeel H]
ee ee) pe L

68 The tangent to the curve with equation y = e~**, at the point

whose x-coordinate is 1, crosses the x-axis at P and the y-axis at

Q. Show that the area of APOQ, where O is the origin,

ee is qe:

[L]
69

120m

The figure represents a field ABCD in which BC is parallel to

AD, £ADB = 50°, ABD = 25°, BD = 200 m and BC = 120 m.
(a) Calculate, in m, to 3 significant figures, the lengths of the
sides AD and CD.
(b) Calculate, in m*, to 3 significant figures, the area of the
field. [L]
70 Given that

(l+kx)®=1412x+p2+9x4..., forall x ER,

(a) find the value of k, the value of p and the value of q.
(b) Using your values of k, p and gq find the numerical
coefficient of the x? term in the expansion of

(1+x)(1+kx)° [L]
 Review exercise 2 267

71

In the figure, the edges VA, VB and VC of the tetrahedron

VABC are mutually perpendicular. Given that
VA = VC=3cm and VB = 4cm, calculate
(a) the volume, in cm?, of the tetrahedron
(b) the length, in cm to 2 decimal places, of AC
(c) the angle, in degrees to the nearest tenth of a degree,
between the planes BAC and VAC
(d) the area, in cm? to 2 decimal places, of triangle ABC
(e) the perpendicular distance, in cm to one decimal place,
from V to the plane ABC. [L]
72 (a) Using the identities

sin(A + B) = sin AcosB+ cos Asin

B

and cos(A + B) =cosAcosB-— sin AsinB

show that sin2A = 2sin AcosA
and cos 2A = 2cos* A — 1

(b) Solve, for 0 < x < 27, giving your answers in radians, the
equations
(i) sin2x sin x = cos x

(ii)
sesin(x_oa+sin
1 ; (x- =)=|
T
(c) In AABC, AB=3cm, AC=Scm, /ABC=26@° and
LACB = @°.Calculate, to 3 significant figures, the value
of 6. [L]
 268 =Reviewexercise2 \

73 Given that the coefficient of x in the expansion of (1 + ax)° is

:
equal to the coefficient of x* in the expansion x :
of (9 + 5)

calculate the value of a. [L] -

74 (a) Solve, for 0 < @< 360, the equations
(i) tan(6° —30°) =1
(ii) (2cos @°—1)(sin 20°+ 1) =0
(iii) cos? 6° —2 sin? 6° = 1
(b) Prove that cos* @+ 2 sin? 6 —sin* 6 = 1.
(c) Given that sin@?= x — 1 and cos@ = 2y for all values of 8,
find an equation, not containing 0, relating x and y. [L]
15 (a) Differentiate with respect to x
x* +]
(i) ecosmx (ii) In (iii) /(1 + 4x?)
2x+1

(b) Show that, for x > 0, the function nai has a maximum at
x =e and no other turning point. 4 [L]
76 A is the point with coordinates (2,3, —5), B is the point with
coordinates (—1,4,7) and C is the point with coordinates
(2,3, —4). Calculate the size of /BCA.
eit; In the binomial expansion of (1 —px) in ascending powers of
x, the coefficient of x? is 80.

(a) Find the value of p.

(b) Evaluate the coefficient of x* in the expansion. [L]

78 (a) Without the use of a calculator, find the values of

(i) sin 40° cos 10° —cos 40° sin 10°
1 1
ii) —~cos 15° ——sin 15°

4, 1'= tan 15°

Me tande

(b) Find, to one decimal place, the values of x; We x Ss 300

which satisfy the equation

2 sin x° = cos(x° —60°) [L]

 Review exercise 2 269

79Show d scosx
Sh thatael sin x ) 1

In the diagram, the straight rod AB, of length 125cm, is

supported at an angle x to the vertical by a peg P and a vertical
wall RS. The rod is in a plane perpendicular to the wall and the
horizontal distance PQ of the peg P from the wall is 27cm.
Show that the end A of the rod is at a vertical height hcmabove
P where
cos x
i= 125 cog x27 —
sin x

(a) Find the valueof sin x for whichse =(),

(b) Show that as x varies A attains a maximum value and find
this value. [L]
270 Review exercise 2

80 Three landmarks P, Q and R are on the same horizontal level.

Landmark Q is 3km and on a bearing of 328° from P,
landmark R is 6km and on a bearing of 191° from Q. Calculate
the distance and the bearing of R from P, giving your answers in
km to one decimal place and in degrees to the nearest degree.
[L]
81 A curve is given parametrically by the equations

awe ie Dt |

Show that an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point

with parameterf is
ty=x+¢-t-1
Verify that the tangent at A(2,1) passes through the point
C(6, 5).
Show that the line 5y = x + 19 passes through C and is also a
tangent to the curve.
Find also the coordinates of the point of contact of this line

with the given curve. [L]

dy :
82 Evaluate pe when y = 1, given that

(a) p(xt+y) =3

b) x =——7, t
y= —,, 0<1t <4. lie

83 Find the first three terms in the expansion in ascending powers

of x of {(le—2x)',
Given that x is so small that x and higher powers of x may be
neglected, show that

xt 2x) 1 ae hxe
where a and # are constants to be found. [L]
 Review exercise 2 271

84 8cm
A B

oh 78° 15cm
se3
In the figure, AB is parallel to DC, AB = Stn, DC =) Sic;
£ADC = 78° and /DCA = 40°. Calculate, giving your answers
to 3 significant figures,
(a) the length, in cm, of AC
(b) the area, in cm’, of ABCD.
A circle, centre D, radius DC is drawn to cut DA produced at E.
Calculate, taking 7 = 3.14,
(c) the arc length CE, in cm, giving your answer to 3 significant
figures. [L]
85 (a) Given that 180 < x < 540, find all the value of x such that
(i) cosx° =}
(ii) tanx° = —tan35°
(b) A cuboid ABCDEFGH has a square horizontal base
ABCD, where AB is of length 2a. The vertical edges
EA, FB,GC and HD are each of length a.
(i) Calculate the length of GA.
(ii) Calculate, to the nearest half degree, the acute angle
between GA and the horizontal.
(ili) Calculate, to the nearest degree, the acute angle
between the plane GBD and the horizontal. [L]
86 Obtain the equation of the normal to the curve

fe
y ==be _—
x
at the point (1,5). Find also the equations of the two tangents
to the curve which are parallel to the normal and show that the
perpendicular distance between them is BV/iS: 6Es a
272 = Reviewexercise2

87 (a) Given that x = sin 6° —2cos 6°

and y = (V3) sin 6°, where 0 < 6 < 180,
show that x? + y? = 2(sin 6° —cos6°)” + 2
Deduce the minimum value of (x? + y*) and the value of 6
for which it occurs.
(b) The tetrahedron ABCD is such that AB, AC and AD are
mutually perpendicular, AB = AC = 3cm and AD = 4cm.
Calculate, to the nearest 0.1°,
(i) the angle between DB and the plane ABC
(ii) the angle between the planes ABC and DBC. [L]
88 In the binomial expansion of (1 + px)° in ascending powers of
x, the coefficient of x? is 135. Given that p is a positive integer,
(a) find the value of p
(b) evaluate the coefficient of x? in the expansion. [L]
89

A tent is erected, as shown in the figure. The base ABCD is

rectangular and horizontal and the top edge EF is also
horizontal.
The lengths, in metres, of the edges are

AE=BF=CF=DE=5, AB=CD=16,
AD=BC=6, EF=12

(a) Calculate the size of /ADE, giving your answer to the

nearest degree.
(b) Show that the vertical height of EF above the base ABCD is
2/3 m.
Calculate, to the nearest degree, the size of the acute angle
between
(c) the face ADE and the horizontal

(d) the edge AE and the horizontal. [L]

 Review exercise 2 273

90 Water dripping from a ceiling makes a circular stain on a

carpet. The area of the stain increases at the rate of 0.5cm2s~!. °
Find the rate of change of the radius of the circle, in cms! to 2
significant figures, when the area is 20cm”. [L]
91 Find the gradient of the curve

2sin x
dad sin x + cos x

at the point P(F, 1).

Show that P is a point of inflexion on the curve. [L]
92 (a) Differentiate with respect to x
(i) (5x+2)? Gi) sin? x
(b) The power, W watts, consumed by an electrical appliance is
given by

2R
(R+9)

where R is the resistance of the appliance in ohms. Use

differentiation to estimate the increase in W, to one
significant figure, when R is increased by 0.1, in the two
cases (i) R = 3, (ii) R=9. [L]
93 (a) Solve, in radians, the equation

sin(x
° +ie2)==
2COS
giving all solutions in the range 0 < x < 27.
(b) (i) Use the formula

den
a p he tanA—tanB
Spicer Pore
to show that

e
tan(9—7eitang
~tand+1
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve, in radians to 3 significant

figures,
theequation
tan(d
—a)=6tand
giving all solutions in the range —7 < @< 7. [L]
274 Review exercise 2

94 It is given that for a right circular cone, base radius r and

vertical height h, the volume is tarh and the curved surface
area is mry/(r* + h’).
Sand falls on to a horizontal floor at a constant rate of
0.15cm*s~!. The sand falls in a heap in the shape of a right
circular cone with vertical angle 60°. At time fs after the sand
starts to fall, the height of the cone is ycm. By considering the
volume of sand at this instant, as shown in the figure,
27t
(a) show that yBydee
= 05

(b) Find, incms~! to 3 decimal places, the rate of change of the

height of the conical pile after 60s.
(c) Find, in cm’s~! to 3 decimal places, the rate of change of
the curved surface area of the conical pile after 60s. [L]
95 A curve has parametric equations

x=14+7(32)cos0, y=54+/(32)sindé, 0<0<2n

Show that the tangent to the curve at the point with parameter 0
is given by

(y —5) sin@+ (x —1) cos@= \/(32)

Find the two values of @such that this tangent passes through
the point A(1,—3). Hence, or otherwise, find the equations of
the two tangents to the curve from the point A. [L]
96 Using the formula

cos(A + B) = cos Acos B —sin AsinB

(a) show that

cos(A —B) —cos(A + B) = 2sin AsinB

(b) Hence show that

cos 2x — cos 4x = 2sin3xsinx

(c) Find all solutions in the range 0 < x < = of the equation
cos 2x — cos4x = sinx

giving all your solutions in multiples of 7 radians. [L]

 Review exercise 2 275

97

180m
12° ise
AAYL/AA2MYA CY, LDU)

The figure shows a road with parallel straight sides. A man

standing at the point A on one side of the road is 80m from the
point B on the other side of the road. He walks 120m along the
road to the point C which is 180m from B. He then walks to the
point D which is such that BD makes an angle of 12° with the
side of the road. Calculate

(a) the size, in degrees to 2 decimal places, of /BCA

(b) the distance AD, in m to 3 significant figures
(c) the size, in degrees to 2 decimal places, of /ABC
(d) the shortest distance, in m to 3 significant figures, from B to
the other side of the road. [L]
98 (a) Differentiate
(y G+)
1+ x?
(ii) In (1 + sin? x)
simplifying the answers where possible.

(b) If (1+x)(2+y) =x*+y?, find2 in termsofx andy.

Find the gradient of the curve (1+x)(2+y)=x?+y’ at
each of the two points where the curve cuts the y-axis.
Show that there are two points at which the tangents to this
curve are parallel to the y-axis. [L]
Integration

9.1 Integrating standard functions

In Book P1 you learned these standard integrals:

|xax= i Pe Canae |
n+1
[erdx=peh +c
[ax=Inx| +0
As integration
x
is the reverse process to differentiation,you can
employ the results obtained in chapter 8 to produce some more
integrals. Here a, b are constants and C is the arbitrary constant of
integration.

5 | sinxdx= —cosx
+€
1
|| sin(ax+ b)dx=—-costarsbt C
wm
| cosxdx = sinx+C

a i. dx=*sin(ax
+b)+C
ik(ax +b)" Bae
aaeD (ax +b)""'+C,n#-1

le dx=*Inlax +6|+C
3 | etxtbdx = 1 etxtbci C
a
Often, memory plays a vital role in exercises involving integration.
This is why you should memorise these integrals and the results of
chapter 8.
 Integration 277

Example 1
Find (a) | cosec” x dx (b) | sec 2x tan 2x dx

(a) In chapter 8, this result was found:

d
— (cot x) = —cosec?x
dx

Byreversingthis result,you get:

| cosec?xax =—cotx+C

(b) In chapter8 also,the result

: (sec x) = secxt
a? = secx tanx

was established, using the chain rule.

So: it (sec 2x) = 2sec 2x tan 2x

dx
By reversing this result you get

|sec2x
tan2xdx
=4tsec2x+C
Example
2
Evaluate
| (cos
3x—2sin
x)dx
You 0know that

| cos
3xdx
=4sin3x
and| sinxax
=—cosx
So: [(cos3x —2sin) dx =4sin3x+ 2cosx+C
z

[$sin3x+2cosx] = }sinm+ 2cos%

—(4sin0+2cos0)
= 0+ 2(5) —0 —2(1)
=-l

Example 3
6
Evaluate
| ——.d
Aasbs
278 Integration \

We have

lz I 5 Ax Sinead
1
= eG

from the list of standard integrals.

6 1
I Se 6
[$n[3x+2I]_
=$1n20
—41n5
= +(In20—In5)
20
=3in==41n4

Integrate with respect to x:

1 cos4x 2 sin3x 3 sin}x

4 cos 5 sec’ x 6 cosec? 3x

1 nels 1
7 —~
cos? 2x 8 : e* 9 9x =—5

10° H4.— 3)° 11 cos(5x +4) 12 sin(3 —4x)

13 (3 —2x)? 14 ——_,l 15) (e—e*)

(3 —2x)
1
16 —om 17 sec3xtan3x 18 cosec2x cot 2x
sin 7x
19 sec?x —x’ 20 2x+sin2x

Evaluate:
Tr
21 [ sin x dx rT
22 [ cos x dx 2
23 [sin oxdx
5 =e 3
24
Ss
thsec”xdx 25 |
0
+sinx)dx26 |o
=cosec?
R 4xdx
NI
eS

| 2apna
1 I 2(2x-—1)
: dx 29 ex 1dx
7 d 28 —1 2 |

2n

30 | 3secdxtan}xdx
0
 Integration 279

9.2 Integration using identities

Until now you have been finding integrals by just thinking of
integration as the reverse of differentiation. But often this approach
does not work immediately because the function to be integrated is
not integrable as it stands. In this case it is often possible to replace
the function by equivalent ones using, for example, trigonometric
identities, which can then be immediately integrated by using the
formula

fui V)dx
=[wax+| vas.
The
following
examples
illustrate
this.
Example
4
Find
{tan?
xdx.
Consider the identity
sec’ x = tan?x+1
which can be rearranged as
tan? x = sec? 9 x — 1

That
is,
| tan?
x0x=|(sec?
x—1)dx
—| sec’
xdX—
| ldx
So: fanxdetant= C
Note: We know that f{ sec? xdx = tan x + C because

4 (tan x) = sec’ x
dx

Example 5
Use the identity cos 2x = 2cos* x —| to find [ cos? xdx.

If you rearrange the identity,

‘oar |
cos? x = 5 + 5 c082x
280 Integration

So: | cos?
xd=|¢+5$cos
2x)
d
=|Jas+]cos
2xdx
=4x+4sin 2x+ C
Another way to deal with an expression that you cannot
immediately integrate is to split it into partial fractions that can
be integrated.

Example 6
Find
: jaa 7—5x dx.

7 —5x
First you split the expression into partial
ieee)

fractions by writing:
1x. a4 S B
(2x—1)(x+1)) 2x-1 x+1
So: 7—5x = A(x+ 1) + B(2x- 1)
Let x =—1,thenB= —4
Let x =4,thenA=3
Then 7 —5x lcs Bees:
(2x—1)(x+1) 2x-1 x+1
To find the required integral, write:

(hae
leet 3
d=[5 de—
|x4
= 31In|2x
—1|-4In|x+1/+C

Integrate with respect to x:

1 sin’x 2 cot*x 3 tan*2x
4 (1+cosx)? 5 (1 —2sinx)* 6 (cosx+sec x)’
7 1 8 4—x 5 —2x
x? —4 (x —2)(x —3) (x —1)(2x+ 1)
x a
(2x + 1)(3x + 1) M (2x + 1)(3x + 1)
 Integration
281
12
12
(3 —2x)(3 + 2x)
13 By finding A, B and C so that

xe— 1 >et Mee

ae |
4
a

find
| x7 —] ox
14 Show that sin? x + 3 cos? x = 2 + cos 2x.
see
Hence evaluate [ (sin” x + 3 cos’ x) dx.
DB
4cos 2x
15 Show that —.— = cosec’ x —sec? x.
sin* 2x
Hence evaluate | 34 cos
——2x d
z sin’ 2x

16 Evaluate [sin 3x + cos 2x) dx.

0

17Evaluate
(a)| sinixdx
—(b)| cos’
txdx.
0 0
9.3 Integration using substitutions
The integral | 08 ‘(x) dx is often called the integral of a function
f and its derivative f’. By a simple substitution of f(x) = u, say, you
can tranform the integral into an integral which is simpler, with the
variable u replacing the variable x.

i=I(x)oH
=f'(x)
So: | re")dx=fu dx

Integrating gives

| toe")dx=5u°+C
 282 Integration

That is:

r | fae) dx=1(f(x)? +C
Also you should note the general results

= [arte dx=4 [f(x)""1+C,n4#-1

| f'(x)
Foy oF = Inlfls)| +

Once you are thoroughly practised in the techniques of integration,

you will find that, in some simple cases, you can recognise a
function and its derivative just by looking at the expression to be
integrated. If you can do this, you can move straight to the answer
without employing a change of variable. You are advised, however,
in the early stages of this work to use the substitution method.

Example
Use 7
thesubstitution
u=cosxtofind
| tan.xdx,
First
youneed
towrite
dk=| sin
[tan xdx COS X

Let u = cos x, then

we=—sinx
dx
and du
i x——
sin re
Then: |= dv=[7(-<)dx=—|- du
cos
Integrating gives:
x u dx u
[jjdu=injul
+c
u
But
|tan.xdx
=-|-1duandu=cos
x.
So: |tan.xdx
=—In|eosx|
+¢
l
But secx = and
cos
l
In sec x = In =In1 —Incosx
cos x
= —Incosx
 Integration 283

So: [tan.xcdx
=In|seex|
+
You can use a similar method to show that

[cotdx=In|sinx|+C
Example 8
Use the substitution u* = x + 1 to find

E x. is
Differentiating x + 1 = wu gives = = 2y:
u
also:(x+1)!=uandx=2~-1
x uz —1
So: leandx=| dx

You cannot integrate a function of wuwith respect to x and so you

must replace the ‘dx’ by writing

dx
dx = aE oe u

This technique is analogous to the chain rule in differentiation. It

changes the variable of integration from x to u.

Thatis | 4 dx = | 5oe aaah

eas
(x+1) u du
-( (2u)du
=e
[20—
2)du
Integrating with respect to wugives

len dx=2u3
—2u+C
Reverting to the variable x gives

F a dx=3(x+1)?-
20x41)!
+
x+2
284 Integration \

It is important to appreciate that you do not have to revert to the

original variable when evaluating a definite integral. Suppose that
you were required to evaluate

| 3 2 ;dx
0(x+1)
As uw?= x+1, youcansee that at x =0, u=1 and at x = 3,u =2.

So: | 3 = , dx=| 2(2u2

— 2
2)du=[3a—24]
0(x+1) 1 }
=-4-@-)
=$=22
Example 9
Use the substitution x = cosec¢ to evaluate

[.; x?4/(x?2
1 —1) oe:

v3
dx
ii x = coséc 7, then ah —cosec tcot t (see chapter 8, section 8.11)

and V(x? —1) = V(cosec?t —1) = /(cot? 1) = cott

(from using the identity cosec? t = 1 + cot? f).

Alex = 2: coset =2 > 1 =>

2 2
At x =—-: cosect = —-> t=~—
V3 V3 3
1 l dx
.S eae:
Ge a Eas =41
— aly e di
2 ba
| 6 l
an Rexre:
d
or asi SORA
EEE
ee
(—cosec
tcot
t)dt |e

6 |
fee

x
6
=— dt = —| sintdt
z Cosec f z

Integrating gives

iriecy(Odea)ax=[cos=cos2—cos!
hee |
_v3_1_v3-1
nites.
 Integration 285

PExercise
9 2 0 ea
In each of the following find the integral by using the substitution
given. Your final result should be given in terms of x.

1
| sin
ayxcosxdx;
u=sinx
:
2
[tanxsec
xdx;
2 es u=tanx
3 xix" + l)>dx; u=x°+1

2
( z;)axu=x+1
x+1
x
10 dx; w=x+1
V(x + 1)
3 ts
11 Use the substitution u = x —1 to evaluate | ——— dx.
av(x—1)
a) 1 a fae ae—.,/2).
12 Sh that | —————.
dx = 2(2
us

13 Use the substitution u = sin x to evaluate i cos 2x cos x dx.

6

14 By using the substitution u = sin x, evaluate

(a) I e™* cos x dx (b) | sin 2x sin x dx

0

(c)[ Pw
cos
x
286 Integration

15Evaluate (a)[ tanxdx (b)[ cotxax

and
interpret
your
0
answers geometrically. 2

9.4 Integration by parts

Remember the product formula for differentiation:
d du dv
ax (uv)= Ve + us
You can rewriteit as:
du d dy
ae eas (uv)—gare
By integrating this equation, you obtain
3 [Geax
d =r —[uP d ax

This is the formula to use when you need to integrate the product of
d
two functions of x, vyand — The formula can be applied as long
dy
as you are fa to differentiate v to get re and you are able to

integrate —
“ to get u. Even when you can do this, the result may
dx
not be helpful. It is regarded as helpful when | a dx is a less
: d
complicated expression than [ps dx. The following examples
x
illustrate this process, which is called integration by parts.

Example 10
Find [xe" dx

Take v = x, then a ali

dx

Take oy =e, then u=¢

dx
Using the formula

[psdv=u [urdx
dx x

you
have: |e"dy=xe"
—| ood
= xe* —e* + C
 Integration 287

Example 11

Find
| xc08
dx
dy du :
Here you take v = x, then — = 1 and — =cos x, then u = sin x

dx dx
Applying [Podx=uv—[usdx
you
get: [3cosxdx
=xsin
x— | sin.ox
=xsinx
+cosx+C
Example
12
Find| mnxas,
x>0
Inthiscase
wewrite
v=Inx,thenad=i
4k Rees
and on i 1, then-u = x
dx

3
Using Jsdudx=wy
— dy
[uedx
you
get: Jinxdx=xinx—
[xdx=xinx—x4+C
In some cases, the process of integration by parts needs to be
repeated.

Example 13
Find | x* e**dx

dy du
Take v = x’, then — = 2x and —=e™, thenu=1e*
dx dx
cf
Applying du =uv—
[vsdx dy
[usdx
you
get: [xe*dx=1x?
e%*—
Iae**)
(2x)
dx
=fate—[xedi (1)
288 Integration
\

Now you need to integrate by parts again to find | xe* dx,

Take v = x, then ay = 1
dx

du
and — = e**, then u =1e2*
dx 2
Applying the ‘parts’ formula gives

By combining the results (1) and (2) you get

[ee 6b eeNI
x*e*—i
xe 4+1e%+4C
= fe (2x7—2x +1)
+C
Notice that we leave out the constant of integration until the final
line.

It is easy to start applying integration by parts, and then find that

the process is getting more complicated instead of simpler. Suppose

that
for[re dx,you
took
tapes |
vy= e**giving see ee:
dx
du ee
and — = x* giving u=1x3
dx
Then, by applying ‘parts’ you get

|x e*dx=bye—
[aee*dx
which is more complicated than bee dx. In this case, you have

started to work in the wrong direction. You would have to start again

with vy d
= x* and = = e**,as shown in Example 13.
 Integration 289

Use integration by parts to find:

1Jaendx 2[xedx 3| xsinacdx

4 [xinx
dx 5 [imc
—1)dx 6| xc0s
Sx
7 |x ~—1)*dx
8 [ave—1)dx9 Pex
10 [x cosxdx 11 bag dx 12 [x Inxdx

Evaluate eachofthefollowingdefinite
integrals:
13 | 7xsinxdx 14 [x5 cosixdx 15 | ex7Inxdx
0 0 ia I
i
16 | x(x—1)?dx 2
17 | (x—1)(x+1)?dx
0 0
18 an beedx
na 19 | _(Inx)“
”]dx 20 Je2 Sal
sinxdx
1- 1 0

9.5 A systematic approach to

integration
Atthis stage,you should r eview
that you have met in this chapter
t hevarious methods
and in chapter
ofintegration
9 of Book P1.

m The standard forms given at the end of this chapter in the

summary should all be memorised.

= You should be able to recognise expressions that can be integrated

atonce.
Example14
5,
(a)J(@x—1) (4x—1)°
dx= ahae CC
=1(4x~1)°+C

(b)fat dx=-le*+C
290 Integration
(c) | sin xx = —3cos$x+C

m=Youshouldbeableto convertexpressions
to equivalentformsthat
can be integrated at once, using trigonometric identities and
partial fractions.

Example15
(a)|tan?
3xdx=|(sec?
3x—1)dx
=ftan3x—x+C
(6)\ery**=|(G--5)
1 1 1
=In|x|—In|x+ 1]/+C

m= You should recognise an expression that is given as a function and

its derivative.

Example16
(a) | xe"dxSte" 4'C

Game
oxf 2
ae
derivative 2x
OR the substitution u = x? could be used

2
@leon ee (x°+1)?+C
x= era

nee ofx?
ae
derivative 2x
OR the substitution u = x2 + 1 could be used

(c) | tan’2xsec”2xdx =}tan*2x+C

Reraits
oftan
i
derivative 2 sec? 2x the
substitution
be used uw
=tan
2xcould
m= Recognise when you need to use integration by parts.

Look back at the examples given in section 9.4.

In your work you will need to identify which approach is required

and choose your method accordingly. In some cases you may be
given a hint about the method or the substitution to employ.
Practice is the key to success and the following exercises are typical
of what is expected by ULEAC examiners.
 Integration 291

Exercise
12.) v2 sieDaMaencesae
Integrate with respect to x:

1 (4x45) heel 1
4x+5
4 cosxsinx 5 tan3x 6 x sin 3x

7 l+x 8 x
xf l+x 9 sin x cos* x

10 3Inx *y sa 2 sec” x
12
x(x —1) (1 +tanx)?
13 sin? 2x EG tal
x—2
15 (sinx + 2cosx)*
16 xc"1. 17 =: KG
18
x- —4 9x?+ ]
Dad iesx) 2040-285) 7? 21 (4 —5x)7!
22 cot3x 23 cosec 2x cot 2x 24 cot? 3x

25 xcos 5x es 27 xe *
(terl)}?
28 cos2xsinx 29 sin2xcosx 30 tan 2x sec 2x
& +1) 2 1
31 320 —<—_____ 33
x? +1 (x —2)(x —4) x*(x —1)
34 cosec? 2x + 1 35 ae 4 36 l
x-—4 x(x? —1)
37 = 38 (e* +x)
39 x Inx
x +1 :
40 xe"
41 Use the identity cos” x + sin? x = 1 and the substitution

cos
x=utofind
| sinxdx.
42Find
| cos*
xaand | siné.
dx.
43 Use the identity sec* x = tan? x+ 1 and the substitution

tan x = u to find| tan’ xdx.

Find
(a)|sec’
xdx(b)|cot’
xdx.
292 Integration
\

45 Use the identity sin(A + B) + sin(A —B) = 2sin Acos

B to find

(a) | 2 sin 6x cos 4x dx

(b)|sinxcos}xdx
x+9 :
46 Evaluate | —_——_———
e+ 2)(3 —2x) dx dx.

47 Use the substitutionx = 3sint to showthat

| 3x*(9—x) 1dk = Br
0

rer
3

48 Evaluate | sec®x tan x dx.

5

49
I - (x —2)(x*
2x +4 + 4)
Evaluate |--—————_—— dx

2
| 1(1+x x?)
50 Evaluate | ————
dx

9.6 The area under a curve

The diagram shows part of the curve y = f(x) between the values
x =a and x =b. The finite region R is bounded by the curve, the
lines x = a and x = b and the x-axis.
 Integration 293

You can find an approximate value for the area of R by dividing R

into small strips parallel to the y-axis as shown below.

If you divide R into a very large number of thin strips (much more
than can be shown in the diagram), the curved top of each strip will
be almost a straight line. So each strip could be regarded as a
trapezium and the area of R is approximately the sum of the areas of
all the trapezia.

Take a typical strip by considering two neighbouring points (x, 0)

and (x + 6x,0) on the x-axis. The corresponding points on the curve
y =f(x) are P and Q with coordinates (x,y) and (x + 6x, y + dy)
respectively. 6x and dy are very small quantities (increments). If you
think of the strip as a trapezium, its area is:

ox(2
et?)
= ydx + 5 dy - dx
= ybx

(because 65x is so small that it can be left out).

Then:

x=b
area of Rx S_ y bx

x=a
that is, the sum of the areas of all the strips from x = a to x = b.

The more strips you take, the more accurate your approximation to
the area of R will be. By using more advanced mathematics than you
will find in an A-level course, it can be shown that, as you increase
the number of strips indefinitely, that is, making 6x — 0,
294 Integration

=D b
hae =[ vax b
=| f(x)
dx a

In Book P1, chapter 9, you were given this formula in order to

evaluate areas of regions. Now you have been given an explanation
about where the formula comes from. That is, the summation tends
b
to the value of the definite integral | f(x) dx, which is the limiting
a
value and the actual area of R exactly.

a Area of ob
R= {(x) dx

This result is often called the fundamental theorem of integral

calculus and its importance is paramount because all integration
theory is based on it. In your work, you are expected to assume the
validity of this result, and to use it for the growing list of functions
you are able to integrate.

In a similar way it can be shown that the area of the region bounded
by the curve x = g(y), the y-axis and the lines y = p and y = q is

[xa- [ 0)dy
Pp Pp

x = g(y)
 Integration 295

Example 17
The region R is bounded by the curve y = cos? 2x, the x-axis and the
lines x = 0 and x = ¢- Find the area of R.

First draw a sketch, showing R:

Area of R=hi cos? 2x dx

0
Use the identity cos24 = 2cos’ A:— 1, putting 4 = 2x:
cos 4x = 2cos? 2x — 1

2
6
So: area of R=[a + 40084x)dx
0
Area
of R=[dx+fin4x"
ee ee 0
ile! since
sine”—V3
Shi’ iG Cee

9.7 Volumes of revolution

You have seen that the area of the region R bounded by the curve
y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x= a and x = b can be found by
dividing the region into elementary strips of width 6x and summing
 296 Integration

the area of all the strips as 6x — 0. A typical strip is shown in the

left-hand diagram below.

Suppose now that the region R is rotated completely (that is,

through 27 radians) about the x-axis. A solid S will be formed as
shown in the right-hand diagram. Each end of the solid is a circle,
their radii being a and b.

Now think about what happens to the strip of length y and

thickness 6x when it is rotated completely about the x-axis. The
rotating strip forms a circular disc of radius y and thickness 5x. The
volume of this disc is my?6x.
The volume of Sis the sum of all such discs from x = a to x = b. As
6x is made progressively smaller, the successive approximations to
the volume of S approach the actual value of the volume and we can
assume:

Volume
ofS= x=)
jim oy TyOX b
Sant tee =
aeI mydx
2
= | bm({f(x)]?
dx

Wehavethen
b
= VolumeofS = | n({f(x)]?
dx
a
 Integration 297

In the same way, you can think about a region bounded by the curve
x = g(y), the y-axis and the lines y =p and y = q. If this region is _
rotated completely about the y-axis, the solid formed has volume

[ : ale? 2 ap

This volume is often referred to as the volume of revolution and is

said to be generated by the rotation of the curve.

Example 18
The finite region bounded by the curve y = x — x? and the x-axis is
rotated through 27 radians about the x-axis. Find the volume of
revolution so formed.

First, sketch the curve y = x —x:

The curve meets the x-axis at points where x —x* = 0;

that is: x(1—x)=0

So: X= 0) ands =-1

The finite region is shown shaded.

298 Integration

e +4]
==50|| es
3° 4 Ne
T

Example 19
The region R shown is bounded by the curve y = In x, the y-axis and
ine lines y:= 2 and y = 5.

Find
(a) the area of R (b)the volume generated when R is rotated
through 27 about the y-axis, giving your answers to 3 significant
figures.
(a) Rewrite the equation y = In x in the form x = e” because to find
the area of R you need to evaluate

| 5xa=|e’
5 dy
2 2
 Integration 299

5
Area of R= e"| =e —e? & 141 units?

(b) The volume generated when R is rotated through 27 about the

y-axis is

5
| mx? 5
dy=| e”dy
2

Example 20
The normal to the curve y = e* at the point B(1,e) meets the x-axis
at the point C. The finite region bounded by the curve y = e*, the
line BC, the y-axis and the x-axis is rotated through 27 radians
about the x-axis. Find the volume of revolution so generated.

For y= e’,

d
a gear e a
dx

1
So the gradient of the normal to y = e* at B(1,e) is as

The equation of the normal to y = e* at Bis

1
ersre ee et) eee|

The normal meets the x-axis at y = 0.

So:: 0-—e 1
Se ee 5 )
Crees

x—-l=e
and: x=e +1

The point C is (e? + 1,0).

300 Integration

The region to be rotated looks like this:

LZ
D CG x

Part of the region lies under the curve from A to B and the rest lies
under the line BC. The point D on the x-axis has the same
x-coordinate as B; that is, it is at (1,0). When ABDC is rotated
about the x-axis it forms a cone of base radius BD = e and height
DC =e’ because

DC = OC - OD=(1+e?)—-1=e
The volume of a cone is j (base area) x height and the volume of the
cone formed by the complete rotation of ADBC about the x-axis is

aH<BDe2e
Dat. tx &?x e = igre!
ThevolumegeneratedwhentheregionABDOisrotatedcompletely
about the x-axis is:

| 1m(e*)*
dx=| 1medx
0 0
= +mje™|1
0
2_ x7(e
ines = 1)
Totalvolumegenerated= }me*+ $e? —17
= }n(2e*+ 3e?—3)
Example 21
The curve given parametrically by
x =tant, y=sint, O0<t<F
is sketched in the diagram.
 Integration 301

At the points 4 and B on the curve t = é and 7 respectively. The lines

AL and BM are drawn parallel to the y-axis, as shown. Determine
the area of the finite region R, shown shaded, and find the volume
generated when R is rotated completely about the x-axis.

=}
Area of R =| ydx and we need to express both y and dx in
=|
terms of f¢.

: : age
We know that y =sinr¢ and that, by differentiation, d
= = sec’ t.

Also, the integral | y dx can be written as

dx

by using the chain rule, as you saw in examples 8 and 9 (integration

by substitution).
So:

3
Area of R=[ sin sec? tdt
6

3 sint
= ; dt
z cos~ f

This integral is a function of cost and its derivative — sin tf.

; du
Putting u = cost, a sin t
 302 Integration

andwhen
¢=3,w=4)1=Au=¥
So:
Perry pea
yliter
reaO =| gow
1

-[2u~?
du
wa 2

Volume generated = | =f ny”dx

t=

woh
Te)
fo
aA
A
a | 3sin*tsec2tdt

sin? ¢ df= | 3tan 2 tdt

II 4
cos? t ra
You can use the identity sec? t= 1 + tan? ¢

So: tan ¢=sec ft— |

Thus:

Volume =n| 3sec’

generated t—1)dt
$

In questions 1-10, find the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.

1 fiches= costigia T
3 =>,6 b =—AAN
3
 Integration 303

f(x)=sec’x,a=0,b=7
f(x) = xe*, a= 1,5 =3
f(x) =Inx,a=2,b=5

toy .Eonar eons Sr

fay an sg
8 8

sin x T
f (x) SA5eenee
tye be.te aie2

10
f(x)=tan?
xsec?
x, a=: 5=;
In questions 11-20, the finite region R is bounded by the curve
y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x= a and x = b. Find the volume
generated when R is rotated completely about the x-axis.

11
12

13

14

15

16 f(x)
17 f(x) =cotx,a=4,b=%
18 fx) =laxe 1, b= 3
19 epee yan,5=4
20 f(x) = x/(4—x*),a=0,b=2
21 The finite region bounded by the curve y = tan}x, the line
x = and the coordinate axes is rotated through 27 radians
about the x-axis. Show that the volume generated is 5 (4 —7).
22 By rotating the semi-circle for which y > 0 from the circle with
equation x* + jy’ =a completely about the x-axis, show that
the volume of a sphere, of radius a, is tna?
304 Integration
\

23 A triangular region is bounded by the line y = ee where r and

h are positive constants, the line x = r and the x-axis. By

considering the complete rotation of this triangle about the
x-axis, show that the volume of a cone of height h and base
radius r is rh.
24 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y’ = x, the
lines y= 2, y=4 and x = 0. This region is rotated completely
about the y-axis. Find the volume generated.
25 The region R shown in the figure is bounded by the curve
y =cos x — sinx and the coordinate axes.

(a) Find the area of R.

The region R is rotated completely about the x-axis.
(b) Find the volume generated.
26 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve

x=Ps+l,y=t
where ¢ is a parameter for t > 0.
The shaded region R is bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the
lines ¥ = 5 and x= 10;

(a) Find the area of R.

(b) Find the volume generated when R is rotated through 27
about the x-axis.
27 Find the area of the finite region R bounded by the curve with
parametric equations x= 1+, y=4-—/, the lines x = 3 and
x = 6 and the x-axis.
Find also the volume generated when R is rotated completely
about the x-axis.
28 Find the area of the finite region R bounded by the curve with

parametric equations x = 4t, y=s the x-axis and the lines

x= 3 and x = 16.
The region R is rotated through 27 about the x-axis. Find the
volume of the solid generated.
29 An ellipse is given by

x= 3cost, y= 2sint, 0< f< 27

(a) Find the area of the finite region bounded by the ellipse and
the positive x- and y-axes.
 Integration 305

(b) This region is rotated completely about the y-axis to form a

solid of revolution. Find the volume of this solid.

9.8 Forming and solving simple

differential equations
Any equation involving derivatives of one variable with respect to
another variable is called a differential equation. Simple examples
are
dyJ 2 dyy .
—=x'-5
+ and —=s
ir in ycos x, etc :

These equations are called first order differential equations because

the highest derivative each contains is the first derivative of y with
_ dy
respect to x, that is —.
dx

A differential equation of the second order is like this:

dy, 2 dy _
¥
dx? dx
In Book P2, you will only be concerned with first order differential
equations of a special simple type. In Books P3 and P4, you will
meet other differential equations.

In many practical situations, the rate at which one variable is

changing with respect to another is expressed by a physical law. A
differential equation can be set up from the experimental data and
possible solutions of this equation are found using integration. One
of the most important and widely occurring relationships between
variables is called the law of natural growth or decay (see also
chapter 3). Here are a few examples.

(a) Radioactive decay

In a mass of radioactive material, where the atoms are disintegrating
spontaneously, the average rate of disintegration is proportional to
the number of atoms present. At time ¢, there are N atoms present
and this situation is described by the differential equation

dNew —kN
ey

where k is a constant. The minus sign indicates that the rate of

change is decreasing.
 306 Integration

(b) Newton’s law of cooling

The rate of change of the temperature of a cooling body is
proportional to the excess temperature over the surroundings. If the
excess temperature is 0 at time ¢, then this situation is described by
the differential equation

— = —k#
dt
where k is a positive constant.

(c) Chemical reactions

Some chemical reactions follow a law which states that the rate of
change of the reacting substance is proportional to its concentra-
tion. If the concentration is C at time ¢, then this situation is
described by the differential equation
iSong
=—kC
dc
where k is a positive constant.
As you can see one common differential equation can be used to
model the rates of change of several quite different variables with
respect to time. These variables come from a whole range of
different physical situations.

In your exam, you may be given the description of a law in words

and you will be required to form a differential equation from the
description. You will not require any special knowledge to do this,
except to recognise that the rate of change of a variable y with
dy
respect to x is and that if A is proportional to B, then A= kB
dx
where k is a constant.

Example 22
The length ycm of a leaf during the period of its growth is
proportional to the amount of water it contains. During this period
the leaf retains a similar shape; that is, the ratio of its length to its
width remains constant. The leaf absorbs water from its ‘parent’
plant at a rate proportional to y and it loses water by evaporation at
a rate proportional to the area of the leaf at the time when its length
is ycm. Form a differential equation to describe the growth of the
leaf.
Assume that the leaf has length ycm at time ¢ days after it was first
observed.

The rate at which the leaf is receiving water is kjy where k, is a

positive constant.
 Integration 307

The area of the leaf at time + days is proportional to y*, since it

maintains its shape.

So the leaf is losing water at a rate of kpy?, where ky is another

positive constant.

The rate of growth of the leaf is given by the rate of change of its

length.

dy
—_=
Ai ky —
—kay 2

is a differential equation describing the growth of the leaf.

In this chapter you will learn to solve differential equations of the

first order in which the variables are separable. This type of
differential equation is of the form

5 =f(x)
First, let’s look at two simpler cases.

(i) Suppose that g(y) = 1, then:

dy
dx
tea, (%)

By direct integration:

i= | 1x) dx+C

where C is a constant.

y= [19 dx+C is called the general solution of the differential

equation” = f(x), once the integrationis completed.

x
308 Integration

Example 23 7
Solve the differential equation = = Inx xe 0, oiven that = 7
ates)

We have y = [ims + C, where C is a constant. From example 12 of

this chapter,
[ina =xInx-—x

and therefore y=xInx—x+C is the general solution of the

differential equation.
Avy (2, xO Pee)! Pe T+ic
So: Ca)
The solution of the differential equation is:
y=xInx—-x+3
(i) Suppose now that f(x) = 1 so that the differential equation is

He=g(y)
ad dx
l SO:
dy
dx 1
dy g(y)
and
x=| 1 a+e
where C is a constant.
, ; La
That is, provided you can integrate ein with respect to y, you have
found the general solution.

Example 24 d
Given that y >—}, solve the differential equation = =2y+1.
x
Express the general solution in the form y = f(x).
dy dx |
dx =
os 2y 1
ogee Naty
d
dy 2pe

ntegrating
Integrating: te Isa l
Sie sin|2y+1)+C
i
 Integration309
The general solution is then

x=4In|2y+1]/+C

You now want y in terms of x.

Rearranging: In |2y + 1] = 2(x —C)

= 2y +1 = 2-0)
and y =3(e* °C —1) is the form required.
The differential equation

can be written as

Integrating with respect to x gives:

Fer1 dx dv=|fx)ax+¢
g(y)

= That is | d dy [tx GC
, ——dp = | f(x)dx
g(y) ;
is the general solution, provided that ae can be integrated with

respect to y and f(x) can be integrated with respect to x.

d
Differential equations of the type fe = f(x)g(y) are known as
first order separable because, as you have seen, they can be solved by
separating the variables and integrating.

Example 25 dy
Express y in terms of x, given that oP (y+2)(2x +1) and that
yoZatx=0.

Rewrite the differential equation as:

1 dy
PPD
etd See
ee ae
Integrating gives In|y + 2| =x? Fx4+C
as the general solution.
310 Integration

At y=2,x=0>1n4=0+0+C

So: C=1n4

and: in |p +2) = Ind = x? + x

inf =x +x

as 2 —ertx

And so y= 4ert* 2
is the required solution.

Find the general solutions of the differential equations in questions

1-10.

1oY
a ) oy=2!
3oY
=cos?
x 4 ©=cos*y
5 xy 6oy=e
7©=seeyinx 8 (+1) %=y42
9 aedx 10vax
sence ABO
Obtain the solution that satisfies the given conditions of the
differential equations in questions 11—20.
d
MW
=v +x, y=Oatx=0
12 esse =) at Pepi
dx. Jeti 7)
d =3y+1,y=Oatx=1
135
dy
ae xe VS hat xe

d xtany,yopatx=7
15ay=tan
 Integration 311
d
16 - = sin*xcos’y, y=0atx=0

jw d2
x= oe
Cy
COSsecy sec p,
T
pe Sates
5oes tet =

18 dy 5 1
Aros sec’x(2tanx+1), y=3 at x=7

19 ral
ysiny==xcosx,y=0
atx=5
dy 2 T
20 dx
ety 0 —1)Jecox :
p= 2.atx=—4

21 Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of change of the

temperature of a cooling liquid is proportional to the excess
temperature over the room temperature. The law is given by the
differential equation
dé
ee
dt St ;

where @ is the excess temperature at time ¢. At t= 0, = Op.

Show that

i= 6x62"
22 The temperature of a liquid in a room, where the temperature is
constant at 20 °C, was observed to be 80°C and 7 minutes later
it was 60°C. Calculate, to the nearest minute, using Newton’s
law of cooling,
(a) the time taken for the temperature to fall from 80°C to
40°C
(b) the temperature of the liquid 10 minutes after it was 80°C.
23 A lump of radioactive substance is disintegrating. At time ¢days
after it was first observed to have mass 10 grams, its mass is
m grams and
dm
—km
Fis

where k is a positive constant.

Find the time, in days, for the substance to reduce to 1 gram in
mass, given that its half-life is 8 days.
(The half-life is the time in which half of any mass of the
substance will decay.)
312 Integration
\

24 Given that = (1 —2x*)y, where x > 0, and that y = 1 at

x =1, find y in terms of x.

25 The gradient at any point (x,y), where x > 0, on a curve is In x

and y =e at x = 1. Find the equation of the curve.
 Integration 313

S
Coordinategeometry

You have already been introduced to the basics of coordinate

geometry in both two and three dimensions. Now you will learn
how to find the coordinates of the mid-point of a straight line
joining two given points. The remainder of the chapter is about
sketching curves. In section 10.2 you will learn the techniques of
sketching curves given by cartesian equations, while section 10.3
looks at sketches of curves given by parametric equations.

10.1 The coordinates of the mid-

point of the line segment
joining two given points
Consider the points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) and let M(X, Y) be the
mid-point of the line AB.

ey, B (x,y)

Draw MP and BQ parallel to the y-axis and draw APO and MR

parallel to the x-axis.
In triangles AMP and MBR,
/MPA = BRM = 90°

LMAP=/BMR (because MR is parallel to AQ)

So: LAMP =/MBR (angle sum of a triangle)
 Coordinate geometry 315

But AM = MB (because M is the mid-point of AB). So triangles

AMP and MBR are congruent. That is, the two triangles are exactly
the same size and shape.
Now AP = X— x,
and MR=x,-X
But AP = MR (congruent triangles)
So: X—X) =x.-X
i.e. X+X=x,+X)

2X = x1 +X
and A ed
Ha

Similarly, MP=Y-y,
and BR=y.—Y
But MP = BR
So: Y—yi=y2.—-Y
and Y= iAe £1
2

The
coordinates
ofMare(52 7K).
m So the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining
(x1,91) to (x2, y2) are

(=—v1a
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the line segment joining
(a) (3,7) to (2,5) (b) (3,4) to (—2,6) (©)(—1,—-4)to (—2,3)
(a) The mid-point is
( 3+27+5
2 ’ 2 ) ( ? )
—— ,—— } = (2.5,6

(b) The mid-point is

3-2 44+6

(c) The mid-point is

(5)
Bieta -15-05
48 =(-—1.5,
—0.5
316 Coordinate geometry

Example 2
The straight line joining A and B has mid-point M. Calculate the
coordinates of B for:

(a)A{l,2);M(3,4) (b)Al—1¢3),
M(4,ih
(c)A(—1,—3),M(3,—1).
(a) Let B have coordinates (x, y).
Then ee 3
2

l+x=6

a5

2+y
and oo
hago
5

2+y=8
6
B is the point (5,6).
(b) Let B have coordinates (x, y).
Then x +(-1) =—4
2
x—-1=8
be)
Vaan
and ene 7

y+5=-14

y=-19

B is the point (9, —19).

(c) Let B have coordinates (x, y).

Then a a ae
2
x-l=
2 at
and ala l
2
y-3=-2

Ll

B is the point (7, 1).

 Coordinate geometry 317

Example 3
Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
A(2, —3) to B(—5, 1).
The perpendicular bisector of the line joining A and B is
perpendicular to AB and passes through the mid--point of AB.
You therefore need the gradient of a line perpendicular to AB and
the coordinates of the mid-point of AB.
1+3 4
T he gradient
1 of AB — 7 aaaage fag:;

So the gradient of a line perpendicular to AB is

che >
47>4
aa|
The mid-point of AB is

(—Y -—3+1
2—5 ) =(-1.5,-1
( me)
So an equation of the perpendicular bisector is

y+1=f(x4+15)
4y+4=7x+ 10.5
4y = 7x + 6.5
or 8y = 14x4+ 13

Exercise 10A

1 Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the straight lines

joining each of the following pairs of points:
(a) (1,2) and (3,6) (b) (7,5) and (2,4)
(c) (1, —2)and (3,7) (d) (4,—2) and (—2,5)
(e) (—1, —3)and (—7,—6) (f) (—2,—9)and (3, -1)
(g) (—3,7) and (6,—4) —(h)(—5,—2)and (—9,—4)
(i) (—3,—6) and (4, —7) (j) (5, ~) and (—},2)
2 The straight line joining A and B has mid-point M. Calculate
the coordinates of B for:
(a) A(2,3), M(5,1) (b) A(6,2), M(3,4)
(c) A(3,7), M(4,3) (d) A(—5,2), M(3, 1)
(e) A(2,—4), M(5, 3) (f) A(2,—7), M(—6,
3)
(g) A(5,1), M(—2, —4) (h) A(—3,—-1), M(—4,—3)
(i) A(—3,—2),M(2,5) (j) A(1,4), M(-2,-1)
 318 Coordinate geometry
\

3 Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line

joining A to B:
(a) A(1,2), B(3, 1) (b) A(2, 3) B(5, 2)
(c) A(1,—7), B(2, 4) (d) A(—2,3), B(2,—-1)
(e) A(—1,—2),B(6, —5) (f) A(—3,—2), B(—1,—S)
(g) A(3,6), B(—2,—4) (h) A(1,—6), B(2,7)
(i) A(3,—4), B(7, —3) (j) A(1,6), B(—6,3)
4 The points A and B have coordinates (6,4) and (1, —8)
respectively. Find the coordinates of the centre and the radius
of the circle drawn on AB as diameter.
5 B (3, 5)

A(1,2)

For the triangle ABC, show that

(a) AB is perpendicular to BC
(b) BM = CM, where M is the mid-point of AC.
6 The centre of a square is at (3,4) and one of its vertices is at
(7,1). Find the coordinates of the other three vertices.

10.2 Sketching curves given by

cartesian equations
In your studies for GCSE you will probably have plotted, and
accurately drawn, the graphs of many functions. However, at AS
and A level you will meet questions which ask you not to plot and
draw accurately the graph of a function but merely to draw a sketch
of the function. What is then required is a freehand sketch of the
curve that shows the main features of that curve. If you are asked to
sketch a curve in an examination you will, in general, waste a great
deal of time and effort (and marks!) if you try to plot the graph
accurately.
 Coordinate geometry 319

The technique of curve sketching is used not only when demanded

by an examination question. You should always use it in questions
where you are asked to calculate the area under a curve. Unless you
can see a picture of the curve first, and so know what area it is you
are trying to calculate, it is very difficult to work out the correct
limits for the integration and so to obtain a correct answer.

The form of some graphs should be familiar to you. The graph of

y=ax+b5 is a straight line. So a sketch of y = 3x + 6 looks like
this:

The line has positive gradient and meets the coordinate axes at the
points (—2,0) and (0,6) as shown.
A sketch of y = —4x — 8 looks like this:

The line has negative gradient and meets the coordinate axes at
(—2,0) and (0, —8) as shown.
320 Coordinate geometry

The graph of y = ax? + bx + c is always a parabola.

When a > 0 the curve has a ‘valley’ shape: it is of the hy) form.
When a < 0 the curve has a ‘hill’ shape: It is of the fy form.

Any curve of the form y = f(x) cuts the x-axis where y = 0, so the
graph of y = ax*+bx+c cuts the x-axis where ax? + bx+c=0.
That is, where
—b + \/(b* —4ac)
x =
2a
as shown in section 2.3 of Book P1.
If b? —4ac <0, then the equation ax? +bx+c=0 has no real
roots because a negative number has no real square root. That is,
the graph of y = ax” + bx + ¢ does not cross the x-axis.

If b* —4ac = 0, then x = = That is, the equation ax* + bx +c=0

has just one root. So the graph of y = ax* + bx + c just touches the
X-axis.
If b? —4ax > 0, the then the equation ax? + bx + c = 0 has two real
roots and so the graph of y = ax? + bx +c cuts the x-axis at two
distinct points.

The possibilities are summarised in the diagrams.

a>0Oand b’ —4ac<0 a>0 and b’ =4ac a>0 and b*—4ac>0

y y

O x O Be

a< and hb’

—4ac<0 a<Oandhb’
=4ac a<Oandhb?
—4ac>0
y y yp

O 3 O / \ x O|/ \ x
 Coordinate geometry 321

So a sketch of y = x? —x —2 = (x+ 1)(x —2) looks like this:

A sketch of y= 6+ x —x? = (3 —x)(2 + x) looks like this:

The graph of y = ax? + bx + cx + deither consists of one ‘hill’ and

one ‘valley’, that is it has one maximum point and one minimum
point, or sometimes these two merge to form a point of inflexion. In
the equation y = ax’ + bx” + cx + d, the ax? term dominates. So if
a > 0, then:

as.X— FOOn,y—7ce

and as x ——oo, y ——0o

The graph therefore takes the form “\_, or

322 Coordinate geometry

If a < 0, then:
das“xX— Co, ) —> —0o
and as x > —oo,y > +00
The graph therefore takes the form wae’ or
Here are some examples:

The graph y = (x + 3)(x —1)(x —4)

Le: Veen Ox Peo
looks like this:

The graph of y = (2 —x)(3+ x)(14+ x)

Ve. Y= 64 5x —2x x"
looks like this:

Thegraphof y= (x—ie
i.e. Vx se ax 1
lookslikethis:
 Coordinate geometry 323

However, the shape of the graphs of most equations will be

unfamiliar to you and so you need to have some general strategy for
sketching a curve. There are a number of steps that you need to ©
take.

(1) Where does the curve cut the axes? To find out where it cuts
the x-axis you put y = 0 in the equation of the curve. To find out
where it cuts the y-axis you put x = 0 in the equation of the curve.

(2) Are there any asymptotes and where do they occur?

(3) What happens as x - +0?
(4) Has the graph any symmetry? You should know from Book P1
that f(x) is an even function if f(—x) = f(x). If f(x) is an even
function then the graph of y = f(x) is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Similarly, if the equation is x = g(y) and g(y) is an even function,
then the graph of x = g(y) is symmetrical about the x-axis. If f(x) is
an odd function i.e. (f(—x) = —f(x)) then the graph of y = f(x) has
rotational symmetry of 180° about the origin.
(5) Are there any values of x for which f(x) is not defined?
(6) Where do the stationary points occur and are they maxima,
minima or points of inflexion?

Example 4 rie)
Sketch the curve with equation y = ai
—2
(1) When x=0, y=-1
So the curve cuts the y-axis at (0, —1).
When y = 0,*%+2=0>x=-2
So the curve cuts the x-axis at (—2,0).
GZ) x=2> x—2=0
So at x = 2, y is undefined. Thus x = 2 is an asymptote parallel to
the y-axis.

S42
(3) pe 4
hae
Ran, osih-eles Tenainiyiont
; x-—2
So y = 1 is an asymptote, parallel to the x-axis.

as :
(4) is neither odd nor even.

(5) The curve exists for all x except x = 2.

 324 Coordinate geometry

Re dy (x—2)-1-—(x+2)-1
=— 4
(x—2
5 <0 for all x except
undefined.
x = 2, where it is

So the curve has no stationary points.

It looks like this:

Example 5
Sketch the curve with equation y =
4 —x?”
(1) When x =0, y=0
So the curve passes through the origin.
(2) When x = +2, 4— x? = 0 and 50y is infinite. Thus x = +2 are
asymptotes.

(3) As x— +00, y—0

As x + —oo,y> 0
(4) The function is odd and so the graph has rotational symmetry
about the origin.

(5) The graph exists for all x except x = +2.

dy (4—x*)-1—x(—2x)
(6)ps ety, wey
Ce aes
x744
(4-2/7
d
Seg | aeCAN
BOG
fepe a
dx
 Coordinate geometry 325

No real value of x exists such that x? = —4 so the curve has no

stationary point. It looks like this:

Example 6 2
Sketch the graph of y = ae
x*—1
9
(1) Se = 9

The curve cuts the y-axis at y= —9.

At y=0, 2 +9=05x°=-9
No real values of x exist such that x? = —9. So the graph does not
cut the x-axis.

(2) Atx=1orx=-—1, x*—1=0

Thusy is infinitefor thesevaluesof x.
Therefore the lines x = —1 and x = 1| are asymptotes.

4) = +10 10
Pes g- ee ft eo

10
So as x — +00, —OQandy— 1
x*-—1
So y = 1 is an asymptote.

Be 9
(4) sf a i is an even function, so the graph is symmetrical about
xXSeo
the y-axis.
x? +9
(5) y= i is defined for all x except x = +1.
Be —_
dy (x?—1)2x—(x?+ 9)2x
(6) ax = (x2he1)
 326 Coordinate geometry

Deeg eet
dx
=—1t.—.0
See eee
dx (x2—1)
th, eead
whenx isjust negative,~ >0

ne Pwr
Whenx is just positive,a <0

So (0, —9)is a maximum.

x9
The curve y = looks like this:
xe —|

Modulus functions
You met the modulus function in section 3.4 of Book Pl. You
should remember that |f(x)| is always positive or zero. So
|f(x)| = f(x) when f(x) is positive and |f(x)| = —f(x) when f(x) is
negative.
If you need to sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|, then where f(x) is
positive you sketch f(x) and where f(x) is negative you sketch the
reflection of f(x) in the x-axis. There is no part of the graph that lies
in the region of the xy-plane for which y < 0.
 Coordinate geometry 327

Example 7
Sketch the graph of y=x+1 and hence sketch the graph of —
y= |x4+]1].

The graph of y=x+1 has positive gradient, cuts the x-axis at

(—1,0) and cuts the y-axis at (0,1). It looks like this:

So the sketch of y = |x + 1| looks like this:

The dotted line shows the y-negative part of the graph of y=x+1
which has been reflected in the x-axis.

Example 8 |
Sketch the graph of y = (2 —x)(4+ x) and hence sketch the graph
of y= |(2—x)(44+x)|.

The equation y=(2-—x)(44+x)

can be written y=8-—2x-x
328 Coordinate geometry

So its graph is a parabola of the ‘hill’ variety (since the coefficient of

x? is negative), it cuts the x-axis at (2,0) and (—4,0) and it cuts the
y-axis at (0,8). So its graph looks like this:

The graph of y = |8 —2x —x?| looks like this:

Again, the dotted lines represent the y-negative part of the graph of
y = 8 —2x —x’ which has been reflected in the x-axis.

Example 9 1 1
Sketch the graph of y = = and hence sketch the graph of y = BP
x
 Coordinate geometry 329

] Secs
For the equation y = —, when x = 0, y is infinite and when y-=0,x
x
is infinite: that is, the x- and y-axes are asymptotes.

ay —-~ and since x? is always

oe
positive
Lat
or zero, —— is always
dx x x 2
l
negative. In particular it is never zero. So the graph of y =— has
es
no stationary points.

As x — +00, y > 0 and if f(x) = : then f(—x) = -- = -f(x). Sof

is an odd function and the graph has rotational symmetry of 180°
about the origin. The graph looks like this:

2) *

1
So the graph of y = - looks like this:
330 Coordinate geometry
\

Sketching the graph of y = ia)

If you are given, or are able to draw for yourself, a sketch of the
graph of y = f(x), then it is relatively simple to sketch the graph of

y= a if you remember the following:

f(x)

(1) Ifat x =a, the value of f(x) is b, b 4 0, then at x = a, the value

of fi). B

l
(2) If, at x=a, the value of f(x) is 0, then as x — a, FG) — 00;
; 1
that is, for the graph of y =——, x = a is an asymptote.
f(x)

(3) If x =a is an asymptote to the graph of y = f(x), then, at

iajerieat a. i( xy 0. then ay and if f(x) <0 then

fo
(5) If at x =a, there is a local maximum on the graph of y = f(x),
es 1
then at x = a there is a local minimum on the graph of y = F(x and
x
vice versa.

Example 10
On the same axes sketch the graphs of y=(x+1)(x—2) and
= 1
vee Tie 2)

The graph of y = (x + 1)(x —2) is a parabola of the ‘valley’ variety

which cuts the x-axis at x= —1 and x = 2 and cuts the y-axis at
y = —2. So its graph looks like this:
 Coordinate geometry 331

The value of y is 0 at x=—1 and at x=2:; so the graph of

1
*~ + 1)(x—2) has asymptotes at x = —1 and at x =2.

The graph of y = (x + 1)(x —2) cuts the y-axis at y= —2; so the

1
graph of y = cuts the y-axis at y=—}.
(x + 1)(x —2)
The graph of y= (x+1)(x—2) has a minimum value of —3 at
a i: so the graph of y = SS has a maximum value of

\O|
ato x=}.
Onthegraphof y = (x + 1)(x—2) as x + +00, y > +00;soonthe
graph of y = ee
—_____
HEE as a co, y—0;

Thegraph l :
ofy=e+ Dad) looks
likethis:
332 Coordinate geometry

Exercise 10B :

Sketch the curves with the following equations:

Py 83x 2*y=x*—9x7
1 x
Bail = x+3
—— 4 a?=

x+3 3x-—1
2 —————
x2 6 4 = xl

l x
iii 16 oT) 7 BEM

1
s ie Aad ao 5 Sinsore it

sheath= SS x
CE) ee
CEE) 12 deadol
=

13 y= |x +1) 14 y=|x-2|
15 y=2-|x+3| 16 y=|x-—6|+3
17 y=|3x+2y 18 y=|4—-3x|
19 y= — 6| 20 y=|(x—1)(x +2)|

7 ee | x2 Gee) l
=|1l-—; 22 y= ——_~

op : 24 y=
¥*G_-De+4 Y= Qx—3)(x +2)

I 2
eet = (pa
———__
)(3= 267 Pees)
y= 4

27 y=x(x-—5) 28 y=4-3

10.3 Sketching curves given by

parametric equations
You met the idea of a parameter in chapter 8 and you learned there
how to find the equation of a tangent and of a normal to a curve
given by parametric equations.
The parametric equations of a curve are generally used when they
are of a simpler form than the cartesian equation of the curve.
Under these circumstances the mathematics involved in working
with the parametric equations becomes much easier to handle.
 Coordinate geometry 333

Parametric equations that easily transform to a

cartesian equation
It is often possible to transform the parametric equations of a curve
into the corresponding cartesian equation. This is done by
eliminating the parameter, t, say, between the parametric equations
x = f(t) and y = g(t).

For example, if x = 27 and y = 41 then ? = _ and ¢ = A

: or
2 (7)yy
So: eee.

That is: See 2

216
or y = 8x
The technique is to take all the ¢’s (or whatever the parameter is) to
the left-hand side of each of the parametric equations and
everything else to the right-hand side. The two equations can then

be linked as in the example above. When 7? = . and t= - then

also? =(2).Soif7?=>and7?= (2)then

= @J-Rar=s
It is of the utmost importance when you do this that you make sure
that the rearranged equation in x has no parameter on the right-
hand side and, similarly, that the rearranged equation in y has no
parameter on the right-hand side. Unless you do this you will find
that your ‘cartesian’ equation will still involve a parameter. So you
will have an equation with three variables —x,y and a parameter!

If you can transform the parametric equations into the cartesian

equation you will often find that from the cartesian equation you
can sketch the graph using the techniques you have already been
shown.
334 Coordinate geometry

Example 11
Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations

Serey. y=14+?
From the first equation:

gues
733
From the secondequation:
P=y-l1

So:
Oo y -l= x\
(=)
3 2

ce =e
&. y= 9
This represents a parabola with a ‘valley’. If the equation of the
x2 ee 3
curve were y = > the curve would have its minimum at the origin.
2
So the graph of y = a 1 has its minimum at (0,+1), using the

result found in section 3.6 of Book P1.

The graph looks like this:

(0,1)
 Coordinate geometry 335

Example 12
Sketch the curve with parametric equations

x=t+2, 1
riceE
From the first equation; t = x — 2. From the second ’
equation 1
f = -.
v

So: x-2=- l
¥
or = .
a
l
Consider the equation y = x

As x > 0, yc

As x + +00, y >0
As x > —oo, y— 0

ieee
dic rat :
This can never be zero so the function has no stationary points. The
graph looks like this:
336 Coordinate geometry
1
Now if f(x) =—-
xX

l
then: f(x —2) =o

So, using the results from section 3.6 of Book P1, you can see that
1 |
the graph of y = 5 looks like this:
x-—

Curves that cannot easily be sketched from

their cartesian equation or whose cartesian
equation is difficult to obtain
It is always worth trying to rewrite the parametric equations of a
curve to obtain the cartesian equation. However, frequently the
cartesian equation turns out to be as complicated, if not more
complicated, than the parametric equations of the curve. So, by
going down this route, you often end up with a problem that is as
complicated as, or more complicated than the original question. In
these circumstances you need an alternative strategy. This is to try
to sketch the curve directly from the parametric equations. Before
you try to do this, you need to be sure that you can plot (rather than
sketch) a curve given by parametric equations.
 Coordinate geometry 337

Example 13
Draw the curve given by the parametric equations

The curve is called a semi-cubical parabola and looks like this:

 338 Coordinate geometry

Example 14
Draw the curve given by the parametric equations
x =3sin0, y=cosé

Now that you know how to draw a curve given by its parametric
equations you can try to sketch such a curve. The things to look for
are:
(1) Where does the curve cut the x- and y-axes?

(2) Has the curve any symmetry?

(3) Are there any restrictions placed on x and/or y by the

parameter?

(4) If ail else fails, plot a few points.

Example 15
Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations

x=, v= fone
(1) The curve cuts the x-axis where y = 0
 Coordinate geometry 339

i.e. where: P-—t=0

= (2? —1)
=0
=> t(t—1)(t+1)=0
So: t=0,1,-1
For t=0, x =0. That is, the curve passes through (0,0).
For t= +1, x=1. That is, the curve passes through (1,0).
The curve cuts the y-axis where x = 0; that is where
r=0S5 r= 0

So it cuts the y-axis only at (0,0).

(2) If t= a (where a is positive);
then: x=a* and y=a@—-a
If t = —a, then:
x =a’ (again) but y = —a +a = —(a —a)

So the curve passes through (a’, a? —a) and through (a, —a?+a).
That is, the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.
(3) Since for any real value of t, f is positive, and since x = 7,
x can only be positive or zero. So there is no curve to the left of the
y-axis.
Also, whent is very large || is much larger than |z|. So:
as t—>+00, x —+00 and y > +00
and as t ——oo,x —+00 and y ——oo
The graph therefore looks like this:
340 Coordinate geometry

Drerini(mce

Sketch the curves given by the parametric equations:

Deal, yt
2 ea lt p=4—e
4
3 sombabl
&gaan?
APS yp
Sa-3.0080, y = 25in 8.0:< 8 < 27
6 5= 6 —1yet i
Texel +3 per 1
8 x=2t+3, y= (t+2)(t— 3)
9 x=0-sind, y=1-—cos6, 0<0< 2x
10 x= sin@, y =cos20, 0<0<>

Wi x= 2eost. y = 2sin 8, 0'= 6 < 2k

12 x= 4c0s @,y = 3sind, 0 <0 <2
ieee = sin Coy sin 28, 0 0 27
ieeetp 28
15 x= 26. yyS38
16. 4=Pf —2,y=P—61
7 x=f, y=P
eS ye 4
19 nat, yatt3

Meca 1, y= |
Coordinate geometry 341
 Probability

This is the area of mathematics where you may be invited to try to

estimate the chances of winning a raffle prize, or perhaps, the
footballs pools or even the National Lottery. It is appropriate,
perhaps, that this important topic of study is often introduced
through games of chance because the initial studies in the subject
began with questions arising from betting on dice at the French
court in the middle part of the seventeenth century.

11.1 Sets

We often refer to sets of people, animals, items or objects by special

names. We speak about a herd of cattle, a crowd at a football match,
a swarm of bees or a collection of stamps, and so on. In
mathematics, we use the one word set for all words such as herd,
swarm, collection, etc. A set, then, is a list of objects placed together
by some common quality. The objects in a set are called members or
elements.
One way of naming a set is to list all its members inside a curly
bracket:
{Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}
A capital letter such as W is used to name the set of the days of the
week and you could also write:

W = {the days of the week}

This is the second way you can identify the set: by using a general
description. In words you would say ‘W is the set of the days of the
week.’ So a set can be defined by listing all its members or by a
general description.
Another thing you can say about the set W is that it has seven
members. This is written as n(W) = 7 and in words ‘the number of
members in set W is 7’. Similarly the set M could be

M = {the months of the year}

 Probability 343

and n(M) = 12, because there are 12 months in the year.

By using a general description you can define sets clearly and
without ambiguity. For example, the set of positive integers between
2 and 11 inclusive can be written as:
{2,3,4, 5,6, 7, 8,9, 10, 11}
More often, though, we write this set as:
{n : nis an integer such that 2<n < 11}
and this is read in words as ‘the set of integers n, where n lies
between 2 and 11 inclusive’.

This second, more general, way of defining a set has obvious

advantages. It is clearly much the better way of defining set A, where
A = {n: nis an integer and 0 <n < 1000}
Writing out every member of 4 is both tedious and unnecessary!
You will also meet many sets where it will prove impossible to list all
the elements, because there is an infinite number of them. For
example, the set E, where

E = {n:n is an integer and even}

has an infinite number of elements. Also the set P where

PAY
Gy:x,y)
isaPpoint
inthe g bounded
triangle ythe
by }
x-axis, the y-axis and the line x+ y= 4
You should notice, however, that there is no problem about
identifying whether, or not, any item is amember of E or of P. For
example, 4 is a member of E and 7 is not. Similarly, (1.5,0.5) is a
member of P whereas (3,2) is not.
There are several special sets of numbers that are important and
they have special symbols. These are listed at the back of the book in
the ‘List of symbols and notation’. We briefly mention here the
symbols N, Z, Q and R, which represent the sets of positive integers
and zero, the integers including zero, the rational numbers and real
numbers, respectively. You met these in Book P1, chapter 3.
N = {positive integers and zero} = {0,1,2,3, ...}
= tintevers} = 40, +1 42,43, ©... t

Q@
= {rational
numbers}
={=:mneZnF#
o}
R = {real numbers}
The set of real numbers R includes all rational and irrational
numbers. In any question, unless you are specifically told otherwise,
344 Probability

you should assume that the set of real numbers is being used, just as
you did when studying functions in Book P1, chapter 3.
You have also met the set inclusion symbol € which is used like this:

xER

and is equivalent to saying in words ‘x is amember of the set of real

numbers’. The symbol € means ‘is a member of’. The symbol ¢ is
also used:
yéR
is equivalent to saying ‘y is not amember of the set of real numbers’.
¢ means ‘is not a member of’.

Disjoint sets
Two sets that have no members in common are called disjoint. For
example, the sets

A = {3,5,6,8}
B= {2,4,7,9}
are disjoint because they have no members in common.

The empty set

The empty set is the set that has no members. The empty set is
denoted by @. An example of the empty set is the set of odd
numbers exactly divisible by 4, because this set has no members.

Equal sets
Two sets are equal if, and only if, the members in each are exactly
the same. For example, the sets A and B are equal when
Matt 2}
B = {x: x is a solution of the equation x? —3x +2 = 0}
because the solutions of x? — 3x +2=0 = (x—1)(x—2) =0 are
1 and 2.

So: Boh) aA

Subsets
You will often find that a set you are considering is only part of
another set that has a greater number of members. For example, the
set A= {3,5, 6,8}is contained in the set C = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
 Probability 345

because all the members of A are also in C. A is said to be a subset of

C and this can be written as A C C, where C stands for ‘is a subset
of”.

Example 1
List all the possible subsets of the set 4, where

A = {a,b}

One subset of A is the empty set @.

There are two subsets {a} and {b} with just one member each.

There is one subset {a,b} with two members, and that is the set A
itself.

In all then, A has four subsets.

Any subset that is not the entire set is called a proper subset. Finally
then, the set A has three proper subsets and four subsets in all.

The universal set

The universal set, denoted by the letter &, is the set of all the
members in all the sets under discussion. All other sets considered in
that situation are subsets of &. For example, if @ is the set of all
people in your school and T is the set of teachers in your school,
then 7 is a subset of & and we write TC @.

11.2 Venn diagrams

Venn diagrams are used to illustrate sets. They were first used by the
English mathematician John Venn (1834-1923). It is usual to
represent the universal set & by a rectangle. An enclosed space,
usually a circle, within this rectangle will represent a subset of &.
For example, if

E={n:nEZ1<n<9}

and A= {3, 5, 6, 8}
346 Probability

then the corresponding Venn diagram could look like this:

11.3 Operations on sets

Complement
For the universal set € and the subset 4, the complement A’ of A is
a set containing all those members of & which are not members of A.

In the diagram, the set A’ is shaded. Clearly

n(A) + n(4’) = n(6)

Union
The union of two sets A and B, written A U B, or BU A, is the set of
members that belong to either of the two sets, or to both.

Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B, written 49 B, or BNA, is the
set of members that belong to both set A and set B.

There are several possible cases:

 Probability 347

(1) Suppose A and B have some common members, then:

Set AUB shaded Set ANB shaded

Also: n(A) + n(B) —n(AN B) = n(AUB)

(2) Suppose that B C A, then:

AUB shaded (=A) ARB shaded (=B)

(3) Suppose that A and B are disjoint sets. Then:

ae
AUB shaded ANB=@D

Also:
n(A4UB)=n(A)+n(B) and n(ANB)=0

Example 2
There are 25 students in a class and they study either Mathematics
or English or both Mathematics and English. M is the set of
students studying Mathematics and E is the set of those who study
English. Given that n(M) = 12 and n(£) = 17, find n(M7n £).
348 Probability

: n(&)=25

Let n(MnE)=x, then you can complete the Venn diagram

showing 12—.x students studying Maths and not English and
17 —x students studying English and not Maths. Since all the 25
students study Maths or English or both,
(12—x)+ (17 -—x)+x=25
2p LX
5eae
The number of students in the set MO
E is 4.

Example 3
The universal set contains all the positive integers from 1 to 10
inclusive. A= {1,2,5,10} and B = {1,4, 6,8, 10}.
List the members of (a) AUB (b) ANB (c) A’
(a) The set A U B has members that are in 4 or in B or in both A and
B; that is

AUB= {1,2,4,5, 6,8, 10}

(b) The set 4MB has members that are in both A and B; that is
AB == LO}
(c) The set A’ contains all those elements that are in the universal set
but not in A; that is
A! = {3,4,6,7,8,9}

Exercise 11A

1 \The universal set € = {4,5,6,7,8,9, 10, 11, 12},

A = {5,6,9, 11}, B={4,6, 8, 10, 12}.
Display this information on a Venn diagram.
Find the sets A’, B’, AUB,A'NB’.
2 The sets A and B are such that n(A) = 17, n(B) = 5.
(a) If Bis a subset of A, find n(A U B) and n(An B’).
 Probability 349

(b) If n(A UB) = 20, find n(4n B).

3 The set A contains all integers between | and 100 inclusive
which are even and the set B contains all those integers be-
tween | and 100 inclusive which are multiples of either 3 or 5.
Find (a) n(A) (6b)n(B) (c)n(ANB) (d) n(AUB).
4 The universal set &= {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10, eed 4
P = {2,4,5,6,8,9, 11}, O = {1,2, 3,5,6, 7, 10, 11, 12}.
Show these sets in a Venn diagram.
List the members of the sets P’; PNQO,P’NQ.
5 The number x is a member of the set of real numbers.
A={x:-2<x<5}, B={x:-4<x<3}

Writing the sets in a similar notation, find 4MB and AUB.

6 The universal set is the set of real numbers.
P={x:-4<x<6},Q={7:0<y<8}

Find the sets PO Q and PUQ.

7 All the students in a class of 30 musicians play either the
piano or the violin. In this class, 22 play the piano and 17
play the violin. Display this information in a Venn diagram
and hence find how many students play either the piano or
the violin but not both.

11.4 Events and sample spaces

You will need to know the meaning of the following terms: sample
space or possibility space, simple event, compound event, outcome and
trial. The meanings are: best understood by looking at some
examples.
Suppose a die is thrown on a table and the number showing on the
top face is recorded. The die could then be thrown again, if required.
Each time the die is thrown, we say that a trial takes place. Each
trial has six possible outcomes which are: a score of | or 2 or 3 or 4
or 5 or 6 turns up. Each possible outcome is called a simple event.
For one throw of the die then, one of six possible simple events will
occur. These simple events are the only members of a set called the
sample space or the possibility space of the trial.
Another way of describing the outcome of a trial would be to record
the number turning up as odd or even. That is, when | or 3 or 5
turns up, the outcome is odd. In a case like this, the event ‘the
350 Probability
\

outcome is odd’ is clearly a compound event which contains three

simple events as members. You will soon appreciate how necessary
it is to distinguish between simple events and a compound event that
is the union of several simple events.

Now suppose that you draw a card at random from a normal pack
of 52 playing cards which contains four suits: hearts, spades, clubs
and diamonds. Each suit has an ace, a king, a queen, a jack and
cards numbered 2,3, .. . 10. So there are 13 cards in each suit.

As each card can be distinguished from any other, one of 52 possible

simple events can occur when a card is drawn at random. The
compound event ‘a heart is drawn’ is the union of 13 simple events.
Hearts and diamonds are red while spades and clubs are black. The
compound event ‘a red card is drawn’ implies that a diamond or a
heart is drawn; that is, this compound event is the union of 26
simple events.

11.5 Probability
If an event can take place in n different ways which are all equally
likely, and if r of these ways are considered to be a success, then the

probabilityof of a success is defined r oe

to be —. This definition has some
n
limitations but it will cover most of the cases you meet.

The probability that an event occurs is measured on a scale from 0

to 1. When the event always happens, its probability of occurring is
1 and similarly when an event never occurs, its probability is 0. Most
events in a possibility space happen sometimes, and their probability
is then a number x, where 0 < x < 1.

Games of chance are often used to explain probability theory

because it is possible to give fixed values to the probabilities of the
outcomes. For example, the probability of scoring 3 in a single
throw of an unbiased die is h. The probability of drawing the ace of
hearts at random oe a pack of cards is + the probability of
drawing a heart iis 3 =P and so on. You need, then, to be able to
count up the mariber of simple events r, which are successes, and the
total number of simple events n in the sample space; assuming that
all simple events are equally likely, you can summarise this as:

probability of success = i
n
 Probability 351

11.6 Relative frequency and

probability
If you have a very large number of events, it will not be possible to
check every one to see whether it is a ‘success’ or not. But you can
adapt this approach so that you can find an approximate value for
the probability that any event selected is a success. To do this you
must select a smaller number (a sample) of events from the whole
sample space (or population). But you must be careful to make sure
that your selection is random so that the sample is representative of
the whole population.

Suppose that you make n trials and that r of those trials are
successes. Then, based on this evidence, an estimate for the

ay
probability war
of success is —. In general, estimates ts
of the probability
n
of success get progressively more accurate as the number of trials n

increases. So when n is large, we assume that ae

— gives a good
n
estimate of the probability of success in any single random trial.
This approach to estimating probabilities is sometimes referred to as
the relative frequency approach.

Example 4
A bag contains a large number of beads, of which 25% are blue and
the rest are white. A bead is to be selected at random from the bag.
Find the probability that a white bead will be selected.

You know that 75% of the beads are white.

75
P(white selected) = 100 ~ 0.75

Exercise 11B

1 Explain why there are 36 simple events in the sample space

when two dice are thrown together. Find the probability that
when two dice are thrown together
(a) a total score of 7 is obtained
(b) a double is obtained
(c) a total score of either 3 or 5 or 9 or 11 is obtained.
 352 Probability

2 A card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 playing cards.

Find the probability that the card will be
(a) anace (b) a king or a queen or a jack
(c) a card whose face value lies between 3 and 9 inclusive.
3 Ina class, there are 14 girls and 12 boys. A child is selected
at random. Find the probability that
(a) a girl is selected (b) the oldest boy is selected.
4 The universal set is € = {x : x is an integer, 1 <x< 22}
A = {m: mis an even integer, 2 < m < 18}
B= {n: nis an integer, 3 <n< 22}
An integer is selected at random from @. Find the probability
that this integer is amember of the set
(a) A (b) B (c) ANB (d) AUB
5S Two unbiased coins are spun. List the four possible outcomes.
Find the probability that one, and only one, tail is obtained.
Another coin is biased so that it is twice as likely to show a head as
a tail when spun. Find, for this coin, when it is spun twice, the
probability that either two heads or two tails are obtained.

6 A rectanglemeasures 5cmby 6cm.A circleof radius2m is

drawn to lie completely inside the rectangle. A point P is chosen
at random to lie inside the rectangle. Find the probability that P
lies inside the circle. Find also the probability that P does not lie
inside the circle. (Give your answers to 2 decimal places.)

11.7 Combining events

Events may be combined in a very similar way to sets. The
possibility space, or the sample space, is equivalent to the universal
set. The union of all the simple events under consideration is the
possibility space and it has probability 1 because one of its events
must occur at each trial.

Events A, B, C, etc. are subsets of the possibility space and their

probabilities of occurring are written P(A), P(B), P(C), etc. Events
such as A’, the complement of A, 4 U B, the union of A and B and
A1 B, the intersection of the events A and B, are synonymous with
the sets A’, AUBand AM B in set theory. The probabilities P(A’),
P(AUB) and P(AMB) are synonymous with the number of
members in the sets. Probability theory is an important application
 Probability 353

of set theory and your understanding of one will help you to

understand the other.
For any two events A and B of a possibility space S, you should
learn and memorise this important formula (see section 11.3):

m P(A) + P(B) —P(ANB) = P(AUB)

Example 5
The events A and B are members of a possibility space S.
P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.35 and P(AN B) = 0.15. Show this informa-
tion in a Venn diagram and use it to find the values of (a) P(A U B)
(b) P(A’ B).

Draw a rectangle with two intersecting circles inside for the Venn
diagram and write in the probabilities for each region, starting with
P(AN B) = 0.15. Using the information given, you can fill in the
other two probabilities as shown.

(a) Using the formula,

P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) —P(AN B)
= 0.44 0.35 —0.15 = 0.6
(b) The region in the diagram which is shaded represents the event
A'NB.

P(A'N B) = 0.35 —0.15 = 0.2

354 Probability

Mutually exclusive events

A possibility space S is given and two of its events, A and B, have no
simple events in common. This is equivalent to saying that
P(A B) = 0 and therefore you have the formula
P(A) + P(B) = P(AUB)
In this case, the events A and B are called mutually exclusive. That is,
if A occurs, then B cannot occur and vice versa. This formula is
sometimes called the addition rule of probability but, remember, the
events A and B must be mutually exclusive.

ThisVenndiagramillustratesthe situation:

Mutually exclusive events

A and B

Complementary events
A possibility space S is given, together with an event A. The event
A’ contains all those simple events in S that are not members of A
and A’ is called the complement of A. The events A and A’ are
mutually exclusive and

P(A) +P(A’) =1
These events A and A’ are sometimes called exhaustive because their
union is the whole possibility space.

The events A and 4’

 Probability 355

Example 6
Each of ten counters has a different member of the set
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10} written on it. A counter is selected at
random. The event A is ‘the number on the selected counter is a
multiple of 3’. The event B is ‘the number on the selected counter is
a multiple of 5’. Find P(A), P(4’), P(B), P(A UB).

The event A has three simple events as members, namely 3,6,9, so

you can write

Also P(A’) = 1—P(4)=1-4=7

The event B has two simple events, namely 5, 10, and

P(B) = %

The simple events in A U B, are 3,5,6,9,10 and P(AUB) = >

As A and B have no simple events in common, the events A and B
are mutually exclusive and you know that P(A) + P(B) = P(A UB)
in this case. The following diagrams would be useful to you when
building up your own solution:

Independent events
m= Provided that neither P(A) nor P(B) is zero, the events A and B of
a sample space S are independent if and only if
P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
This is sometimes called the product rule of probability but,
remember, it is only true when A and B are independent events.

Example 7
A card is selected at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. The
card is replaced and a second card is selected at random. The event
H is the first card is a heart. The event D is the second card is a
diamond. Find P(H), P(D) and P(HMD). Comment on your
answers.
 356 Probability

There are 52 cards in the pack, of which 13 are hearts; so

P(H) =8=1
Similarly, P(D) = +
There are 52 x 52 possible pairings of the first and second cards to
be selected and, of these, 13 x 13 are (heart, diamond) pairs.
(130%13)
So: PGZimrD)= a
|

(52552) eae
Notice that you have P(H)P(D) = P(HMD), confirming, as you
would expect, that H and D are independent events.

Example 8
A red die and a black die are thrown. There are 36 simple events in
the possibility space and each of these can be uniquely identified by
the number pair (x,y), where x and y are integers between 1 and 6
inclusive and where x is the score on the red die and y is the score on
the black die. For example, (5,6) is the event ‘the red die scores 5
and the black die scores 6’. The event A is ‘x = 3 or 4’ and the event
B is ‘y = 5’. Discuss whether or not A and Bare independent events.

The event A has 12 simple events as members

RE 62) (3,6) (41) Ae? (4, 6)}
So: P(A)=B=1

The event 4 B has two members, namely (3,5) and (4,5) and so
P(ANB)=2Z= &
Youcan nowworkout the product
P(4)P(B) =1x1=4
As this is the same as P(A 1M
B), you can conclude that A and B are
independent events.

Example 9
The events A and B are independent.
P(A) = 2x, P(B) = 3x, P(AU B) =2
Find the value of x.
Using the formula P(A) + P(B) = P(A U B) + P(AN B),
P(A B) =Ix+3x—F=5x-4
 Probability
357
As the events A and B are independent,
P(A) P(B) = P(A B)
That is: (2x)(3x)= 5x—#
6x7= 5x—:
18x* — 158-22.—.0
(3x —2)(6x —1) =0

giving x = { or 3

But as P(B) = 3x < 1, the solution x = $ is not possible.

Therefore x = ; is the solution.

11.8 Conditional probability

In a college there are 100 students in all. Of these, 49 study Maths
(set M) and 19 study Geography (set G). There are 12 students who
study both Maths and Geography (set MMG). We can display this
information on a Venn diagram.

‘
The probability of selecting at random a student studying
Geography from all 100 students is im That is:

P(G)= 100
Alsowehave P(MNG)=%
fromthe data given.
However, if you visit the Geography class of just 19 students and
select a student at random, the probability of selecting a student
who also studies Maths is }3. This probability is written as P(M|G)
and read as ‘the probability of the student studying Maths given
that the student studies Geography’.
 358 Probability
\

This is an example of conditional probability, the probability of

(the student studying Maths) conditional upon the event G (the
student studying Geography) having already happened.

In this example, P(M|G) = +3. Notice that the 12 in the numerator

represents the students in the set MMG and the 19 in the
denominator represents the students in the set G. So this could be
written as

=aan - Se1S
P(M|G) s|i

_ o
0
| |
ree
lt

and this can also be written as

P(M1NG) = P(M|G) P(G)

m= So for two events 4 and B we have the rule

P(A 1 B) = P(A|B) P(B)
which relates the conditional probability of 4, given B, P(A|B),
with P(4 1 B) and P(B).

Also, by interchanging A and B you get:

P(BNMA) = P(B\A) P(A)

As P(BM A) = P(A B) this rule is also

= P(AN B) = P(BIA) P(A)

Finally then, we have P(A MB) = P(B|A) P(A) = P(A|B) P(B)

Example 10
The events A and B of a sample space are such that RAs.
P(B|A) = 5 and P(AU B) = %. Find P(B) and P(A|B).

Using the formula P(A MB) = P(B\A) P(A)

youget: P(ANB) =i xt=4

you get: 24 P(B)-42=2

= PB) =%+ 8-3-8

you get:
 Probability 359

So: P(A|B)
alt
0 Sl
Iz
I
1
—ion

\| =wn ==
I| =|

Tree diagrams
Probability problems can get quite complicated and diagrams can
help to sort out the various outcomes and their probabilities. One
such type of diagram is called a tree diagram or a probability tree.
Consider the possibilities when you toss an unbiased coin twice. The
first toss results in either a head (H) or a tail (7), each having
probability }.

NIi-
T

Two lines are drawn as shown, the outcomes are written at the end
and the probabilities of each outcome are written beside the lines.
The process is repeated for the second toss, except that it is done
twice, starting at each end of the outcomes shown by the first toss.

| H

1 H
i T

7 2 H

i
r

To find the probability of a specific outcome, say H followed by T,

the probabilities of the two steps are multiplied together:

P(HT)
=1x1=1
A useful rule when using tree diagrams is ‘multiply along the
branches but add between the branches’.
The probability of getting just one head when two unbiased coins
are tossed is equivalent to getting either HTor TH in the tree
diagram, that is
360 Probability

P(onehead)= ) + § x 4)(multiplyalongbut add between)

Example 11
A bag contains four yellow balls and five green balls. Two balls are
drawn at random, one after another, without replacement. Draw a
tree diagram to show the possible outcomes and write in the
probabilities on the branches. Hence find the probability that
(a) two yellow balls are obtained
(b) the second ball is yellow given that the first is green
(c) a yellow ball and a green ball are obtained
(d) both balls are of the same colour.

4 Y
8

é Y
9 5
i G

4
5 8 Y
: G

4
: G

First draw the tree diagram, as shown, where Y is the event ‘a yellow
ball is drawn’ and G is the event ‘a green ball is drawn’.

(b)P(¥IG)=$=}
(c) P(YG
or GY)= (§ x3 5
(d)P(GGor YY)= (3x4)+(¢x

1 The events A and B are mutually exclusive with P(A) = 0.3

and P(B) = 0.44. Find P(A U B) and sketch a Venn diagram.
Hence find P(A’ B’).
2 The independent events L and M have P(L) = 0.6 and
P(LN M) = 0.3. Find P(LU M).
 Probability 364

The events A and B are such that P(A) = 0.72, P(B) = 0.56
and P(A B) = 0.3. Find P(A U B) and P(B|A).
The events E and F are such that P(E) = 0.6, P(F) = 0.3 and
P(E|F) = 0.5. Find P(EN F) and P(FE).
The events A and B are such that P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.3 and
P(A U B) = 0.8. Find the probability that
(a) both A and B will occur

(b) just one of the events 4 and B will occur

(c) B occurs, given that 4 has occurred.
The independenteventsC andD are suchthat P(C)= +and
P(CND) =}.
(a) Find P(D).
The events C and E are mutually exclusive and P(C U E) = 2.
(b) Find P(£).
Given that P(DN E£)= +, show all the events in a Venn dia-
gram.

(c) Find PXENC'ND’).

The independent probabilities that Ann and Carol will score a
point from a freethrowin netballare 2 and 3respectively.
They each have one throw. Find the probability that one, and
only one, girl scores a point.
The events A and B are independent, with P(A) = P(B). Gi-
ven further that P(4 1M
B) = % find P(A U B).
The events C and D of a sample space are such that P(C) = 3,
P(D) = 4, and P(CND) =}.
Find P(CUD), P(C|D) and P(D|C).
10 Five cards are marked 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5S.These cards are placed
in a bag and a card is drawn at random from the bag.
The event A is ‘the number on the card chosen is less than 4’.
The event B is ‘the number on the card chosen is odd’.

Find P(A), P(B), P(A U B), P(A|B), P(B|A).

11 Using the same five cards as in question 10, two cards are
drawn from the bag one after the other with the first card

being replaced before the second is drawn.

(a) Find the probability that the sum of the digits on the
cards selected is even.
362 Probability
\

(b) Find the probability that the digit on the second card se-
lected is greater than the digit on the first card selected.
12 There are six equally eligible students available for the four
vacancies on a College Council. Given that the four are to be

selected at random, find the probability that

(a) both the oldest student and the youngest student are selected
(b) the youngest student is selected given that the oldest is
selected.
13 In a group of 40 children 19 are wearing black shoes, 24 are
wearing anoraks and 14 are wearing neither black shoes nor
an anorak. A child is selected at random.
The event A is ‘the child selected is wearing an anorak’.
The event B is ‘the child selected is wearing black shoes’.

Find P(A), P(B), P(A UB), P(A|B).

Two children are selected at random and without replace-

ment. Find the probability that one is wearing black shoes

and no anorak and the other is wearing an anorak and not
black shoes.
14 A bag contains 12 balls in all, of which 5 are white and the
rest are red. Two balls are selected at random and without re-

placement. Draw a tree diagram to show the possible out-

comes and write in on the branches the corresponding

probabilities. Hence find the probability that the two balls se-
lected will be

(a) both red

(b) both of the same colour.
15 Three girls Claire, Debbie and Emily have independent
probabilitiesof 5,2 and ; respectivelyof solvinga problem.
Find the probability that
(a) just one of the three solves the problem
(b) they all fail to solve the problem.
16 John travels to school by train each day. On any day the
probability that his train is delayed is 0.4.
If his train is delayed, the probability that he is late for school
is 0.8. If his train is not delayed, the probability that he is late
for school is 0.3. Draw a tree diagram to show the possible
outcomes. Find the probability that John is not late for
school tomorrow.
 Probability 363
17 A bag contains three red balls and two white balls. A box

contains five red balls and four white balls. A coin is spun,
and if a head is obtained a ball is chosen at random from the
bag. If a tail is obtained a ball is chosen at random from the
box.

(a) By drawing a tree diagram find the probability that the

ball drawn is white.
(b)Giventhattheballdrawn
isred,findthetele, SiR
baat
itwasoriginally
inthebag.
18 Ata race meeting the probabilities of the at winning
the 2:30, the 3 o’clock and the 3:30 races are 3, .3 and 2respec-
tively. Find the probability that one favourite wins A the
other two favourites lose.
19 Show that there are 15 different selections of a pair of cards
from six different cards coloured red, white, blue, yellow, or-
ange and green.
Two cards are chosen, one at a time and without replacement,
from the six cards. Find the probability that one of the
chosen cards is yellow.
20 Two cards are selected at random and without replacement

from a pack of 52 playing cards. Find the probability that

(a) both cards are jacks
(b) the cards are of different suits
(c) one, and only one, of the cards is a king.
364 Probability
 Numerical methods

From your GCSE studies and the work done in Book P1 you should
know how to solve linear equations and quadratic equations, either
by factorising, by formula or by completing the square. However,
although it is possible to solve cubic equations (polynomial
equations of degree 3), quartic equations (polynomial equations of
degree 4) and so on, if they factorise, it is difficult to solve them
precisely otherwise. Equally it is difficult to solve equations such as
sinf —@=1 precisely. Indeed, it is a fact that the majority of
equations cannot be solved in any precise manner and so we have to
solve them by using iterative procedures. An iterative procedure is a
repetitive process that produces a sequence of approximations. The
sequence may converge to a limiting value such as the root of an
equation or the sum of a series. Sometimes, however, a sequence
diverges: the differences between successive approximations get
bigger and bigger instead of smaller. (Divergent sequences were
mentioned in chapter 6 of Book P1.)

12.1 Approximate solutions of

equations
Consider the equation x? — 5x + 2 = 0. The graph of
y = x? — 5x +2 is shown on page 366.
As you can see, one root of the equation x* —5x+2=0 lies
between 0 and | and another between 4 and 5. You could also have
found this by the methods shown in section 10.4 of Book P1. That
is, if f(x) = x* — 5x +2, then

f(0) = 2 > 0 and f(1) = —2 < 0, so a root lies between 0 and 1.

f(4) = —2 < 0, f(5) = +2 > 0, so a root lies between 4 and 5.

Rearrange the equation x? — 5x +2 =0 so that:

x =5x-2
and hence x = +,/(5x —2)
366 Numerical methods

Take the positive root and form the iteration formula

Nabi = / (5X, —2)

Using the formula, you can now find a sequence of approximations

X0,X1,X2,... that gets progressively closer to one of the roots of the
equation x* —5x+2=0. As one root lies between 4 and 5, you
could take the starting value as xo = 4. Using the iteration formula:

x1 = V[(5 x 4) —2] = V18 = 4.242 640 687

x2 = y/[(5 x 4.242 640 687) —2] = 4.383 286 83
x3 = 4.462 783 229
x4 = 4.507096 199

x5 = 4.531 609095

x6 = 4.545 112262

x7 = 4.552 533 505

xg = 4.556 607019

x9 = 4.558 841 42
 Numerical methods 367

X10 = 4.560 066 568

X11 = 4.560 738 19

where the calculations are given to 9-figure accuracy.

So one root of the equation is 4.56 (2 decimal places), which is the

same as can be obtained by using the quadratic formula.
The question now arises as to why this method works. The graphs of
y = V(5x —2) and y = x look like this:

Given that the equation x = \/(5x—2) is another form of the

equation x? —5x+2=0, a solution of x? —5x+2=0 occurs
where the graph of y=x crosses the graph of y = \/(5x —2),
because when. these two equations are satisfied simultaneously then
x = \/(5x —2). (Refer back to Book P1 section 2.2 if you do not
remember this.) So you need to find a sequence of approximations
that gets closer and closer to the x-coordinate of the point A.
 368 Numerical methods

Consider those parts of the graphs that lie between x = 4 and the
point A:

P, (x1, ¥2)
P; (Xp,y3)

Q) (x2, yz)
Pi (4,y,)

y =Vv(5x—2) Q;(x1,1)

We started with xo = 4 and substituted this into y = \/(5x —2) to

give y; = 4.242 640 687. So we went from x = 4 to the point P; on
the graph of y = \/(5x —2). Then we put x; = 4.242 640687. That
is we put the value y; = x). So we went horizontally from P; to OQ;
on the graph of y=x. Thus the point Q; has coordinates
(4.242 640 687, 4.242 640 687). We then substituted
x1 = 4.242 640687 into y= /(5x —2) to give y. = 4.383 286 83.
So we went from Q; to P>. At this point we put x2 = 4.383 286 83.
That is, we put y. = x2 and so we moved from P) to Q> on the
graph. Then we moved to P3, and so on, and, as you can see, we
got closer and closer to the point A.

This method clearly involves going vertically up to the graph of

y = V(5x —2) and then going horizontally across to the graph of
y = x. It depends on one of the graphs having equation y = x. So of
the two graphs, one must have equation y=x and the other
Vassd(x):

= When trying to solve an equation f(x) = 0 by an iterative method,

you first rearrange f(x) = 0 into a form x = g(x). The iteration
formula is then

Xn41= 2(Xn)

This is all very well, but there is no unique form x = g(x) into which
the equation f(x) =0 can be rearranged. We rearranged the
equation x’—5x+2=0 above into the form x= /(5x—2).
However, we could have rearranged it into the form
 Numerical methods 369

2
5x = x* +2 and hence x =~ dace

OR a and tence x 5
ie
OR x(x —5) = —2and hence x = —.
ig—
This raises the question of whether it matters how we rearrange the
equation.
We know that the formula x4) = /(5x, —2), starting with x9 = 4 >

converges to the larger root, which is 4.56 (2 d.p.).

2422
Let’s try x41 =— , Starting with x9 = 4. Then:
5

x, = 3.6

x = 2.992

x3 = 2.1904128

x4 = 1.359581 647

x5 = 0.769 692.45

x6 = 0.518 485 293

x7 = 0.453 7654

xg = 0.441 180607

X9 = 0.438 928 065

X10 = 0.438 531 569

This root is 0.44 (2 d.p.).

So this iteration formula, starting at x9 = 4, leads to the smaller root

of the equation x* — 5x +2=0.

Now try Xn41 = 5 s starting at x» = 4:

m= 45

X2 = 4.555 555 56

x3 = 4.560975 61

x4 = 4.561 497 326

x5 = 4.561 547479

That is 4.56 (2 d.p.), and so we are back to the first root again.
—2 te phan
Finally, consider x,4; = 2 5 starting at xp = 4:
 370 Numerical methods

Xie
X72= 0.666 666 666

x3 = 0.461 538 461

x4 = 0.440 677 966

x5 = 0.438 661 71

x6 = 0.438 467 807

That is 0.44 (2 d.p.) and you are back to the other root.
So some of the iteration formulae lead to one root and some to the
second root, even though you have the same starting point. Of
course, using each iteration formula with a given starting point will
only ever lead to at most one root of the equation. If an equation has
three roots, you will need to find at least three iterative sequences to
obtain all of them. If an equation has four roots, you will need to
find at least four iterative sequences to obtain all of them, and so on.

Example 1
Show that the equation x? —3x —5 = 0 can be written in the form
x = V(3x+5).
Using the formula rl VW(3xXn+ 5), find, to 3 decimal places, a
root of the equation x? —3x — 5 = 0, starting with x9 = 2.
3 -—3x-5=053 x3 =3x4+5

So: x = V(3x + 5)
Using p41 = ~/(3x + 5) and xp =2:
x; = 2.223 980091
X2 = 2.268 372 388
x3 = 2.276 967 161
Hy 2 18623713
X5 = 2.278 942719
So a root of the equation is 2.279 (3 d.p.)

12.2 Starting points for iteration

- the beginning of this chapter we drew the graph of
x* — 5x -+2=0 and so we were able to see that one root of the
equation lay between 0 and 1 and the other between 4 and 5. This
then allowed us to say that since 4 was close to a root we could use
= 4 as a Starting point for our iteration.
 Numerical methods 371

When you select a starting point for the iteration it is sensible to

choose a point that lies reasonably close to the root. The further the
starting point is from the root, the more calculating you are likely to
have to do. It is therefore going to save you time and energy if you
choose a point reasonably close to the root.
As a general rule, try to find an interval in which a root lies and then
choose as a starting point, xo, either
(i) one of the end-points of the interval, or
(ii) the mean value of the two end-points of the interval.
However, it is not sensible, in general, to draw the graph of y = f(x)
in order to find an interval within which a root lies: this is time-
consuming and, if the graph is drawn accurately it will probably be
easier to read the value of the root from the graph! Instead you
should use the result you were shown in Book P1, i.e. if f(a) < 0 and
f(b) > 0, or if f(a) > 0 and f(b) < 0 then generally a root of f(x) = 0
lies in the interval [a, }].

12.3 Convergence
The equation x? —3x — 5= 0 in example 1 could be rearranged so
that 3x = x° —5 and hence
x25
* aay
Using the iteration formula
“5
Xn+1 n
= page
and the starting point x9 = 2, you obtain

x= 1

x2 = —1.333 333 333

x3 = —2.456 790 123

x4 = —6.609 579 113

x5 = —97.916 538 71

X—6= —312931.4535

It should be obvious to you by now that, far from getting close to a 7

root of the equation x? — 3x — 5 = 0, in fact the sequence of values
Xo, X1, X2, X3, ... iS getting further and further away from a root.
The sequence is not convergent. It is a divergent sequence.
Successive members of the sequence are increasing negatively
without limit.
 372 Numerical methods

So not only do you not know when you start using an iteration
formula which root of the equation you are likely to end up with, in
fact you do not know whether you are going to get to a root at all!
This is very frustrating. However, a little help is at hand. Although
we will not prove the result, it can be shown that if a is a root of the
equation f(x)=0 and if x=g(x) is a rearrangement of this
equation so that x,;; = g(x,) is an iteration formula to be used to
find a root of f(x) = 0, then:

= (i) if |g’(a)| < 1, the sequence xo,x;,x2... will converge to a

root of f(x) = 0. In particular,
(a) if —1<g’(a) <0 then the sequence x9,x;,x2,... will
oscillate and converge towards a root of f(x) = 0, and
(b) if 0<g’(a) <1 then the sequence x9, x1,x2,... will
converge, without oscillating, towards a root of f(x) = 0.
(ii) if |g’(a)| > 1 then the sequence xo, x1, x2... will diverge.

Now this creates a bit of a problem, because until you have done the
necessary calculations and found a root a of the equation, you
cannot calculate g'(a). By the time you have found a, you will not
need to calculate g’(a) because you will already know that
|g’(a)| < 1 since if you have found a the iteration formula must
have converged! If you have not found a but have found a diverging
sequence, then you will not be able to calculate g’(a) but you will
know anyway that |g’(a)| must be greater than or equal to one!
However, this is not as big a problem as it seems because if you take
a value (3, close to a, then g’(@) will behave in a similar way to
g(a). That is, if G is close to a, then if |g’(3)| < 1, the sequence will
converge and if |g’(@)| > 0, the sequence will diverge. So if you take
6 as your value of x9 you should be able to test whether your
calculations will take you closer to, or further from, a root.

For the equation x? —3x —5=Oin example 1, and the rearrange-

ment x = W/(3x+5),

g(x) = (3x +5) wh

So: g’(x)=1(3x45)4.3
l
(3x+ 5)3
With xo = 2 (since this is near a root),

gi 2) = athe~ 0.202
113
So |g’(2)| < 1 and the sequence xo, x1, x2 . . . will converge to a root
as shown in example 1.
 Numerical methods 373

For the rearrangement

x5 = 5

So g'(x) ae 2
3
With xo = 2,
g'(2) =4
So |g’(2)| > 1 and the sequence x9,x1,20,.. . will diverge as we
have already shown.

Example 2
Show that the equation In x — x + 2 = 0 can be written in the form
x=2+I1nx.

Using the iteration formula x,,; =2+Inx, and starting with

xo = 2, find, to 3 significant figures, a root of the equation
Inx—x+2=0.
Inx—x+2=0
4 —x = -—2-Inx
=> x=2+4+Inx

If Xn41 = 2+ 1nx,, then:

w= 2
x1 = 2.693 147181

x» = 2.990710 465

x3 = 3.095 510973

x4 = 3.129 952989

x5 = 3.141017985

xX = 3.144.546 946

x7 = 3.145 669 825

xg = 3.146026 848

x9 = 3.146 140339

So a root is 3.15 (3 s.f.)

Example 3
Starting with x9 =0O and using the iteration formula x,4) =
sin x, —0.5, find, to 4 significant figures, a root of the equation
sinx —x = 0.5.
In this question you must first realise that any calculations will only
make sense if x is measured in radians.
374 Numerical methods

xo = 0

x1 = —0.5

x2 = —0.979 425 538

x3 = |

—1.330 177246
x4 = —1.471 190631

x5 = —1.495 043 453

x6 = =1.497 132123
x7 = —1.497 288019

xg = —1.497 299 481

So a root is —1.497 (4 s.f.)

Example 4
Show that the equation xInx +x—3=0 has a root lying in the
interval [1,2]. Using a suitable iteration formula, find this root to
three significant figures.
Let f(x) = xInx+x—3.
Then f(1)=1inl+1-3=-2<0
and (2) —21n2 + 2-3 = 0.386 > 0,
So a root lies in the interval [1,2].
Let us first try to find a little more precisely where the root lies.
Take coad ee)
f(1.5) = 1.5In 1.54 1.5 —3 = —0.891 <0
Since f(1.5) < 0 and f(2) > 0, a root of the equation lies in [1.5,2].
Rearrange the equation
xInx+x—3=0

as
x=3-—xInx
and so try the iteration formula x,,; = 3 —x,Inx, starting with
xo = oe

If g(x) =3—xInx
then g(x) =-x (=) —Inx

= —-1-Inx
Since the root we are after is close to 2, calculate g’(2).

g/(2) = —1—In2 = —1.693

 Numencal methods 375

So |g’(2)| > 1 and we do not have to waste any more time. The
sequence of approximations will diverge.

Rearrange the equation

xInx+x-3=0

as x(Inx+1)-—3=0
x(Inx+1)=3
ce 3
~ 1+Inx
and so try the iteration formulax,.) = aes
1+Inx,
If 3
g(x) oDpoe
eset
1+Inx

fi aoinei ac) 3 5c
then g'(x) = ——____,__*
(1 + Inx)
his time g/(2)
= 0—1.5
—_—>
Thistime g’(2) 16932 — _0.
0.5233
So |g’(2)| < 1 and the iteration formula should converge.

mas
xX; = 1.771 848 327

X2 = 1.908 368 716

x3 = 1.822 324789

x4 = 1.874 867 538

X5 = 1.842 143064

Xcel Gloss Lh

x7 = 1.849795 515

Xg = 1.857498 762

xq = 1.852931 52

X19 = 1.855 676 553

X11 = 1.853 855219

X12 = 1.854980 846

X13 = 1.854284891

x14 = 1.854715 076

So the root is 1.85 (3 s.f.)

376 Numerical methods
‘

Exercise 12A

1 (a) Show that x* — 3x-+1=0 has one root lying between 0

and | and another lying between 2 and 3.
(b) Show that x* — 3x + 1 = 0 can be rearranged into the form

2
G) x= pe wherep and q are constants.
q

£ Ss
(ii) x =r+-—, where r and s are constants
x

and state the values of p, g, r and s.

(c) Using the iteration formula

a =p
Xn+1 =
q

together with your values of p and q and starting at

xo = 0.5 find, to 3 decimal places, one root of the equation
x? —3x+1=0.
(d) Using the iteration formula

S
Xnt1 = 1+ os

together with your values of r and s find, to 3 decimal

places, the second root of x* —3x+1=0.
2 (a) Show that x* = 14 has a root lying between 2 and 3.
(b) Show further that x? = 14 can be rearranged into the form
ny de as
ee 3 2

where p is a constant and state the value of p.

(c) Using the iteration formula

DRS
be oe

together with your value of p and starting with xp = 2.5,

find, to 3 significant figures, a root of x? = 14.
3 Using the iteration formula

]
Xn+1=2+3
Xx n
 Numerical methods 377

and starting with xo = 2, find the value, to 4 significant figures,

to which the sequence xo, x1,x2,... tends. This sequence leads
to one root of an equation. State the equation.
Show that the equation x° + 6x? —9x + 2 = 0 has a root lying
between 0 and 0.5. Use the iteration formula
eae. 6x? +2
n+1 — 9 ee x2

with xo = 0 to find this root to 3 decimal places.

Show that 1 + x? — x3 = 0 has a root lying between 1 and 2.
Using the iteration formula
Xn+1= V(l oenod
with x9 = 1, find this root to 3 significant figures.
Show that x? = sinx has a root lying between 0 and 1. Using
the iteration formula
sin X;,
Xn+1 =
n
find this root to 3 decimal places.

By considering the roots of the equation f’(x) = 0, or otherwise,

prove that the equation f(x) = 0, where f(x) = x* + 2x + 4, has
only one real root. Show that this root lies in the interval
—2<x< —I.
Use the iteration formula

xe —i(x3—4x, + 4), x9= —-1

to find two further approximations to this root of the equation,
giving your final answer to 2 decimal places. [L]
Show that the equation 2* = 8x has two roots, one lying
between 0 and | and the other lying between 5 and 6. Use the
iteration formula
Pats
Xn+1 — g »X0 = |

to find, to 4 decimal places, the root which lies between 0 and 1.

Using the iteration formula

Xne1= (22%, +50)! and x9 = 3.5

find a root of x* —22x —50 = 0 to 4 significant figures.

378 Numerical methods

10 Show that x sin \/x = | has a root lying between 1 and 2. Using
the iteration formula

1
Xn
Si =>maciineyous
find, to 4 decimal places, the value of this root.
11 Use the iteration formula

Xen=3" with x =1.5

to find the value, to 3 significant figures, to which the sequence
X0,X1,X2,... tends. This sequence leads to one root of an

equation. State the equation.

 Review exercise 3

In the figure, the shaded region, R, is bounded by the curve with

equation y = e**, the line x =! and the coordinate axes. The
region R is rotated through 360° about the x-axis. Find, in
terms of e and 7, the volume of the solid generated. [L]
2 Find

(a)|xcosxdx
(b) | cos* ydy

Hence find the general solution of the differential equation

d
is XCOS
x sec’y, 0<y< a
dx Z
[L]
3 Sketch the curve defined with parameter ¢ by the equations

x=acos¢, y=bsing

where a and + are positive constants and 0 < ¢ < 2r.

380 Review exercise 3

Given that P is the point at which ¢ = §, obtain

(a) an equation of the tangent to the curve at P,
(b) an equation of the normal to the curve at P.
Determine the area of the finite region bounded by the curve.
[L]
4 A and B are two independent events such that P(A)= 0.2 and
PUB ie Osa:
Evaluate the following probabilities.
(a) P(A|B)
(b) P(AN B)
(c) P(AUB) (L]
5 Given that the point with coordinates (2,—1) lies on the curve
with equation

eee
Px ek
wherek is a constant,
(a) find k.
Hence
(b) write down an equation of each asymptote to the curve
(c) sketch the curve, showing how the curve approaches the
asymptotes and the coordinates of the points where the
curve intersects the axes. [L]
6 Express as the sum of partial fractions

2
x(x + 1)(x+ 2)
Hence show that

4
Weeeaversn
2 eat? (L]
——————dx = 3ln3 - 2]

7 Usingthe identitytanx =~ we perce showthat

COSX 2 2
d
ae (tan x) = sec”x

Use integration by parts to find

| xsec”
xdx [L]
 Review
exercise
3 381
8 Sketch the curve defined with parameter ¢ by the equations

x=1l+?, y=1-?

Find the area of the finite region R enclosed by the curve and
the x-axis. Find also the volume of the solid generated when R
is rotated through 4 right angles about the x-axis. Show that the
volume of the solid generated when R is rotated through 2 right

angles about the line x = | is ac [L]

9 Given that f(x) = 3+ 4x —x*, show that the equation f(x) = 0
has a root x = a, where a is in the interval 1 < a < 2. It may be
assumed that if x, is an approximation to a, then a better
approximation is given by x,41, where

Xnv1
= (3+ 4x,)4
Starting with xo = 1.75, use this result twice to obtain the value
of a to 2 decimal places. [L]
10 _

The figure shows a sketch of the curve with parametric

equations

x=cos*t, y=ssint, —
 382 Review exercise 3
4

(a) Find the coordinates of the point where the curve crosses
the x-axis.
abe
(b) Find ae

(c) Show that the area 4 of the finite region bounded by the
T

2
curve and the y-axis is given by A = 6 i sin’ t cos ¢dt.
0
Using the substitution u = sin ¢, or otherwise, evaluate A.
[L]
11 Students in a class were given two statistics problems to solve,
the second of which was harder than the first. Within the class ;
of the students got the first one correct and b got the second
one correct. Of those students who got the first problem correct,
2 got the second one correct. One student was chosen at random
from the class.
Let A be the event that the student got the first problem correct
and B be the event that the student got the second one correct.
(a) Express in words the meaning of 4MB and of AUB.
(b) Find P(A B) and P(A UB).
(c) Given that the student got the second problem right, find
the probability that the first problem was solved correctly.
(d) Given that the student got the second problem wrong, find
the probability that the first problem was solved correctly.
(e) Given that the student got the first problem wrong, find the
probability that the student also got the second problem
wrong. [L]
y)
12 f(x)
mere)
(a) Find the coordinates of the points on the curve with
nad
equation y = f(x) for which re =-].
x

(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at each of

these points.
(c) Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the curve
with equation y = f(x) and determine their nature.
 Review exercise 3 383

(d) Write down an equation of the asymptote of the curve

which is parallel to the y-axis.
(e) On the same sketch show
(i) the curve, including the coordinates of the stationary
points
(ii) the asymptote parallel to the y-axis
(ili) the tangents to the curve with gradient —1. [L]
13 Find the general solution of the differential equation

1 dy
—-—+4+2y=
dea ins ;eT

Express your answer in the form y = f(x). [L]

14 The finite region bounded by the curve with equation y = sin 2x
and that part of the x-axis for which 0 < x < iT, is rotated
completely about the x-axis. Find, in terms of 7, the volume of
the solid of revolution generated. [L]
15 A curve C, has parametric equations

+=3r—p, y=3P

where p is a non-negative constant and f is a real parameter.

(a) State, in terms of p, the range of values of x.
d
(b) Express ne in terms of f.

(c) Find the gradient of C at the point (—p,0).

(d) Sketch C.
2/2
When p = 0, the tangent to C, at the point where t = oes

meets C again at the point Q.

(e) Find an equation for this tangent.
2
(f) Verify that at O, t= oe

(g) Deduce that this tangent is a normal to C at Q. [L]

16 Find the value of each of the constants A, B and C for which

ee eo | ee. fr B . 4
(Peay Cre lice’l fa(y-21)
Hence evaluate | Ie . = 1xE ='1 [L]
Five Ay —1)"
 384 Review exercise 3

17 The normal at every point on a given curve passes through the

point (2,3). Prove that the equation of the curve satisfies the
differential equation

(x-2)+2(3) =0
Hence find a cartesian equation of the family of curves which
satisfy the condition above.
Find the equation of the particular curve which passes through
the point (4, 2). [L]
18 The tangent at P(x,,x? —2), where x, > 0, to the curve with
equation y = x* —2 meets the x-axis at the point O(x,+41,0).
Show that

xe+2
Xn+1 =
2X,

This relationship between x,,; and x, is used, starting with

x; = 2, to find successive approximations for the positive root
of the equation x* —2 = 0. Find x2 and x3 as fractions and
show that x4 = 77.
Find the error, to 1 significant figure, in using 34 as an
approximation to 2. [L]
19
(a) TheeventsA, B andC are suchthat
P(A’)=3, P(C) =}, P(AUB) =2, P(BNC) =i
Given that eventsA and B are independent,find P(B) and
show that eventsB and C are also independent.
(b) A bag contains only 9 red balls, 9 blue balls, 12 black balls
and 6 white balls. Four balls are taken from the bag at
random and without replacement. Find, to three decimal
places, the probability that the four balls are
(i) all blue
(ii) all of the same colour
(iii) all of different colours.
Given that all four balls are of the same colour, find the
probability that they are all black. [L]
 Review exercise 3 385

20 The curve C has parametric equations

a
x=at, y=-, tER, t40

where f is a parameter and a is a positive constant.

(a) Sketch C.
pagel \ pp
(b) Find <Y in terms of f.
dx
The point P on C has parameter ¢ = 2.
(c) Show that an equation of the normal to C at P is

2y = 8x — 15a

This normal meets C again at the point Q.

(d) Find the value of ¢ at Q. [L]
21 Given that f(x) = x* —6x + 10, show that f(x) > 0 for all real
values of x. \
Using the same axes sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = F(x)

[L] i
22

The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation y = f(x).

In separate diagrams show, for —3 < x < 3, sketches of the
curves with equation
(a) y = f(-x)
(b) y = —f(x)
(c) y=fi(|-1)
Mark on each sketch the x-coordinate of any point, or points,
where a curve touches or crosses the x-axis. [L]

23 (a) | sin @sin 20 dé

(b) Findthesolutionof thedifferential

equation
(1+e”) = = e”sinxsin2x
given that y = 0 at x =i7. [L]
 386 Review exercise 3

24 For married couples the probability that the husband has

passed his driving test is & and the probability that the wife has
passed her driving test is 5. The probability that the husband has
passed, given that the wife has passed, is 2. Find the probability
that, for a randomly chosen married couple, the driving test will
have been passed by
(a) both of them
(b) only one of them
(c) neither of them.
If two married couples are chosen at random, find the
probability that only one of the husbands and only one of the
wives will have passed the driving test. [L]
25 For the curve with equation y = f(x) where

2x+1
Beales va cue oN

(a) find the equations of the two asymptotes

(b) find the coordinates of the points at which the curve
intersects the coordinate axes.

(c) Sketch the curve with equation y = f(x) showing clearly the
asymptotes and the points where the curve crosses the
coordinate axes. [L]
26 Draw the curve y = e# for values of x from 0 to 10.

By drawing a suitable straight line, show that the equation

x = e# has two real roots, and estimate their values to one

decimal place from your graph.

Use the iteration formula x,4) = exp(;Xn) to evaluate the

smaller root to 3 significant figures.

By expressing the equation x = e4 in a form involving a
logarithm, obtain another iteration formula, and use it to
evaluate the larger root to 3 significant figures.

(Note exp y =e’.)

[L]
27 (a) Sketch the graph of y = 8 —2x?, indicating clearly any
points of intersection with the coordinate axes.
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to this curve at the point
where x =a.
 Review exercise 3 387

(c) Find the value of a for which this tangent is parallel to the
line y = 3x+ 6.
The finite region bounded by the curve and the x-axis is rotated
through z radians about the y-axis.
(d) Calculate the volume of the solid formed, leaving your
answer in terms of 7. [L]
28 A curve is given parametrically by

x=sint, y=cos*t, -77<t<a

Show that
(a) -l<x<land-l<y<1l
dy :
(b) ax = asin 2t, where a is constant, and give the value of a.

Find the value of 2 when x = 0 and show that the curve has

37 TT 37
points ts ofofinflexi
inflexion here
wheret = ——,
I —-,es — and a,4

Sketch the curve. [L]

Express : in partial fractions

29 SS Get De 3y or '

Given that x > 0, find the general solution of the differential

equation

dy
(3x + 2)(x + 3) a Ty
Given further that y = 6 at x = 4, express y in terms of x.

[L]
30 Two unbiased dice, faces numbered 1 to 6, are thrown
simultaneously. The sum of the two numbers thrown is S.
(a) Find P(S is even).
(b) Show that P(S < 6) = 7
The two dice are thrown simultaneously three times in
succession and their total noted each time.
(c) Show that the probability of exactly two of the three throws |
resulting in an even total is 2.
Event X is that of the three throws at least one throw results in
an odd total and at least one results in an even total.
 388 Review exercise 3

Event Y is that of the three throws at least two result in an even

total.

(d) Find P(X) and P(Y) and determine whether or not events Y
and Y are independent. [L]
31 The function f is defined on the domain —e < x <e by

io pe=4/X, 0sx=
fey 1 —21nx i =x = e

f is an odd function

(a) Sketch the curve y = f(x), marking the coordinates of the

points where it crosses the x-axis.
(b) Calculate the area of the region in the first quadrant
enclosed by the curve and the x-axis. [L]
32 Sketch the curve given parametrically by the equations

x=1+1, y=4-—7
Write on your sketch the coordinates of any points where the
curve crosses the coordinate axes and the coordinates of the
stationary point. Show that an equation of the normal to the
curve at the point with parameter ¢ is

x= 2ty =2° 7141

The normal to the curve at the point P where t = 1 cuts the

curve again at the point Q. Determine the coordinates of Q.
[L]
33 Show that the substitution y = yx, where yvis a function OF x;
transforms the differential equation

d
xy ay? +y"
dx
into the differentialequation
vx saa l
axes
Hence solve the original differential equation given that y = 2
aUx =I. [L]
 Review exercise 3 389

34 Show that the equation

3x —1—cos2x=0

has only one real root and that this root lies between 0.4 and 0.6.
The iterative procedure

Xn41= 4(1+ cos2xn)

is to be used to find further approximations to the root, starting
with the initial value x = 0.5. Calculate the root giving your

answer to 3 decimal places. [L]

35 (a) By using the substitution u? = x —1, or otherwise, find
| V(x
x+1— 1)
—— dx

(b)Find
|xcos3xdx
x

Hence, evaluate I xcos 3x dx [L]

0
The function f is defined by
f: x-+ —In(x—2), xER, x >2

The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation y = f(x).

The curve crosses the x-axis at the point P(p,0). The curve has
an asymptote, shown by a broken line in the diagram, whose
equationisx= q.
(a) Write down the value of p and the value of q.

(b) Find the function f~! and state its domain.

(c) Sketch the curve with equation y= f-'(x) and its
asymptote.
 390 Review exercise 3

Write on your sketch the coordinates of any point where the

curve crosses the coordinate axes and the equation of the

asymptote. [L]
37 A yellow die and a green die’are to be rolled at the same time.

The events A, B, C are defined as follows:

A is the event that the number shown on the yellow die is even.
B is the event that the sum of the numbers shown on the two
dice is 7.

C is the event that the sum of the numbers shown on the two
dice is 8.

(a) Write down (i) P(A) (ii) P(B) (iii) P(C) (iv) P(AN B).
(b) Find P(B|A) and P(A|B).
(c) Find P(C|A) and P(A|C).
(d) For each of the pairs of events (A,B), (A,C), state, with
reasons, whether the two events are dependent or in-
dependent. [L]
1
38 Express ———— 1 tial fractions.
GepGss) in partial fractions

Hence find the solution of the differential equation

dy y
10s iO EES ks

giventhat y=2 atx =1.

Express your answer in the form y = f(x). [L]
39

The figure shows a sketch of the curve given parametrically by

the equations
 Review exercise 3 391

x=4ccost, y=3csint, -rt<t<n

where c is a positive constant.

(a) Write down the value of ¢ at the point A(4c,0) and at the
point B(0, 3c).

dx
(b)Byconsidering
theintegral
| yET dt find, in terms of c,

the area of the region enclosed by the curve. [L]

In an experiment, two chemicals 4 and B react yielding another
chemical C. The rate of formation of C at time t seconds is k
times the product of the concentrations of A and B present at
that time, where k is a positive constant. At time f seconds, the
concentration of each of A and B is (p —x) units, where x is the
concentration of C at that time and p is a positive constant.
(a) Find a differential equation satisfied by x.
(b) Given that x = 0 when t = 0, obtain x in terms of k, t and p.
[L]
at Sketch the curve given parametricaily by

x=r-+~2; y=214, tER

indicating on your sketch where (a) =0 (b)t>0

(cle = 0,
Calculate the area of the finite region enclosed by the curve and
the y-axis. [L]
42 Sketch the curve y = Inx.
Show that the equation
x+inx>3=0

has just one real root, and that this root lies between 2 and 2.5.
The sequence defined by the iteration formula:

Sogn 3A sy, Xi 2

is known to converge. Use this sequence to calculate the root of

the equation x + Inx —3 = 0 to two decimal places. [L]

 392 Review exercise 3

43

A 5

The curve with equation y = 2x(3 —x) crosses the x-axis at O

and A.
(a) State the coordinates of the point A.

A straight line, which crosses the y-axis at the point B with

coordinates (0,5), meets the curve at the points C and D, as
shown in the figure. The coordinates of the point D are (k,k).
(b) Show that the value of k is 2}.
(c) Find an equation of the straight line passing through B
and D.

(d) Show that the x-coordinate of the point C is 1.

(e) Calculate the area of the shaded region R.
(f) Calculate, in terms of 7, the volume generated when the
shaded region S, bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the
line x = 1, is rotated through 360° about the x-axis. [L]
44 (a) A student going into the common room reads Private Eye
with probability 0.75; Private Eye but not the Daily Express
with probability 0.65. The student reads neither with

probability 0.20.
(i) Find the probability that the student reads both Private
Eye and the Daily Express.
(ii) Find the probability that the student reads the Daily
Express but not Private Eye.
 Review exercise 3 393

(iii) If you find the student reading Private Eye, what is the
probability that the student has (or will have) read the |
Daily Express before leaving the common room?
(b) Let A and B be events such that P(A) =1, P(B) =+ and
P(AUB) = 5.
(i) Find P(4|B) and P(4|B’).
(ii) Find P(A|B) P(B) + P(4|B’) P(B’).
Comment on your result. [L]
45 Given that f(x) = rme~*(1 + x?) find g(x) such that
f'(x) = e“*g(x).
Hence, or otherwise, find the general solution of the differential

: go dy
tione*e?”
e*e re—+(1—
equation x”)=0.
(1 —x*)=0
Express y in terms of x. [L]
46 Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations

Be 1
aU)
Show that an equation of the normal to the curve at the point
where ¢ = 2 is 8x —2y— 19=0.

Find the value of t at the point where this normal meets the
curve again. [L]
47 Given that

f(x) =(x-—a)(x+6),a>B>0
sketch on separate diagrams the curves with equations
(a) y=f(x)
(b) y=—f(x + a)
On each sketch,
(c) write the coordinates of any points at which the curve meets
the coordinate axes

(d) show with a dotted line the axis of symmetry of the curve
and state its equation. [L]
Given that

Loe x
—. agtoa R,x4-1
oe
show that = is always positive.
x
394 Review exercise 3

The function f is defined by

fx Rate
x+1

(a) Determine the range of f.

(b) Find the inverse function f~! and state its domain.
(c) Using the same axes, sketch graphs of f and f~! and state
the coordinates of the end points of each graph. [L]
49 (a) By using a suitable substitution, find
2

| x(x—1)'dx,
1
r>0
(b) Sketch the curve C with equation y* = (x —yy , showing
clearly the behaviour of the curve near the point with
coordinates (1,0).
(c) Find the area of the finite region R bounded by C and the
straight line x = 2.
50

A(2,0) D(5,0)

The curve C shown in the figure is given by

|
Pat rts, y= t--, £>0

where¢ is a parameter.
beac
(a) Find re in terms of ¢ and deduce that the tangent to C

at the point A(2,0) has equation x—2 = 0.

(b) For every point (x,y) on C, show that x* —y? = 4.
The point B has coordinates (24,14) and the point D has
coordinates (5,0). The region R is bounded by the lines 4D and
 Review exercise 3 395

BD and arc AB of the curve C. The region R is rotated through

2m radians about the x-axis to form a solid of revolution.

(c) Find the volume of the solid, leaving your answer in terms
of x. [L]
51 Show, graphically or otherwise, that the equation

Ox. —2 0
has only one real root. Show also that this root lies between 0.7
and 1. Working to 3 decimal places, obtain approximations to
this root by performing two iterations, using the procedure
defined by

2- a
Xn+1= 3)
and starting with x; = 0.8. [L]
52 A curve is given parametrically by the equations

x=c(l+cost), y=2csin?t, 0<t<n 4

where c is a positive constant.

dy
(a)
a) Show that —a = —4cosrt.

At the point P on the curve, cost = 3.

(b) Show that the normal to the curve at P has equation

24y —8x —7c =0

(c) Sketch the curve for0 <t<r7.

The finite region R is bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
(d) Show that the area of R is given by the definite integral

2c?| TT
sin’tdt
(e) Evaluate
0
this integral to find the area of R in terms of c.
[L]
396 Review exercise 3

53 Given that y > 5 and 0 < x <}n, find the general solution of
the differential equation
(2) tan2x = 2y —1
dx
Given further that y= 1 at x = eT, find the value of y at
x= AT. [L]
54 In a week chosen at random the probabilities that Mr and Mrs
Smith are employed are 0.8 and 0.6 respectively and the
probability that at least one of them is unemployed is 0.45.
(a) Find the probability that in a week chosen at random they
are both unemployed.
Given that Mr Smith is unemployed,
(b) find the probability that Mrs Smith is also unemployed.
The Smiths intend to have 3 children.
Let A be the event that they will have children of both sexes.
Let B be the event that they will have at most 1 girl.
The probability that a new born child is a boy is constant and
equal to p(p £0, p # 1).
(c) Find P(A) and P(B) in terms of p.
Given that the events A and B are independent,
(d) find the value of p. [L]
55 A curve is defined by the equations
at —1, pert

where ¢ is a parameter.
Sketch the curve for all real values of t.
Find the area of the region enclosed by the loop of the curve.
[L]
56 Sketch the curve y = (2x —1)*(x + 1), showing the coordinates
of
(a) the points where it meets the axes
(b). the turning points
(c) the point of inflexion.
By using your sketch, or otherwise, sketch the graph of

y=
(2221)

Show clearly the coordinates of any turning points. [L]

 Review exercise 3 397

57 Evaluate the integrals

(a)|1xe**
dx
po
why
COSx
(b)
0 1+sinx
ete ete

]
58 Express in partial fractions.
(3¢+ 1)(t+3)

Use the substitution t = tan x to show that

x

|4sx3aa5
1 Ax=| | (3¢+1)(t+
1 3)
i 4 3 + Ssin
1 2x
Hence show that dx = 41n3 [L]

59

The figure shows the curve with equation

ee
2
p=

(a) Determine the coordinates of the turning point.

The region R is bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the line
x = 2. Find
(b) the area of R
(c) the volume generated when R is rotated through 27 about
the x-axis. [L]
398 Review exercise 3

60 P

A O B

The figure shows a semicircle with O the mid-point of the

diameter AB. The point P on the semicircle is such that the area

of sector POB is equal to the area of the shaded segment. Angle

POB is x radians.

(a) Showthat x = 4(m-—sinx).

The iterative method based on the relation x,,, = +(x —sin X,)
can be used to evaluate x.

(b) Starting with x; =1 perform two iterations to find the

values of x2 and x3, giving your answers to two decimal
places. [L]

61
f(x)==2 xem,x41
(a) Find the set of values of x for which f(x) > 0.
(b) Write down the equation of that asymptote of the curve
with equation y = f(x) which is parallel to the y-axis.
(c) Find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points
of the curve with equation y = f(x), distinguishing between
these points.
(d) Hence sketch the curve with equation y = f(x), showing the
results you have found in (a), (b) and (c). [L]

62 Express Gs in the form é + B wher

a (1+ x)(1 + 2x) I+x 142x ?

A and B are constants.

Given that x > 0, find the general solution of the differential
equation

dy _ 2y
(1 + x)(1 + 2x) mis

[L]
 Review exercise 3 399

63 (a) Of the households in Edinburgh, 35% have a freezer and

60% have a colour TV set. Given that 25% of the
households have both a freezer and a colour TV set,
calculate the probability that a household has either a
freezer or a colour TV set but not both.
State, with your reasons, whether the events of having a
freezer and of having a colour TV set are or are not
independent.
(b) State in words the meaning of the symbol P(B|A), where A
and B are two events.
A shop stocks tinned cat food of two makes 4 and B, and two

sizes, large and small. Of the stock, 70% is of brand A, 30% is

of brand B. Of the tins of brand A, 30% are small size whilst of
the tins of brand B, 40% are small size. Using a tree diagram, or
otherwise, find the probability that
(i) a tin chosen at random from the stock will be of small size,
(ii) a small tin chosen at random from the stock will be of
brand A. [L]

Evaluate the integrals

(a) [ xva + x’) dx
0
(b)[ tan? xdx
0
(c) | x sin x dx
0

@)
—I
Express your answer to (d) as a natural logarithm. [L]
65 The finite region R is bounded by the curve y = e**, the
coordinate axes and the line x = 1. The region R is rotated
through 4 right angles about the x-axis. Find the volume
generated, giving your answer to 2 significant figures. [L]
66 Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations

x=r-1, y=2t+2, teER

The normal to this curve at the point P given by ¢ = 2 meets the
curve again at Q. Find the value of ¢ at Q. [L]
400 Review exercise 3

3x
67
A eo 1)

Express f(x) in partial fractions.

Hence evaluate | 0 f(x) dx [L]
ai
68 (a) The independent probabilities that Amanda, Betty and
Carolshampootheirhairon anyparticulareveningare4,}
and / respectively. Find the probability that
(i) only Amanda out of the three girls will shampoo her
hair tomorrow
(ii) Just two out of the three girls will shampoo their hair
tomorrow.
(b) There are three boxes labelled P, Q and R containing
coloured discs.
Box P contains one white disc, three blue discs and two
green discs.
Box Q contains one white disc and two blue discs.
Box R contains one white disc, one blue disc and three
green discs.
A box is to be selected at random and from that box a disc
is to be selected at random. Construct a tree diagram

showing all possible outcomes and their associated

probabilities. Hence find the probability that a white disc
will be the one chosen. [L]
69
 Review exercise 3 401

In the figure AB is a sketch of part of the curve with equation

10y = x’. The curved surface of an open bowl with a flat
circular base is traced out by the complete revolution of the arc
AB about the y-axis. The radius of the base is 10cm and the
radius of the top rim of the bowl is 20cm.

(a) Calculate the capacity of this bowl, in litres to 1 decimal

place.
The point C lies on the arc AB. The curved surface of another
bowl is traced out by rotating the arc AC through a complete
revolution about the y-axis.
The capacity of this bowl is 10 litres.

(b) Calculate the depth of this bowl, in cm to 1 decimal place.

[L]

70 (a)Express
yok:ae
x(x + 3)
in partial fractions.

Hence show that

| 3Sees
sea1 = bs
i
(b) Evaluate
us

[cos2xdx
(c) By using the
0
substitution 2
u~ = a“ —x’, 2 2
or otherwise,
evaluate

| a= x2)
dx
0 [L]
71 Usingthe sameaxessketchthe curves
Sand a,
AEEE ESHoare
giving the equations of the asymptotes. Hence, or otherwise,
find the set of values of x for which

] d ‘
x-1 x+3

[L]
 402 Review exercise 3

Xx
72 (a) Express ————————~
(x + 1)(x + 2) in " partialfractions.
Evaluate

| 2(«+D(x+2)
oe
(b) Using the substitution u = cos x, or otherwise, evaluate
us

| 2sin®
x(cosx)?dx
0
[L]
73 (a) The events 4 and B are such that

P(4|B)=75,P(B|A)
= andP(AUB)
=3
Find the values of
(i) P(AN B)
(ii) P(A’N B)
(b) A hand of four cards is to be drawn without replacement
and at random from a pack of fifty two playing cards.
Giving your answer in each case to three significant figures,
find the probabilities that this hand will contain
(i) four cards of the same suit
(ii) either two aces and two kings OR two aces and two
queens. [L]
74 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the curves

Vee ne x and y x
241
Sketch the curves on the same diagram, showing any
asymptotes or turning points.
Show that the area of the finite region in the first quadrant
enclosed by the two curves is

Zin5—3In3—2
[L]
75 Solve the differential equation

= xert3y
bs
given that y=0Oat x= 1. [L]
 Review exercise 3 403

76 A curve is defined by the equations

x=at, y=ar
where a is a positive constant and ¢ is a parameter. Sketch the

curve and note on your sketch the set of values of f

corresponding to each branch of the curve. [L]
ak It is given that

3x+7
= a et 2)(x+3)
(a) Express f(x) as the sum of three partial fractions.
(b) Find [10 dx.

(c) Hence show that the area of the finite region bounded by
the curve with equation y = f(x) and the lines with
equations y=0, x= 0 and x = 1 is In2.
(d) Given that k is a positive constant, show that

natfe es = k
dx e+k)/| e+k
(e) Find the general solution of the differential equation

dy :
Boe yf(e*)

You may leave your answer in an unsimplified form.

[L]
78 The function g is defined by

gx =e. xER,x43
Sketch
x=—
the graph of the function g. Find an expression for
g-!(x), specifying its domain. [L]
79 The function f is defined by

2ax
fix ——, xeERI
ca
wherea is a positive constant.
Show that f’(x) > 0, and find the range of f.
Sketch the curve y = f(x), for x € Rj, and state an equation of
the asymptote of this curve.
 404 Review exercise 3

Find, in terms of a, the area of the finite region bounded by the

curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the line x = 2a. [L]
80 The bag P contains ten balls of which four are white and six are
red. The bag Q contains eight balls of which five are white and
three are red. Two balls are to be drawn at random from the
bag P and placed in Q. One ball is then to be drawn at random
from the ten balls in Q and placed in P so that at the end of
these stages there will be nine balls in each bag.
The event A is ‘The two balls drawn from P are of the same
colour’.

The event B is ‘The ball drawn from Q is white’.

By using a tree diagram, or otherwise,
(a) find the value of P(A)
(b) showthat P(B)= 2
(c) showthat P(ANB) =8.
Hence deduce the value of P(A U B).
Find the conditional probability that all three balls are red,
given that they are of the same colour. [L]
6x eT
81 olan =———~
f(x) GREED)Comahen 1G R

ss B C
Given that f(x) = A+ 75 a rama

(a) find the values of the constants A, B and C.

(b) Show that | 2f(x)dx =2+1n (F) 2 [L]
0
82 Express x ‘in partial
' fractions.
(x + 1)(x + 2)
Solve the differential equation

(x+1x+2)P=x41)
for x > —1, given that y = 5 at x = 1. Express your answer in
the form y = f(x). [L]
83 The curve C has equation

xy —4y—-2x+7=0

(a) Show that this equation may be written as

 Review exercise 3 405
2x —7
x-4

(b) Express the equation in the form x = f(y).

(c) Write down the equations of the asymptotes to C.
(d) Sketch the curve C, indicating clearly the asymptotes and
the coordinates of any points of intersection with the
coordinate axes. [L]
84 Express

2
(1+x)(1 + 3x)
in partial fractions.
Hence, or otherwise, solve the differential equation

dy os Aly+2)
dx (1+x)(1+3x)
given that y= —1 atx =0. [L]
85 (a) A pupil either walks to school or travels there by bus. The
probability that she will arrive early or on time is g The
probability that she will arrive late, given that she walked to
school, is twice the probability that she will arrive late,
given that she travelled by bus. Whenever she travels to
school by bus, the probability that she will arrive early or
on time is 3. By using a tree diagram, or otherwise, find the
probability that, on a randomly chosen day
(i) she walks to school
(ii) she will have travelled by bus, given that she arrives
late
(b) Events A and B are such that P(B|A) = 0.2,
P(A’ B) = 0.3 and P(A UB) = 0.8. By using a Venn
diagram, or otherwise,
(i) find the values of P(B) and P(A|B).
Event C is such that P(CN B’) = 0.03. Given that B and C
are independent,
(ii) find the values of P(C) and P(BN C). [L] —
406 Review exercise 3

86

Qu]Y
In the figure, O is the centre of a circle, radius 10cm, and the
points A and B are situated on the circumference so that
LAOB = 20 radians. The area of the shaded segment is 44.cm2.
Show that

29 — sin 26 — 0.88 = 0

Show further that a root of this equation lies between 0.9 and 1.
By taking 0.9 as a first approximation to this root, use the
iterative procedure

On41= 5 (sin 20, + 0.88)

to find this root, giving your answer to 3 decimal places. [L]

87 Given that e2*+” = = x and that y= 0 at x = 0, express

e” in terms of x. [L]
88 The points W, X, Y and Z are marked in order on a horizontal
line with the point W furthest to the left.Four beads, one red,
one green, one orange and one blue are to be placed at random
at W, X, Y and Z, one bead at each point.
The event A is ‘the red bead is to the left of both the green bead
and the blue bead’.
The event B is ‘the orange bead is either at Y or at Y’.
The event C is ‘the blue bead is next to both the red bead and
the green bead’.

(a) Show that P(A) = , and find the values of P(B) and P(C).
(b) Evaluate P(BU C).
(c) Evaluate P(AMB) and P(ANMC) and hence determine
whether the events A and B, or A and C, or both of these
pairs of events are independent. [L]
 Review exercise 3 407

89

The figure shows the shaded region R which is bounded by the

curves with equations y = x? and y = 8 —x”. Find
(a) the coordinates of the points 4, B and C
(b) the area of R
(c) the volume generated when R is rotated through 7 radians
about the y-axis. [L]
A curve is defined in terms of the parameter t by the equations

x=P, y=3?
The points P and Q have parameters ¢t= 2 and t = 3
respectively on this curve and O is the origin. Show that the
gradient of the line OQ is equal to the gradient of the tangent to
the curve at P.
Obtain an equation of the normal to the curve at Q.
Calculate the area of the finite region bounded by the curve and
the line OQ. [L]
91 Using the same axes, sketch the curves
] x
ee et et?
State the equations of any asymptotes, the coordinates of any
points of intersection with the axes and the coordinates of any
points of intersection of the two curves.
Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which
408 Review exercise 3

1 x
ae
SKE Ro ]L
92 Express f(x) = $$ ij
(x —2)(x? + 3x + 3) ay tial fractions.
ae

1
Evaluate, to 2 decimal places, | 1G) be [L]
0
93 Find the general solution of the differential equation

yad xy
Sketch, for positive values of x, the integral curve for which
y =€ at x = 1, showing all asymptotes and turning points.
[L]
94

B
|

O 2 o

The figure shows a straight line joining the points A and B,

together with the sketch-graph of a certain function. The
function is known to be
either (i) f: x->x*-3.6x+4, 0<x<2

or (li) gi xh 2 4 Vex=<2

(a) Show that f(0) = g(0) and that f(2) = g(2).

(b) Calculate the area of the shaded region, giving your answer
to two decimal places,
(i) for the function f
(ii) for the function g. [L]
 Review exercise 3 409

95 (a) Using the substitution v2 = x — 1, or otherwise, show that

:1
| LSy= dos 2—In(3)
(b) Express

x*+x+1
(x + 1)(x? + 1)

in partial fractions and hence show that

foSe(x+1)(x?
xix +Sg1)oct=3fait
ak108 us
ae

96 For the curve whose equation is

y = (x7 —36)(3 —2x)

find the set of values of x for which - so).

Sketch the curve and mark on your sketch

(a) the coordinates of the turning points,

(b) the coordinates of those points at which the curve crosses
the coordinates axes.
[L]
97 Show that the normal at the point P(Z, 1) to the curve with
equation y = tan x cuts the x-axis at the point Ol(F + 2), 0].
The finite region A is bounded by the arc of the curve with
equation y = tan x from the origin O to the point P, the line PQ
and the line OQ. Find the area of A.
The region A is rotated through four right angles about the
x-axis to generate the solid of revolution S. Find the volume
of 8. [L]
 410 Review exercise 3

98

The figure shows part of the curve with equation

x* = y(4—y)’

(a) Find the coordinates of the point A where the curve meets
the y-axis.
The finite region R shaded in the figure is bounded by the curve
with equation x? = y(4 —yy and the line OA, where O is the
origin.
(b) Calculate the area of R.
The finite region R is rotated through 27 about the y-axis.
(c) Calculate the volume of the solid formed, leaving your
answer in terms of 7. [L]
99 The carburettor for a particular motor car is manufactured at
one of three factories Y, Y, Z and then delivered to the main
assembly line. Factory X supplies 45% of the total number of
carburettors to the line, Factory Y 30% and Factory Z 25%.
Of the carburettors manufactured at Factory X, 2% are faulty
and the corresponding percentages for factories Y and Z are 4%
and 3% respectively.
Let XY,Y and Z represent the events that a carburettor chosen at

random from the assembly line was manufactured at Factory X,

Y or Z respectively and let F denote the event that this

carburettor is faulty.
(a) Express in words the meaning of YN F’ and of YU Z.
 Review exercise 3 411

(b) Calculate P(X F), P(YN F) and P(Zn F).

(c) Sketch a Venn diagram to illustrate the events X¥, Y, Z and
F. Include in your diagram the probabilities corresponding
to the different regions within the diagram.
(d) Find the probability that a carburettor, selected at random
from the main assembly line, is faulty.
(e) Given that a carburettor is found to be faulty, find, to 3
decimal places, the probability that it was manufactured at
Factory X.
(f) Given that a carburettor is not faulty, find, to 3 decimal
places, the probability that it was manufactured at
Factory X. [L]
 Examination style paper

Answer all questions Time 90 minutes

1. Find the values of x for which

2In2x—61n2= In(x—3).
(6 marks)
2. The line p; through the point C(—1,5) is perpendicular to the
line p2 which passes through the points 4(6,1) and B(—8, —6).
(a) Find an equation for pi and hence determine the
coordinates of the point M where the lines Pi and p2 meet.
(b) Find the ratio AM: AB.

(7 marks)
3. (a) Find the binomial expansion of (1+kx)" in ascending
powers of x up to and including the term in x3, where k is a
negative constant.
Given that the coefficient of the term in x2 is 55
>, find
(b) the value of k, and hence
(c) the coefficient of x3,

(8 marks)
4. Giving your answers in radians to 2 decimal places, solve the
equation sin x —3cos2x +2=0 for0<x< < 2n.

(8 marks)
S. (a) Show that the equation x = In(x + 4) has a root between 1
and 2.
(b) Use the iteration formula Xn+1= In(x, + 4), xo = 2 to find
this root correct to 5 decimal places. Show all your
intermediate results clearly.

(9 marks)
 Examination style paper 413

. The journey times, to the nearest minute, of 170 passenger

trains running between two stations were recorded and the
results are given in the following table:

fimo [oow[o[~[aln
rw |ste[s[s[olal+
By drawing a cumulative frequency polygon, estimate
(a) the median journey time,
(b) the probability that for two trains taken at random, one
will have a journey time greater than 20 minutes and the
other a journey time less than 20 minutes.
(9 marks)
. (a) Given that 3y = 3 tanx + tan’ x, show that
d
= = sec’ x

The shaded region is bounded by the x-axis, the y-axis, the line

x =~ and the curve with equation y = sec” x. The region is

rotated through 27 about the x-axis to form a solid of
revolution.
(b) By integration, determine the volume of this solid, giving
your answer in terms of 7.
(12 marks)
 414 Examination style paper P2

8. At time ¢, the rate of increase in the concentration x of

microorganisms in controlled surroundings is equal to k times
the concentration, where k is a positive constant.
(a) Write down a differential equation in x, t and k.
(b) Given that x = c at time ¢ = 0, find x in terms of c, k and t.
(c) Sketch the graph of x against ¢ for > 0.
(d) Given further that k= 10-2 and that ¢ is measured in
hours, find the time taken for the concentration to increase
to * from when it was c.
(12 marks)
f(x) = 6x3 + Ax? 4+x-2

where4 is a constant.
Given that x + 2 is a factor of f(x),
(a) find the value of A.

Using this value of A,

1k ;
(b) express ——~in partial fractions,
f(x)
(c) find the value of sta2 hs ate =<)
abe ibe
(13 marks)
10. The curve C is given by

x=2t=1, y=4-Ff,
where ¢ is a parameter.
The line with equation x + 2y = 3 meets C at the points P
and Q.
(a) Determine the coordinates of P and Ch.
The tangent at the point T to the curve C is parallel to PQ.
(b) Find the coordinates of T.
The finite region R is bounded by C and the line PQ.
(c) Draw a sketch to show the curve C, the line PQ and the
region R.
(d) Using integration, find the area of R.

(16 marks)
Answers

The University of London Examination and Assessment Council accepts no responsibility

whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given for examination questions.

Exercise 1A Exercise 1B
1 (i) b (ii) b (ili) a (iv) c (Vv)ec 1 2 Rte Wetter aoe
A=1,B=3 3 A4A=2;B=>~=+1 3 2x? =9 Je Meee

N
hk
Con A=B=3

a=C3=1> 8 =—Z
nel BSC
S4=5
A=10, B= -2 7A=1,8=2,C=3
B= —A4

= —3
5 6x*-—7x+5 6 2° 4+4x*=2x
7 2x? +x-—2
8 5x? —2x*+3x—1
9 —3x3
10
remainder 2
remainder
+ 2x?+ 11x—20remainder—10
4x? — 2x? + x — 6 remainder 4
6

A=2,B=4,C=-3
11 #210) R=—3,C
=+2 11 3x7—2x74x+1 12 — 6x45
12
A=1,B=0,C=-1 180 eh x
13 A=? B=12,C=-3 15)2x?45-6
14 16 3x? — 4x +6 remainder 2x — 1
A=1,B=0,C=-1
15
A=!1,B=-1,C=1 17 x = 9 2 4 Ooremainder —2+
16 A=3,B=1,C=-5 18 —2x>?+ x* +6 remainder —3x —2
17 A=2,B=-3,C=—4 19 2x* —4x +3 remainder —8x — 4
18 A=3,B=2,C=0 20 3x? —2x+1 remainder 2x — 2
19 A=4,B=2,C=-1
20 A=5,B=-2,C=- Exercise 1C
21 4 6
22 A= 4, B= -3,C= 16; 3x3(x+ 2) (x —4)(x +1)
Minimum value = 16
3 3(1 —x)x
23 Ae 3, 8 = 3 ee 2
2(7+ x)(3 - 2x)
Minimum value = —32
x+3 2x*(x—6)(x —5)(x +1)
24 ae) ae =):
2(x + 2) (2x + 1)(x—3)
Maximum value = 20
25 Az 23,3 =5 6 10x x(2 — )x)(2+
x)
3(x —3)(3x—2) 6(x + 4)(2x
—3)
 416 Answers

20x" (x+3)(2x
+3)
7(x + 1)(3x —2) 5x?(x —3)

10
(x +2)(2x—1) x+2 15 I 1 3
(x —2)(x+3) 4(x —2) 2x+1 2x+3" (x43)
12 5x+5 13
7x —14
16
(2x+ 1)(x+3) (4x —5)(x —3) aes x-—1
14 11+42x—8x? 5 9 1 a 1 9 1 2 3
2(4x+ 3)(2x—1) 2x —3
18 1 +.wee lse xi

16
3x*+ 16x+7 20
nptaie evant yen
(x + 1)(x+ 3)(2x—1) PPG) Oe
17 —3x?+6x+4+2 a 3 ie 1
(x —1)(2x+ 1)(x4+4) x+1 x-2

18
—13x?—38x—12 1 pe 3
22 2
(5 —2x)(6+ x)(1—x) Taxes eo

19
9x?+28x—2 23
1
10(x—2)(x+ 2)(x+ 3) Zhii, x+3

20
28 —59x—14x? 24
(3 —x)(7 +x)(1—2x)
Exercise 1D 25

1
l It , l
payne Tar ary ty a3 26

3 Ae at 4 eg
x+4 x+3 x+2 x+3 27

1 2 1
Fae oye l Z
28 + Lai
oe
x+1 2 | ji Ae) (eH
yeaa) x + we
29 2
2 g) | 3 2x+3 x» x
+5 2x43 54972 $43 2 1
30
10 2 2x+1 DEY 3]
DN x Ox47
11 2 3 31 3 am 3—.2x
Meee tS)" x-—1gs x?+4+2
l 2 4 32 NM”2 ae
(x= 2). A QeTee a)
13 4 3 33
1
ho ees x ee
(= 19%etd x Xo
 Answers 417

34 212 ean:
population, making the sample
ek |
biased.
35 ] —x+2 (ii) This will exclude people who did
Boeot = Xetul
their shopping during the week or
Exercise 1E who do not shop in this precinct
1 (x+2)(x + 3)(x—2) anyway. There could be also many
2 (x—1)(x-2)(x +4)
tourists and visitors.
3 (2x—1)(x+ 3)(x —2) 5 (a) During several periods over a day
4 (x—2)(2x+ 5)(3x—2) collect bulbs from the production
5 (x—1)(3x—1)(x+7) line, number them all and then use a
6 21 7448 8-154 9-63 table of random digits to collect a
Ue ae 11 2 927 13°3" 143 sample of the required size.
fon 416 = 0S 4.9 17-0=2,5=1 (b) After selecting a sample at random
18 a=-—4 (x + 1)(3x—1)(x—2) from the total employment register
19 a=9,x=1,-—3,-4 for the firm, use the random sample
20 a=2,b=-11,x=-2,3,3 to fill in a questionnaire.
20) a=—1,b=—6:°(x*+1)(x —2)(x+ 3) (c) Record the total numbers absent
22 p=-3,q=-11 (2x—-1)(x—3)(x+2) over each day in several weeks
23 k =-—6,p(x)=(x—3)°+2>0 chosen at random over a year.
for all realx
24 A=5,B=-4;x=1,-},-3 Exercise 2B

Exercise 2A
1 (i) quantitative
(11) quantitative
and discrete
and continuous
tated 16-20
21-30
fe31-4
(111)qualitative
(iv) quantitative and discrete
(v) quantitative
Set up a checkpoint
and continuous
on a busy road and
7 late
then stop and scrutinise every nth 10 Time
| 0<1<
2020<1<
40|40.<1
<60|60.<1<
80
commercial vehicle.

There are always some non-respondents

to a postal questionnaire.
(a) See text section 2.2 Exercise 2C

(b) (i) Not all of those sampled would Ly 4, 205241090023.0322 A S32, 2275
be local residents living in Avon, and 5 19.6,2.94 6 3.94, 1.62 7 4, 14.5, 4
also most sampled would be in 8 (a) 4 (b)7 (c) 2
employment; this omits sections of 9 (a) 5.16 (b) 6 (c) 10
 418 Answers

(d) 4 (e) 6.01 (f) 2.45 18 lor1.79 19 =+0.693

10 5.99 g, 0.08 g, 0.042 Lt (695:27,25 20 0.431 or 0.683
12 30.1 1b, 11.341b
13 (a) 18 500 miles (b) 16 000 miles Exercise 3C

(c) 7500 miles (ay 693°C (by 602°e (c) 44.4°C

(a) 3.0 (b) 168" (cyp26.4
(a) 49.7 million (b) 67.1 million
(c) 122.4 million
(a) 16.0 (b) 28.7. (c) 33.6
P = 36.4e°9!t" «(a)..38;7_million
Mean 50.0, SD 20.9 (b) 46.4 million (c) 48.4 million
15 47.8, 26.6 16 267.5min, 10.7min (a) 40.8°C (b) 34.8°C (c) -23.9°G
17 (a) 270.5min k=0.112 (a) 0.46m (b) 0.33 mo
20 (a) Hx=5,[ly= 6 (b) on= 25,0; =4; (c) 0.15 m9
Lxry=5.6,02,,
’ i)
=
ae
12.64 8 k= 0.0263 (a) 8.5 (b) 194
S (a) 0.667 (b) 21
Exercise 3A
1 Exercise 4A
ames eS 41296, 5.16. 63
1 a=). J,b=—1,5
» Ose Oe 2187-11. 4
12 ae ioe) ld =. 15°37 “1613 ec= 450, k = —0.58
17

22
Opeinee3 190) 20 $ 21 1.58
1:92--23:--0.613--
24--0.774
CAM
wv t= 2/2 D 6
URENCaPyseal?
4 f=

25
1.09 26 log;14 27 Ig3 28 In3 a= 2b 34°— 7 a= 140,b = 0.36
29
In1280 30 log,? 31 log, 4 p=-10,¢=84 9 a=2.0,x=3.3
OZ 10 a= 19.4. ho=05
log,441—2 33 log,10
34 11 m= 1.4,c = 0.74, y = 5.5x!4
5+log,6 35 —log,12
12 a=20,b6=1:8
36 log,x +log,y—log,z
Rul 2 log, x + log, y —3log,z
Review exercise 1
38 log, x + 2logay + 3log ,z
39
1 (a)—1; (x + 1)(x—2)(2x+1) (b) 18
slog, x +log, y +tlog,z 2 (Dike 7 I =20,05
40
log,x + log,y—3log,z
3x —-1
Exercise 3B x(x —1)(x —2)
1 Zoi= 2 2.685 3 1.73 42867
(a)29_— (b) (i) 8.54 (ii) 11.40
5
9
13
15
250
1.71
Lorsl.53>

-0:792
eG. B15” 27
10 —13.8
—14

Lotte
185
ILS
—0.631
17
800112

or 1.26
1.58
MZ +389
nen
CSorn k=—13,p=-35,q=27
A=—4,B=4;x=
A=6,B=-2,C=5
1,42
6 5

(b)n = 7j;e= 99
 Answers 419

1 232 41 a=0.90) e=0.039

12 (a)median 46.8, SIQR 12.4 42 a= 8000,b= 2000,c= +: 13.9 days
13 k = 0.1088, 1943 people 43 (a)@) r=4,s=-—5
14 (a)0.77815 (b) 1.39794 (c) 0.17609 GQ)pe=2 g=i1
15 (a)2?*?*24(b) p+ 6q (b)(ii) (x + 1)(2x + 5)(x —4)

2 1 (iii) —1,—23,4
16
ee: Pes 44 (a)2 to <4 (b) mean 4.6, SD 3.21
17 (c) median 3 years 10 months,
a= 3,6 = 1; remainder 15 IQR 4 years 11 months
18 (a)0.30103 (b) —0.60206 45 (a) —38;(x + 4)(3x —2)(x-—3) (b) —5
19 0.631 20 a=90,k = —0.3; —280
21
4
WAS a= S1-C=2 46
x? — 4
23 (x —2)(2x —1)(2x + 3)
47 a Ln =e
24 l mie—9x 48 2 SIBisse.C=2
X4+20°
4°43 49 A = 79, k = 0.023; 21 minutes

25
7— 11x 50 ps 74,5 205
2(x + 1)(x —1)(x —2)
2 1 1
51 2) 555 (aaah ag
26 (a) 138 (c) 90
A=1,B=-1,C=3
27
k(x
+1)
iajz2 (Db).3.5, 72205 b)la
(b)in—_—__
2) +3)
(c) mean 3.98, SD 2.41
29 (a)4p (b) —2p(c) l+p
52 fh x+2
dio x+1fee?
0, 0.526 a median36, IQR 15;24%
31 i
8 54 (x —2)(3x—1)(x+ 1); x= In2 or
32
19xte xe] —In3
(x —3)(2x + 5)(3x + 2)
55
17 —13x
33 (a)0.1 (b) 1820 3(x + 1)(x —1)(x —2)
1.5
56
=, V3
(b)x =>
eae I
35
x $a yh 9 ay
A=2,B=-3
58 a=6.0,b =4.5,u=1.8
36 t= 6, x= 2; h, 3
37 (a)2p (b) 210 59 MDS07s <<
39 5.53-281-5 (a) 2:87. (b) 8.62 (x—2)(x+ 1)
60
(c) 0.287 median3.2,IQR0.5
2 n = aS 61 1:24.«10-4
 420 Answers

62 (b) 1.46 (c) 0.37, 0.63

aetily So
88

ee
x241: 3x42
63 nay ]
89
(b)(3x+2)(x+2)(x—1)
64 (b)(x+ 5)(2x= 1)(x +1) (C)MI07)2223
318°
(c) +1,—5
90
(a)t “(b)|
65
12 91 3x+1
66
3.4 (x + 2)(2x+ 3)
67 p= 6, q=5 or p= 10, gq=84;3or 92 LOS7 pula)eee | (b) 19, 5.75
68 (aye"5(b) 6.56 (c) 1 (d) 51.31 93 a=, 0 23—-5.00
(ec)6.91 94 For A: mean 1000.02, SD 0.68
70 Gp (1,146 For B: mean 999.32, SD 0.42
71
(a)mean54,SD90.3 95 mean 40.5, SD 17.3
72
£e 96 (a) (i) 9 (ii) 12 (iii) 9 5
(b) @) 2log,p + log,
ve l 2X
1= 32 Tage (ii) log,p =4,log,q=1
3x +2
97 l1-—x
74 (Ns xd Ded se (OL Has
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
75 a=5,b=12 98 mean 1.697, SD 0.276
76 (a) 1.26. (c) x=27,y=3 99 (a)@) xy (ii) x? (b) (ii) 3
aa (a)(i) 12 100 No = 100, K = 0.005
(ii) (x + 3)(5x —7)(x —4) (b) 4 Exercise 5A -
78
LCM=“<x(x —2)(x—3);"x(x p—3) 1 (a) 1+6x+9x? (b) 1— 10x + 25x2
(c) 1—2x?+24 (d) 14433 4 436
a9 (a)8 (b) -—2 (e) 9 —24x + 22x? — 8x3 + x4
80 A ==200.8 = 15 (a) 1+6y+ 12y*+ 8y3
81 mode 50, median 51, mean 50.61 (b) 1— 3x34 3x6 —x9
5 (c) 14+9x7! + 27x-24 275-3
82
x(x + 2) (a) 1+4x + 6x?+4x34 x4
83 (b) 1+5x+ 10x? + 10x3 + 5x4 + x5
p= -28,q = —16
(a) 1 — 12x + 54x? — 108x3 + 81x4
84 (a) ary (b) 1+ 10x + 40x? + 80x3 + 80x4 + 325
2 (b))2x4yh =)0/2 +wp
85 mean 906.72, SD 2.64 Exercise 5B
86 (b)n = 0.50,k = 55 1
1+ 15x+ 75x?+ 125x3;2+ 150x?2
2 1—x4+1x7,1 3x43? —1x3,
87 [3x+31
5(x—3)(x—1)(x+2) 1=2x+3x?-133 +ix4
 Answers 421

8 — 36x + 54x? — 27x3, 17 1 + 6y+15y?+20y3+ 15y4+ 6y5+pS,

27 + 54x + 36x? + 8x3,
1.06215
—30 — 216x + 90x? — 97x3 18 a= 2, b= 35x)+344 &
(a) 1— 12x + 60x? — 160x3 19 x89 4. 40x78 + 780x76 + 9880x74
(b) 128 —448x + 672x? —560x3 20 Le 4,Aoi: 843,33x4
—524288) —1179 648)’ —258048)5

no
C6©CmOr~TSN
Exercise 6A
0.850 763 0
(a) 1.049 070 08 (b) 0.953 041 92
1 (a) 1.235 (b) 1.466 (c) 1.122
37 = 252x = 36x? —9133 (d) 1.086 (ec) -1.664 (f) —1.662
625x* — 1000x? + 600x? (g) —3.420 (h) 1.287 (i) —0.5774

m=6, A=2, B= 240 (j) —1.026

(a) —0.02921 (b) —1.034 (c) 1.341
11 (a) 56 = (b) :98
12 z? —9z! + 362° — 84z> + 126z — 12627! (d) —0.08784 (e) —1.043 (f) 1.041
4842-9 —36z> 49277 —2-9 (gi oa thy S16 tie tei
13 (j) 1.075
(a) 364 (b) 1080 (c) —80
(2) "56.5, 303.5 (b) 207.5, 332.5
(d) 86 016
(c) 140.9, 320.9 (d) 153.9, 206.1
14 —20 15 6x
(ec) 152.1, 207.9 (f) 81.6, 261.6
(g) 51.7, 308.3 (h) 33.4, 146.6
(i) 39.5,219.5 (j) 61.1, 118.9
Exercise 5C (a) 0.907, 5.376 (b) 0.663, 2.478
1 493% 4°253x- 2) a 2 15,58 = 105; (c) 0.948, 4.090 (d) 2.114, 4.169
C = 455 (ce) 0.519, 2.623 (f) 2.660, 5.802
78 125x’ — 328 125x® + 590 625x° (g) 0.714, 5.569 (h) 3.745, 5.680
aN 162 + 432x? + 32x4 (i) 1.883, 5.025 (j) 2.080, 4.204
5 (a) 1—40y + 700y?—700073
Exercise 6B
(b) 1—44y + 860)? —9800y°
1+ 10x + 45x* + 120x?, 0.980 179 04 VI V3-1

Nn
omen
1 (a) WD (b) WD
40x8 + 1920x* + 16128
a = 1351, b= —780 a3 v3—o
6726 10 (a) 27 (b) 3 247 695 Ora E oA
(a) 1.012 066 22 lrg ez
(b) 998 501 049 500 000 (©) 3/2 () V3+1
12 n= 22, k =2, 12320 Nils We Veit
13 1 + Tax + 21a*x? + 35a°x?; a= 2, b=5; (g) 2 (Hh)= 2/2
434; 1484
15 k =2,n=7; 280, 560
2 (a) 1 (b) 4+ (© -Vv3_ (d) 3
16 18 564y°, 5.543 x 10'° (4 s.f.) Oe wl lie
 422 Answers

3 (a) sin4d@ (b) cos36 (c) tan26 Exercise 6E

(d) 3sinS@ (e) 4cos20 (f) 2cos36 1 86°, 141.4 ~ 22968.555225 58

a) & () # © -8 @ -¥ 170;7°; 350:7 > G4 )1.69;62.5349.68

@ § &) -§ © 8 @ ¥
@ a
5

d) -33
§) -23
© -#
(7) #
(HB
(a) (i) 1when6 = 20°
WD
NM
CSO 60°, 240°
8510
2206
205.90
6 126.2°, 306.2°

7912.55 4202057 1292253

0, 60°, 180°, 300°, 360°
0, 120°, 180°, 240°, 360°
(ii) —1 when 6 = 200° 11 a (2h 24)
(db) G@)>1 when 6 = T10° 12 0, 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 300°
(ii) —1 when 6 = 290° 13 ['9.5°, 160.5", 270°
(c) (i) 1 when 6 = 65° 14 33.1; 03.4, 213.7 ea
(ii) —1 when 6 = 245° 15 SOtA ysLOS DIT 33343
(a) —1 when 6 = 230° 16 30", 90", TSO" 2708
(b) —1 when 6 = 223° 17 120°, 240°
(c) —3 when 0 = 75° 18 Loe aoe ee
19 0, 180°, 360°, 60°, 300°, 120°, 240°
Exercise 6D
20 0, 180° 360% 4529135" 225°, 315°
1
@i ®o+ O©O-1 @¥ 21 AS. 225° 926.00)20616"
ChelleFea a22, (12/3 22 StF. 123.7"
23 LOS) 165" 65 Baas
(h) $+ 24 30 LSU oe
@) § 6) -£ © -#
Se
WD
BR
OH
ND
W(a) ie 6b) -128 —120
25
26
De
BS
S02 5° 202.5". 292.5"
$2257, 1230 ie
-

27 14.2°, 74.2°, 134.2, 194.2, 254.2 314.2

(a) -3 oS © an 28 0, 180°, 360°, 138.6°, 221.4°
(a) 3 () -# © -#
as O+ ©1 Exercise 7A

zor-3 8 lor -7 1 AC —4.5cm,BO'= 5.7m, C= 91°

C= 67.4°, AB= 12.2cm, BC =9.11cm
sin 30 = 3sin0 —4sin? 6; 42

W
&
AIAN
SeN
> 128
A = 69.5°, AB = 22.5cm, BC = 24.0cm
10 |
cos36=4cos?
6— 3cos6;
— 16 B=79.3°, AB=17.2icm)‘AC = 17:.9;cm
11
(a)(x—2)*
=4y°(1
—y?) B= 50° AB=6.7cm, BC = 5.7cm
(b)y=3(2x?
—4x+1) B= 56.2°, AB=7.6cm, BC = 5.9cm
ihe peli Jy C = 33.3°, B=99.7°, AC = 11.3cm
(d) x-3=3- A = 35.3°, B=80.7°, AC = 21.2cm
(e) x*y=2 A= 333% e678. s4R—1348cm
 Answers 423

10 A = 30.2°, C=96.6°, AB=11.7cm C = 106.8°, area 9.00 cm2

11 A = 56.3°, B= 55.0°, BC = 15.5cm
12 A = 34.6°, B=73.1°, AC =21.4cm
Exercise 7C
13 B= 44.8°, C=99.0°, AB = 19.1cm or 1 4.3km, 257°
B= 135.2°, C=8.6°, AB=2.9cm
21.8 nautical miles

W
&
nN
Cmer
N
14 B= 75.6°, A= 52.1°; BC = 15.6cm or 2.51 km
B= 104.4°, A = 23.3°, BC=7.80cm
554m
15 C = 30°, A = 132.6°, BC = 36.2cm or
2.62 nautical miles, 341°
C= 150°, A = 12.6°, BC = 10.7cm
6.40 km
16 B= 59°, A = 73.7°, BC = 20.4cm or
224°
B= 121°, A=11.7°, BC=4.3cm
5.46 km, 280°
17 C= 23.6°, A = 25.4°, BC = 4.6cm
13 km, 055°
18 B= 82°, C= 66.8°, AB = 14.0cm or 6.21 km
B= 98°, C = 50.8°, AB = 11.8cm
19 B= 24.4°, C = 139.9°, AB = 50cm or
Exercise 7D
B= 155.6°, C=8.7°, AB =11.7cm
1 (a) 16.2° (b) 59.0°
20 A = 58.3°, C = 84.0°, AB = 14.1cm or
(a) 28.1° (b) 33.7°

WN
hk
SCrNI
A= 1217, C=20.6°, AB=5.0cm
(a) 10.1° (b) 11.3° (c) 61.7°
(a) 19.8° (b) 28.5°
Exercise 7B (a) 54.7° (b) 63.4°
1 (a) 4.39cm (b) 11.2cm (c) 6.42cm (a) 63.7° (b) 70.7°
(d) 7.46cm (e) 8.00cm (f) 9.82cm (a) 27.6° (b) 26.1°
(g) 16.lcem (h) 13.9cm (i) 19.5cm (a) 9.43cm, 9.90cm
(j) 14.4cm (b) (i) 339° (ii) 17.6°
(a) 44.0° (b) 60° (c) 109.5° (a) 20m (b) 29m (c) 46.4°
(d) 82.8° (e) 141.4° (f) 57.1° (d) 60.3°
feperae 2.4) 137°. (i) .15,9° 10 (b) VM = 5.83cm, AC = 7.21 cm
(j) 22.6° VC =6.16cm (c) 71.6°, 61.9°
(a) AB =2.45cm, A = 60.2°, B=76.8°, (a) 10cm (b) 8cm (c) 62.2°
area 2.39 cm? (d) 67.2°
(b) BC = 2.87cm B = 88.1° C = 56.9°, (a) 13.3m (b) 55.7° (c) 71.2°
area 5.74cm? (a) 54.7° (b) 70.5°
(c) AB=18.8cm, A =22.1° B=17.9°,
area 31.8 cm? Exercise 7E
(d) AC = 12.6cm, A = 21.9°, C= 48.1°, 1 32 05/11 3°4./34ye4244/94
area 23.5cm? 5 /195 6 t=1+ 39 Tale Sea
(ce) AC=4.70cm, A = 33.2°, 9 —-1+V7
 424 Answers

—74+V21
10
ps
31 —vig 32 i 34 3 35 Pt 4
11 82.0°
Exercise 8B
13 (a) 11° 4+224+43 SY SORES 1 x7(Sx2B) OO
1) PPOx TeFD 2x8.
Ht
14 (a) 9 —10t+35 (b) 3 (©)
pees
15
16
(OP3 —2474.86 (b) 4 (c) 38 xe*(2+x)
4 pitino
TSA wT°6852° Soh Indee 25 Ge Lyla Vee 3 1
18 (Ri T6111), D6, fal).
x. 3x—1
T7(6,795) o(b)6.93..(c) 353°
19 (a) B(5,5,—2), E(5,—3,3), F(5, 5,3), ands Oi,
H(9,—3,3) (b) 51.3° 2(2x—3)?(x2+ 1)(7x2—6x+ 3)
20 pcvehs (1+ 927162
+1)
4x?—3x.—2 3 1 ad
Exercise 8A 10 oe i 11 322-32 +457
1 2(x+ 2) Dai s) 3 AS —7)"
4 6(2x—1)” Deer)
12 2(x—2)3(x + 2)§+3 (x+2)
4x —2)3
6 —2(x—4)~ 7033 ax)? 20 lo
13
8 —(x-7)? 9 3(5—x)7? Vx 3)
10 48x(6x7+1)? 11 (x—2)7! 12 2xe*’ 2x3
14 LeetIn(x?31 et
13 —e* 14 —2x(6—x2)7!
bs —(2x—7) 15 (n> 1)eX
x= 4x5)
(ie 27x42)?
72x"
l6nee = 4.
16 CLES >
18
6x?—x4 19 e*(2x—1)
[j, "] 18 22x2(1—23)' (2x+ 1)
V6+4%)
20 —3x*In(l pS 2
19 —2x3(x3
+ 5)~4 20 (2x—3)e""-# 1—x?
21 —4x-7(1
+1)? 21
6x? x-2
22 —3(2x
+ x77)(x?+ 1)~41
(3+)? (x —1)
23 —x(1—x”)? 2x—2 —2x?
23
—4x 6x —4 ea he
24 eg 2K RE
(1 + x2)? 3x2 = 44 +3 Im
24 4 DS. 40» aetna ep
26 qatags -2)(22“+5a) 2x4 +1)/x (x44) (3e*+1)?
27
e* 26 2x(2x+ 1)e*In(2x+ 1) —2e”
ar
ev 5 2h
: Pe
(2x+ 1)[In(2x+ 1)}?
—54x?
ae ~ 2x(x?—1) —2x(x?++1)In (x?+ 1)
29 27
(6x3—5)4 x(In x) (x?+ 1)(x? —1)°
 Answers 425
2x? + 4x3 — 2x
28 ope> (d) 14+2
(x? 1)?
Se 5e*
29 6x?
(4x3
—1)?In(2x—3)—2(2x
—3)!(4x3—1)! 20 y=2x-e, 2y +x =3e, Dae
[In(2x
—3)]*
22 3y + 4x=10, 3y+ 10x =95
30 2x(x*+ 1)'(e*+1)—e* In(x?+1)
(ev+1)
23 (5,—75)minimum,(—},4)maximum
24
1,-6,9
31
=ad 25 (ai tangent: y = 4x — 1,
normal: x+4y=45 (b) (9,—2)
32 —~: 0,3 33 (0,0),(3.0),@8.40) 26
(a) (3,75) (b) (62)
ath. ay 27
(b) (1, 1)maximum,(—1,—1) minimum
34
t 35 6+1n4 28 (a) (e3, —1e7!) (b) y = 3ex—2e?

29 2 1
Exercise 8C
x+1 x2+1’
1 2cm7s-! 2 0.0244ms"!
30
112cm?s7! A=2,B=1,C=-1,2,-32

W
hm
nn (a) 2.88cm?s-!
(a) 0.00477cms=!
J.18 7” £4) *e
(b) 2.88cm?s~!

(b) A(1,0), B(e,e7),

(b) 2.4cm?s7!

C (e2, 3e73)
Exercise
1

4
3.08 3x62
8D

5l COS5x
3 —4 sin 4x1
— sin 3x 5 2sec*2x 6 14 sec“2x4
7 Ssec Sx tanSx 8 —3'cosec¥ cot 4
stationary values at x = —4,x=1;
9 —6cosec 26x
max y = —2,miny = —8
10 1x SECx5 tan g 11 —3cosec23x
10 0.005 15cms7!
12 —$cosec “cote“2 13 2 sinx cosx
1 l 5 2 3 sin? x cos x
11
had Shee
I ah
ale
a ¥2’ 1s in cate
125
14

jb
cosx 16 —4cos*?x sinx
13 polis 2,/( sinx)
4’4
17 =o
—Scos*xsinx 18 —4sinx(cosx)7
14
(a) 4x-—y-—5=0(b) 6x+y+3=0 19 2 tan x sec? x
(c) 3x+2y+4=0
15
sec? x —sec? x —2 cos x
(a) x+3y—22=0 20
2,/(tan x) tan? x sin? x
(b) x —Sy—28=0
(c) 3x -2y—4=0 16 sin x
23 24 —2cosec?x cot x
cos? x
16 (b) y= 15 or —5 (c) (0,2), (7,1),
25 units * Pe 4sin2xcos2x 26 —6 cos 3x sin 3x
17 4y —3x =7, 3y+ 4x = 24 27 6 tan? 2x sec?2x 28 4 sec? 2x tan 2x
18 (a) A(—2,0), B(0,V2) 29 3 cos(3x + 5)
(b) 2y—x=3 30 —4cos(2x —4) sin(2x —4)
426 Answers

31 —4tan(1 —2x) sec?(1 —2x) Osi 64 1.00 65 y-l=-}x

32 —6 cot? x —cosec?3x
33 —8cosec*4x cot 4x 34 0 66 Sra?
67 maximum at (1.11, 4.09); minimum at
35 2(cot x—cosec x)(—cosec*x+cosec x cot x)
36
(4.25, —2190)
=2'cos 2x
at 2 sin x cos? bo sin x
Exercise 8E
38 cos* x —3 sin?x cos?x
1 I tes gt (x+y)
39 sec? x + tan? x sec x
y y I x Sy
40 sec x. tan x cosecx — sec x cosec x cot x
5 cotxcoty 6 oe 1
41 sin’ x + 2x sin x cos x
y
42 2x COS X — x“ sin x
8 ay by 9 y(e* —Iny)
43 2x tan 2x + 2x? sec? 2x
ino
sin x —x cos x —y 1 3t 2
44
sin? x 10 11 — 12 — 13 -=
x+2y 3t 2 e
x COSX — sin x b
45 14 aot 15 cosect
Be)

2x cos x + x? sin x 16 sint+ cost sint+ tcost

46
cos? x cos? —sinf cost —tsint
—3(x sin 3x + cos 3x) cos @
47 18 19 1l+e™~ 20 cot2é
Be 1+ sin@

48 2 sec* 2x sec3x + 3tan 2xtan 3xsec 3x

21 y—4=41n2(x —2),
49 2sin xcos* x — 3cos’ x sin? x
V=o2 = 32m2.(e—5): -
50 e*(sin x + cos x)
(38In2—7)
2e**(cos x + sin x) ey
51
cos? x
sin? x 22 4y—9x = 34
52 2sin xcos xInx a 23 tangent: 2y = 3 —5x; normal:
Sax, =
e**(3sin x + cos x)
53 24 3y=12x+4 25 (2,3)
(sin x + cos x)”
26 y=2x-3
2 cos 3x + 6(2x —5) sin 3xIn(2x —5)
54 27 2t—?t,6y+8x=11 28 -#
(2x —5).cos? 3x 29 (a) 10*In10 (b) 2x(2*”) In2
mf 2~ 58 y—0.6 = 0.8(x —0.644) is (c) —5-*In5
tangent; y —0.6 = —1.25(x—0.644) is 30 2y+2x-7r=0
normal
Review exercise 2
—4sin 2x
59
2h OO
XA
eee ee 1 (a) e*(cosx—sinx) (b) 2tanx
(1—cos2x)
 Answers 427

2.88 cm? s~! 30 (a) x7~*(2xcos2x —sin2x)

Gr ye 3x4 3x Bee? (b) xe**(3x+2) (c) —6xsin(3x)
(b) x° + 5x? + 10x + 10x7! + 5x73 + x-5 b] (a).60°. (b),.37.2°|. 32. 0.22ms7!
125 ty AS aS BS 9457 C — 12 285 33 (a) -5 (© -}
(a) 9.71cm = (b) 7.34cm 34 (i) (a) 23.1,276.9 (b) 116.6, 296.6
(c) 18.1cem? (ii) (a) 2.26 (b) 69.4°
normal: y + tx = 2r4+ 2,
tangent: ty=x+? a5
| eeta ae
(r+ R)°”
(1, 1), (3%,-33)
x* —4x9 + 6x®—4x7+ x8
36 b) 3 © 7
af (a) 20.9cm (b) 361cm?
(a) 4.5lcem (b) 37° (c) 33°
38 (a) 125km = (b) 098° (c)_2380km”
10
e*(2cosx—sinx) (b) shen’ 39 :
t<0< tort <0<F
3
(2x + 1)
40
a:
11 0.6, 0.8 (a) (i) 3
12 (a) 8 (b) Z
13 1.5cm?s~!
(ii) 2xsin3x+3x*cos3x (b) 4
14 3, 12.5
41 e(2cosx —sinx); (by y=2x4+1
15
43 ¢pcm’s"!
(a) 59.1m (b) 117m_ (c) 090°
(b) +8
16 (b) 3, (©) 14+4x+4x
17 —¥,-$,1 —(x*+4)
45 (a) ()
18 (a) 17cm (b) 18.4cm_ (c) 22.4° 2x3(1 + x3)
(d) 79.7cm (e) 4.33cm
2cosx —3sinx + |
19 (a) (1,—-2) (b) 3V5 20 ~/33 (il)
(2 + cos x)(3 —sin x)
21 (a) 4cos 4x (b) x~7e*(3x —2)
46 (a) 8cm_ (b) 34° (c) 130cm?
22 (a) 6e*—1 (b) 3e%-—2
(d) 15.3cm ;
(c) a 3t (d) In4 47 —4.61, 2.61
48 (a) —eaeiesty,
(0) Ee
23 (a) 74.4° (b) 10.6 (c) 69.5cm? 49 a®+ 6a°b + 15a*h*+ 20a°b? + 15a7b*4
(d) 8.34cm +6ab> + b°, 0.982 13446, 7.29 x 107!6, 18
24 (a) 71.2° (b) 52.8cm (c) 74.6° 50 (a) n(1+y’), 2n’y(1+y’)
(d) 519cm? (b) 0 and 4e~?
25 142 506, 142506 51 (a) 12.1cm (b) 14cm (c) 52°
26 (a) 15.6°, 195.6° (d) 159cm?
) BE (c) 68.0 27 9, -19 (i) (a) 2°+24+4
28 (b) x+y+2=0 (b) x4+4x7+6+4+-4, p* —4p?+2
29 A= 44, B= 924, C = 12320 (i) p=3.9=30D= Paz
 428 Answers

33 (a): 148.2,211;8m(b).£323.1.°
0c) 1915, 81 (26, 9)
160.5,228.6,311.4 82 (@),1 b)44
2 sec x(sec x + tan x) 83 1 —14x + 84x?,a = —15,b= 98
56 (i) (a)
sec x —tan x 84 (a) 16.6cm (b) 123cm? (c) 20.4cm
85 (a) (i) 300,420 (ii) 325, 505
(b) e*"™*(sinx+xcosx) (ii) i0 (b)..),30 Gi) 19.5", £.4i 35°
58 (b) 3.79, —0.79
59 1.25cms7! 86i 10ae
(a) +4 (b) sing =347
61 (a) 10.51cm = (b) 008° ~=—s (c) 8min + =1(x+6)
(d) 1.46km
62 (a) 9.59cm (b) 40.8° (c) 11.5cm 87(a)2ato=45 (by) @)53.1°
(d) 96.4° (ii)62.1°
88 (a) 3. (b) 540
63 1 + 8ax + 28a?x?,a=1,b=68
89 (a) 53° (c) 60° (d) 44°
64 2) 67.5,157.5, 247.5,3375 90 0.032cms-! 91 1
(b) 63.4,90, 243.4,270 (c) 270 92 (a) (i) §(5x+2)? (ii) 3sin? xcosx
(ii) (a) 46.7° (b) 29.0° (b) (i) 0.0007 ii) 0
65 (a) 0, 48.6°, 131.4°,180°,270°,360° 93 (a) 2,42 (b) (ii) —0.464, 2.68, 0.322,
(b) 1 0
2.820
67 (a) y =n(sin 4nx—sin 2nx) 94 (b) 0.016cms—! (c) 0.203cm?s7!
69 (a) 87.5m, 153m, (b) 12900m?
95 4%7 y—-x+4=0,y+x+2=0
70 (a) k=3,p=63,¢=189 (b) 126 96() 0,ise ie geT
71 (a) 6cm? (b) 4.24cm_ (c) 62.1°
97 (a) 20.74" (b) 252m (Cc) 32.09%
(d) 9.60cm? (e) 1.9cm
(d), 63.7%
72 PTOI Baier ican ameCONe
ry tl x") ... SINXCOSx
(c) 33.6 98 wd)
(a) @)——_
(a wy)1+
(ii)———sin’x
[5 3
74 (a) (i) 75,255 (ii) 60,135,300,315 Jul ee20 ae es
Se ese aS
(ii) 90,270 (ce)(x-1)?+4y? =1
75 (a) (i) e*(2cos mx—msinrx) Exercise 9A
2 2x y) as 4x [The constant of integration is omitted in
WR Le V(1+ 4x?) indefinite integration. ]
76
1642. 77 (a) +2‘ (b) 80 1 isin4dx 2 —icos3x 3 —2cos}x
78 @).@.5 . Gi).4d>~{iii)
of 4 ¢sin3x 5 tanx 6 —4cot3x
(b) 23.8,203.8 7 Ztan2x 8 tei? 9 4In| 2x—5 |
79 (a) 2 (b) 64 10 ig(4x-3)* 11 I sin(5x+4)
80
4.3km,257° 12 jcos(3—4x)
13 —1(3—
2x)
 Answers 429

1
W41620") fy 124 "48 Peas
23 = 15 xe Ze 5e 10 3(x—2)(x+1P 1 62 13 -4
14 ‘(a)"e—1 “(b)4-3 > -(c)Ins
16 \—2cothx 17 4sec3x
1 15 (a) 5In2 (b) 4in2
ASjag Sdsen2x 19 tanx—ix 3
20 x°—}cos2x 211 22 11 23 0
244.1 2 1+in 26 2-2¥3 Exercise 9D
27 3in¢, 28 10.29 1(e—e3) 30 2 [The constant of integration is omitted in
indefinite integration.]
Exercise 9B
[The constant of integration is omitted in —x
Loewee rly) 1 3%Fe(3%
2\3xe*+
indefinite integration.] 3 —xcosx+sinx
2 2
1 +x —4sin2x 2, scotx—x XG x
4 In | x | —-—
2 a

3 jtan2x—x4 342sinx+4sin2x 5 xIn|x—1|-x-In|x-1|

5 3x+4cosx—sin2x
6 4xsin3x+ $cos3x
3x x—2
2
+ }sin2x+ tanx 7 Al In
x+2 | (Sx + 1)(x —1))°
30
892.
(3x-#.2)(x—19
8 In|x —3|-—2In|x—2| 9 e*%(x*
—2x+2)
9 In|x—1|—2In|2x+1| 10 x?sinx +2xcosx —2sinx
10 5in|2x+ 1|—4In|3x+1 11 —e*(x? + 2x 4 2)
2x+1 3+ 2x
11 In
a 3x+1 ae 3 —2x
x4
12 lie) ida,
13 A=1,B=1,c=-1, 7 4
14 Tt Tx 4 5 gje+} 16 -1
x+4In x —|
x+1 17 84 18 §(1—4e%) 19 e—2
4 3 f+}= 1550 20 $(e+1)

16 +1 17 (a) f-1 (b) F+1

Exercise 9E
Exercise 9C [The constant of integration is omitted in
[The constant of integration is omitted in indefinite integration.]
indefinite integration]
1 4(4x—5)?3 Lin|4x+5]
1 sindx 2-ltandx 3 (x7+1)*
4 1(x4-1)) 5 (x2-1)) 6 4sec?x sei
3 x—2In|x|——4 sin’ x
7 te" 8 Lan}x|)?
5 iln|sec3x| 6 —4xcos 3x + 4sin 3x
9 x+1-—2In|x+1 tj 2x2+223 $ x—In|x+1|
430 Answers

9 —tcos\x 10 3xInx—3x Exercise 9F

11 3In|x—1|-—2In| x| ee
12 —4$(1+tanx)* 13 1x—Jsin4x 1 Pirtlne3 1c)
2
14 5x74+2x+4In|x—2| 4
5in5—2in2—3 5.2 (roe:
15 3x + 3sin2x—cos2x ti 0.02 8 S(e*-e) 9 In} 10 V3
te alone?
11 81 12 168" 13 17? 14 mIn3
16 Qe(x2 4x +8) 17 in =
4 e7(3e7—1) 16 34740
15 a

17 a (4—m) 18 7[3(In3)?—6In3
+4]
18 jin |9x?+1] 19 x+2x-!-1,°3 4

4 [1I5+8In4] 20 4x
19 a

20 1(2—3x)' 21 —1in|4—5x|
24 60, 16256m
22
5In| sin3x| 23 ins? 1cosec2x 7
24 1 1
. 5x + 55COS
1
25 (a) /2-1 (b) Sn = 2)
—;cot 3x—x 25 5X sin 5x
26 (a) 122 (b) 3250
26 £(x + 2)./(x —1)
PU3x
27 —e*(x? + 2x 4 2) 27 (a) 27 (b)
5
2
28 —Fcos*x+cosx 29 — 3—2cos3
COS Xx
28 161n16,287 29 (a) 3= (b) 120
30 $sec2x 31 x+In|1+4-x?|
in|> ata 1
| 33 —+In|~ =l |
32
x—2 x Exercise 9G

34 x—4cot2x 35 x+8In|x-4|
1 ViSpet| + C= OleIe QE C
4y=2x+sin2x+C 4 tany=x+C
36

38

39
jin 24 S| 37 Hm)

1Fe’ +153+ 2xe*—2e*

qx (4Inx—1)
+1

40 Ler (x?—1}
Ww
nN
Oor~I2iny=x+C 6 er +e=C-
siny=xIlnx—-x+C
yt2=C(x+1)
2

41 +COS3x —cosx Iny=Inx+>+C

l
42 sinx —sin’ x,—cosx+ cos? ee $COS°
X 10 y? = 2cosecx+C LL, 6p = 20 3x8
43 ltan?
3
x—tanx+x 12 3
3y=sinex—1 13 In(3y+1)=3x-3
44 ftan?x+tanx,x+cotx—4cot?
x 14 2e%+x*-3=0 15 2siny = secx
45 (a) —;5c0s
10x—4cos2x 16 2tany = x —sinxcos x
D® x
(b) —308 —cos t;
46 2In3—In2
18 += 2tan x(tanx +4)?5
48 i[s- =] 49 In2+41n13—1in20 19
3 30/3 2 2 ycosy —siny =5—xsinx —cosx
Baal,5 2sin?x
50 tn§ 20
y+1 F323
 Answers 431

22 (a) 19 minutes (b) 53.6° Exercise 11B

23 26.6 days l@; 6% ©4
24 Inv=Inx+1-x 2a5 OF OF
Zo Y= xine xe +.1 3 (a) & (b) x
4@qay oT Of @F
Exercise 10A ®SHH,HT,TH,TT;1;3
1 6 0.42, 0.58
(a) (2,4) (6) (43,43) © (2,24
(d) (1,14) () (-4,-4})
() @,-5) (gs)(14,14) Exercise 11C
(h) (—3,-44) @ (,-63)
(Gj)(23,3) 1 0.74,0.26 2 0.8 3 0.98,0.417
(a) (8,-1) (6) 0,6) © (5,-1)
O15 70 25a.
(a) i (b) ) é
6) e (D) (2 Pies
(d) (13, 14) (e) (8, 10)
9 79.3 10 2,3,5,5,5
(f) (—14,13) (g) (—9,-9)
11 (a) 0.52 (b) 0.4
(h) (—5,-5) (7, 12)
12 (a) 04 (b) 0.6
(j) (—S,-6)
(a) y=2x-—25 (b) y—3x+8=0 24192617
13°}, 49>
19;
9-018
(c) liy+x+15=0 £(d)y—x=1 4aiZt wet 5 @!i Ow
(ec)Ix-3y=28 (f) 2x-3y=6!
16 05 17. (a).2 oye
(g) 4v+2x=5 (h) 13y+x=8 1g Bo 49 02
(i) 4x+y=165 (j) 3y+7x+4=0
0a +o OF
(34,—2),64
(0,0),(-1, 7), (6,8)
Exercise 12A
Exercise 11A 1 (©) OLp=1,¢=3 (ares set
1 = {4,7,8, 10,12},B’= {5,7,9,11} (CE 038220 (de. 618
AU B={4,5,6,8,9, 10,11,12} 29 (bya. GX) era 16
AB = {7} 3° 2206yxt 23de Oy «4 0.275
5 147 62 O877 “%it-038 138 oat
(a) 17,12 (b) 2
ie) 9 (3.332,..10 Ill
(a) 50 (b) 47. (c) 23. (d) 74
P= (1,3,7, 10,121, PAOe(2)5,6311}, 11 1.83,x=3:
P'NQ = {I,3,7, 10,12}
ANB={x:-2<x <3},
Review exercise 3
AUB={x:-4<x<5} 1 4(e?-1)
Be CO.14,-1)= x =<6},
2 (a) xsinx+cosx+C
PUQ={x:-4<x<8}
21 (b)++4sin2y+,
 432 Answers

ysin2y+4y = xsin x+cosx+C 28 Ops dy

Feepe
(b) aah Pi
(a) ayV/2+ bxV/2= 2ab 29

(b) byV/2= ax/2 = b? = a: rab

W3x+2), T(x+3)’
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.03 (c) 0.32 CGx-+2) 9p32)
(a) #2 Ob)te eer yee 2 ies 5 a Ee
Z l 30
(a) ee (dee
BG aay en
31 (b) 2e2—2
xtanx+Incosx+C
¢,ion 9 1.78 32
10
(a) (1,0) (b) —sin2¢ (Cc)bo
11 bsp Ok" Wi © } 33 ye Dae(in xe 2}
12
(3) (=a). (ae
34 0.509
(b) 9x+9y+2=0,x+y+2=0 35 (a) 2(x-—1)? +4(x-1 +
(c) (0, 0) minimum, (—¢,—§)maximum
g
(d) x=-4 eo ate
(b) 3 sin 3x + 5c0s3x + Ci —3
13 y=4-ke* 14 1,
36
15
(a) p=3,g=2,
(a) x2 —p
(b) fe)?xese* +2,xeR
V2 37 (a) @) 3 Gi) é (iii)= (iv) dl-
(b)+(c)0 (y=xyz46 (b) 2,4 (c) 2,2
16 A= Lo
B=2,C=-—2;3nl+2In4-3 1 1 fs
3? 4 (x2) =C 38
17 y= 3) QE = Sj aoxy
v3)13) +(x +2)?&5
32 Ps| 8(1+x)
oe) 34x |
18
2? 10-°
19 (a ) + (b) @ 0.002 (ii) 0.013
(iii) 0.099; 0.650 39
(a) 0,8 (b) 12ne2
20 1
(by*-, (@)a 40 @) F< Kp x)

23
(a) }sin’0+C 5 et
” okt
tb) coo = 4sin?x —4,
24
@)& (b) ¢ 41 ise 42 2.21
25

26
1.4,8.6,1.43,8.61 43
27 (b) y+4ax = 2a? +8 (a) G6,0)» (J RAp=s (eye1,125
(C) 4
(d) 160 347
Oear
 Answers 433

44 (a) (i) 0.1 (ii) 0.05 iii) 0.13 Spee

vel eeerage l+x rs

(bo)@) 3,3 Gi) } 63 a5 6 @ + WT

45 g(x) = 2x —1- x; (a) % &) 1-% (¢) x (d) In}
65
42
y =jln[2e*(1+22) 4+ 66
—3
46 1
(a) [0,44 67 fi
PS

(b)fsx _ 0<x< 0 68 a) 2 @w, OFZ

2r+3
PX Il 69
49
(a) (c) 2 (a) 23.6litres (b) 17.1em
(r+ 1)(r+2)
70 (a) 3x 3(x+3) (b) zi
.
50 (a)
P41 297
t— (c) apy
© £
51 0.744, 0.794
71
Pex <3
52 82
OS
72 (Qn --—int (Bes
l ; XQ eked ae ms
53 5 in | 2y—1 |=4In | sin2x | +C; 6, @) i) 5 @ 5 &) @ 0.0106
(ii) 0.000 266
y=3(1+V5)
74 (0,0),(=1,—4),(2,2)
(a) 0.15 (b) 0.75 to —je” = xe*—e*-}
(c) 3p(1—p),p?(3—2p)
(d)4 Vd
8
55 is x+1 Xe S
=] (a) 2e3 (b) In2 (c) 1—In2
kere
(b) In
(x + 2)(x +3)
3 1
58
8(3t+1) 8(t+3)
eeeinit21 n( i)
e” =2
1
59 (a) (2,2e7') (b) 4—8e!
(c) (2 —10e~7) n(Sadie
a 5) .ne=}
\ eS:)
60 (b) x, = LS, x3 = 1.11
61 fava 1 (0) a5) 78 5+3
—2 xeR,x#2
(c) (3, 12) minimum, (—1,—4) maximum
79

62
1 1 range (0,
2a],
2a?(2+ In4]
asymptote
y=2a;
Pee 1 ey
 434 Answers \

80 (a)75335% 97 sinOE 75 y2
Sloe ale eee
) 1 Pua 128
98 (a)(0,4) (2)55 (ee647
lintED Sle ee
3661)
99 (b) 0.009, 0.012, 0.0075 (d) 0.0285
83 (b) — Cees (ec)0.316 (f) 0.454
“ea Cot hide Aetee
1+ 3x. 14x” abe= [ex Examination style paper P2
1 4or12
85 (i) = (i) 3 () (i) 0.4,0.25 2° (a) Ix-Pyi 3% 0-707}: (8) 67
(ii) 0.05,0.02 3 (a) Bi setae a el
86 0.922 (b) —! (6) —55
87 e=7(5- aS dkea 4 0.34,2.80,3.67,5.16
88 (a) P(B)=},P(c)=1 (b) 2 5 (b) 1.74903
(c) P(ANB)=§,P(ANC)=4 6 (a) 19.1min (b) 0.38
89 (a) 2,4), (-2,4),(0,8) () # ;
(c) 487 7 (b) =
90 2y+3x = 135;72.9
910 = <2 8 (a) o = kx (b) x=ce
oF sa ee a yg
X—2Qx*+3x4+3 (d) 40.5hours
3) aoe 40 :
y 9 (a) 13
94 (b) (i) 1.33 (ii) 1.58
oy ees ans —B83
a (b) 25\x+7
OPP l+x
Se | 105x42" IX=] 2ee I

(c) —6.75
9 —3<x<4 10 (a) P(—3,3),Q(3,0) (b) (0,48) (@ 9
 List of symbols and notation
ee eet ai

The following symbols and notation are used in the London modular mathematics examinations:

{ } the set of
= Pen.
pi the number of elements in the set A
} the set of all x such that

QRS is an element
is not an element
the empty (null) set
the universal
of

set
of

union
et
ee
eT intersection
is a subset of

*Ss By
“
the complement of the set 4
operation Q followed by operation
f is a function under which each
P
element of set A has an image in set B
qT fis a function under which x is mapped to y

me
—"
eR
the image
the inverse
the function
of x under
relation
the function
of the function
f of the function g
f
f

open interval on the number line

closed interval on the number line

the set of positive integers and zero, {0, 1, 2, 3,...}

the set of integers, {0,+1,+2,+3,...}
the set of positive integers, {1, 2, 3,...}
the set of rational numbers
the set of positive rational numbers, {x : x €Q,x > 0}
the set of real numbers
the set of positive real numbers, {x : x€ R,x > 0}
the set of positive real numbers and zero, {x : x € R,x > 0}
the set of complex numbers

J the positive square root

[a,b] the interval {x:a<x <b}
(a, 5] the interval {x:a<x<b}
(a, b) the interval {x:a<x <b}
 436 List of symbols and notation

x forx> 0 ;
|x| the modulus of x = {
—x forx <0’
ER

is approximately equal to
es the inverse of the non-singular matrix A
Al the transpose of the matrix A
detA the determinant of the square matrix A

2 f(r) Art) atin)

r=1
Tt) £(1)£(2) ...f(n)
T=1
¥n : forn€Zt
.
thebinomial ri(n—r)!
coefficient , '
n(n—Hasta AeNeste Oh
exp x e* r!
Inx the natural logarithm of x, log, x
lg x the common logarithm of x, logy) x
arcsin the inverse function of sin with range [—1/2,1/2]
arccos the inverse function of cos with range 0, 7]
arctan the inverse function of tan with range (—71/2,77/2)
arsinh the inverse function of sinh with range R
arcosh the inverse function of cosh with range Rf
artanh the inverse function of tanh with range R

fi(); f”’(x),t (x) the first, second and third derivatives of f(x) with respect to x
(x) the rth derivative of f(x) with respect to x
the first, second, . . . derivatives of x with respect to ¢ e
Z
a complex number, z = x + iy = r(cos@ + isin @)= re?
Re z the real part of z, Re z= x =rcos@
Im z the imaginary part of z, Im z= y = rsin6
zt
the conjugate of z,z* = x —iy = r(cos 6 —isin@) = re-®
[2| the modulus of z, |z| = /(x? + y?)=r
arg Z the principal value of the argument of Zz
sin@= y/r
arg z = 0, where easd = ope pre ooSF
the vector a
the vector represented in magnitude and direction by the directed line
segment AB
a unit vector in the direction of a
unit vectors in the directions of the cartesian coordinate axes
the magnitude of a
‘
the magnitude of ——s
AB
the scalar product of a and b
axb the vector product of a and b
 List of symbols and notation 437

A’ the complement of the event A

P(A) probability of the event A
P(A|B) probability of the event A conditional on the event B
E(x) the mean (expectation, expected value) of the random variable ¥
AvY Rete. random variables
xy, 7;lc: values of the random variables X, Y, R, etc.
2.5
AE, eee observations
Ty eee frequencies with which the observations x1, x2,... occur
P(x) probability function P(Y = x) of the discrete random variable ¥
P1,P2,--- probabilities of the values x;,x2,... of the discrete random variable X
ise e(ae),2. the value of the probability density function of a continuous random variable
X
the value of the (cumulative) distribution function P(¥ < x) of a continuous
random variable ¥
variance of the random variable X
binomial distribution with parameters n and p
normal distribution with mean p and variance o”
population mean
population variance
population standard deviation
sample mean
unbiased estimate of population variance from a sample,

P= (x-3)
probability density function of the standardised normal variable with
distribution N(0, 1)
corresponding cumulative distribution function
regression coefficients
product-moment correlation coefficient for a population
product-moment correlation coefficient for a sample
not p

p implies q (if p then q)

p implies and is implied by q (p is equivalent to q)
 Index

adding algebraic fractions 18—20 curve sketching 318-39

algebraic fractions 15-21 curves with asymptotes 323-6
angle between a line and a plane 188-91
angle between two planes 191-3 data 45
approximate solution of equations 365—70 denominator 15
area of triangle 181 differential equations 305-10
area under a curve 292-5 differentiation 208-45
in parametric coordinates 300-1 chain rule 209-11
composite functions 208-11
bearings 183-6 implicit relations 240-3
binomial coefficients 134-140 parametric equations 244-5
binomial expression 132 products 212-14
binomial series 132-40 trigonometric functions 233-8
discrete variate 46
cartesian coordinates in 3D 198-204 disjoint sets 344
cartesian equation 319 disperson 63-4
census 47 distance between two points 201-4
chain rule 209-11 division
change of base of logs 80 of algebraic expressions 10-13
coefficients —equating 1—5 of algegraic fractions 17-18
combined events 352-7 double angle formulae 156-7 ~
common denominator 18
common line 191 empty set 344
complement of a set 346 equal sets 344
complementary events 354 equivalent fractions 18
composite functions 208 events 349
exponent 76
differentiating 209-11 exponentials 76-87
compound angle formulae 147—52 exponential growth and decay 83-7, 305-7
compound event 349, 350
conditional probability 357-60 factor theorem 3440
continuous variate 46 factorial r 138
convergence 371—5 first order differential equations 305-10
cosecant function 143 frequency density 53-4
graph 145 frequency distribution 49
cosine-rule 174-80
cotangent function 143 general solution of a differential equation 307-10
graph 146
cubic curves 321-2 half angle formulae 157
cumulative frequency distribution 54—5 histogram 50-3
cumulative frequency polygon 54—5
curves given parametrically 332 identity 1-8, 154-5, 279
 Index 439

implicit relations 240-3

population 46-7, 351
improper algebraic fraction 29
possibility space 349
independent events 355-6 probability 350-60
index 75 proper algebraic fraction 29
index equations 81-3
integration 276-310
quadratic curves 320-1
using identities 279-80
qualitative variate 46
by parts 286-8
quantitative variate 46
by substitution 281-4
quartiles 64
systematic approach 289-90
integrating standard functions 276-8
radioactive decay 83, 305
interquartile range 64-6
random sample 47
intersection of sets 346-8
range 64
IQR 64-6 raw data 49
iterative methods 365—75
reducing equations to linear form 90-103
related rates of change 218-19
law of natural growth or decay 83, 305 relative frequency 351
laws of logarithms 76-7 remainder theorem 34-40
line of best fit 90
linear graphs 90-103, 319
sample 47, 351
logarithms 76-83
sample space 349
to base e (In x) 77
sampling frame 47
to base 10(lgx) 77
sampling unit 47
lower quartile 64. 65, 66
secant function 143
lowest common multiple 18 va

graph 144
second and higher derivatives 219-20
mean 59-60, 63
sets 342-8
measures of central tendency 58 simple event 349
measures of dispersion 64-71 sine rule 165-71
measures of location 58 standard deviation 66-71
median 58, 61—2 stationary points 222-4
mid-point of line 314~7 subsets 344-5
mode 58-60
subtracting algebraic fractions 20
modulus function 326-31
multiplying algebraic fractions 15-17 tangents to curves 227
mutually exclusive events 354 tree diagram 359-60
trial 349
nature of stationary points 222 traingle
Newton’s law of cooling 84-7, 306 area 181
normals to curves 227 solving 179-2
numerator 15 trigonometric equations 161-3
trigonometric functions 143-6
operations on sets 346-8 differentiating 233-8
outcomes 349 integrating 279-80
trigonometry in 3D 188-93
parabola 320
parallel lines 224-5 union of sets 346-7
parametric equations 244, 332-9 universal set 345
partial fractions 22-32 upper quartile 64, 65, 66
Pascal’s triangular array 134
percentiles 64 variable 45-6
perpendicular lines 224, 226 variance 66—7, 69
points of inflexion 221-4 variate 45-6
polynomials 132 Venn diagrams 345-8
440 Index

volumes of revolution 295—302

using parametric coordinates 300-1

 HEINEMANN
MODULAR
MATHEMATICS
“LONDON
AS
AND
ALEVEL
Heinemann Modular Mathematics has been written by a Senior
Examining Team including London Chief Examiners, Assistant Chief
Examiners and Moderators to provide thorough Riaperstan for the
ULEAC examinations at AS and A-Level. t ¢

Heinemann
Modular
Mathematics
offers
coMpheaamiee
coverage
of
eachLondon
A-Level
module.

Pure Mathematics 2

This book offers idgke)

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Y detailed worked examples |
/ examination practice questions
/ review exercises

Titles in the series:

@P1 = Pure Mathematics 1 0 435 51807 0
™@P2 PureMathematics2 0435518089
@P3 PureMathematics3 0435518097
™P4 PureMathematics4 0435518100
M1 “Mechanics 1 0 435 51803 8
M2 ~= Mechanics 2 0 435 51804 6
“M3 ~~ Mechanics 3 0 435 51805 4
™ M4 Mechanics 4 0 435 51806 2
@T1 ~~ Statistics 1 0 435 518119
WT2 = Statistics 2 0 435 51812 7
@ D1 Decision Mathematics 0 435518135

ISBN 0-435-51808-9

218080
lu Cerbataveathatel
ISBN 0 435 51808 9