2 DIODE CIRCUITS

AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS

2.1 Diode Circuit Analysis

2.2 Rectifier Circuits
2.3 Clippers
2.4 Clampers
2.5 Zener Diodes
2.6 Power Supply Filters and Regulators
2.7 Voltage Multipliers

2.1 Diode Circuit Analysis

2.1.1 Load Line Analysis

The analysis of diode can be done using simple diode circuit as shown in Figure 2.1.
The circuit contains diode and applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) we
obtained,
VSS = IDR+ VD (2.1)

This equation can be solved using additional equation which can be obtained from
Load Line Analysis of diode.

Figure 2.1: Diode circuit

The diode IV characteristic curve and equation (2.1) is plotted in the same graph as
shown in Figure 2.2. When ID = 0, yields VD = Vss and marked as point A and when

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VD = 0, yields ID = Vss /R and marked as point B. Connecting this two points, A and
B, results a plot called load line. The intersection between load line and diode
characteristics is called the operating point.

Figure 2.2: Diode characteristic with load line

2.1.2 Diode Circuit Model Analysis

Diode circuit analysis that employs diode characteristics that utilizes the
approximate models (as stated in Chapter 1) is often used.

Example 1
Referring to Figure 2.3, determine the diode current ID and diode voltage VD using
the second approximation diode model if silicon diode is used.

Figure 2.3
Solution:
The diode is forward-biased by the source voltage E, using the 2nd approximation
model,
Voltage across the silicon diode is VD = VF = 0.7V.
The diode current will be determined using Ohm’s Law:

hence,

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Example 2
Referring to Figure 2.4, determine the diode current ID and diode voltage VD using
the second approximation diode model if germanium diode is used.
(3mA, 0.3V)

Figure 2.4

Example 3
Determine the diode current ID and the output voltage Vo for the circuit in Figure 2.5:
(15mA, 15V)

Figure 2.5

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2.2 Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier circuits are used to convert AC to DC. The 3 basic rectifier circuits are:
half-wave rectifier, center-tapped full-wave rectifier, and full-wave bridge rectifier.

2.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier

In a half-wave rectifier, an ac source is connected to a diode and a load resistor, RL
as shown in Figure 2.6 (a).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.6: Half-wave Rectifier; (a) circuit; (b) output voltage

When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased
and conduct current through the load resistor (RL). The current produces output
voltage across RL which has the same shape as the positive input voltage as shown in
Figure 2.6(b) for time t1 to t2.

When the input voltage goes negative, there will be no current flow. The voltage
across the load resistor RL is zero. The output voltage for the second cycle is shown
in Figure 2.6 for time t 2 to t3. The net result of half-wave rectifier is only the positive
half-cycle of the ac input voltage appear across the load resistor. The output for four
cycles is shown in Figure 2.6(b).

The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value measured on
a dc voltmeter. Mathematically it is determined by finding the area under the curve
over a full cycle and divided by 2, the number of radian in full cycle as shown in
Figure 2.7.

(2.2)

Figure 2.7: Average value of half-wave rectified signal

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The average voltage of half-wave rectifier is illustrated in equation 2.2 where VP is
the peak voltage. This equation shows the VAVG is approximately 31.8% of VP for
half-wave rectified voltage.
The Barrier Potential (Si = 0.7V, Ge = 0.3V) will have an effect on the half-wave
rectifier. During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the Barrier
Potential before the diode become forward-biased. The expression for the peak
value is;

A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage from the source to the
rectifier. Figure 2.8 shows a half wave rectifier with transformer-coupled input
voltage.
Transformer coupling provides 2 advantages;

i. It allows the source to be stepped up or stepped down as needed.

ii. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a
shock hazard in the secondary circuit.

Figure 2.8: Half wave rectifier with transformer-coupled input voltage

o Npri and Nsec are the number of turns of the transformer primary and
secondary windings respectively. The turns ratio is the ratio between Npri and
Nsec .
o The output voltage is given by;

if Npri = Nsec thus;

Vp(out) = V(sec) or
Vp(out) = V(sec) – 0.7V (for Silicon diode)

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Example 4
Determine the peak value of the output voltage for Figure 2.9 if the turns ratio is 2:1.

Figure 2.9
Circuit analysis;
Vp(pri) = Vp(in) = 156V

The peak secondary voltage is:

Vp(sec) = ½ Vp(pri) = 0.5(156V) = 78V

The rectified peak output voltage is

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) – 0.7V = 78V – 0.7V = 77.3V

where Vp(sec) is the input of rectifier

2.2.2 Centre-tapped Full-wave Rectifier

A centre-tapped rectifier is a full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to
the secondary centre-tapped transformer. For a positive half-cycle of the input
voltage, the polarity of the secondary voltage is as shown in Figure 2.10. The input
voltage is coupled through the transformer to the centre-tapped secondary. Half of
the total secondary voltage appears between the centre tap and each end of the
secondary winding as shown in Figure 2.10(a).

(a)

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 (b)

(c)
Figure 2.10: Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier; (a) Circuit; (b) Positive half-cycle;
(c) Negative half-cycle

For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the secondary voltages
are shown in Figure 2.10(b). This condition will forward-bias the diode D 1 and
reverse-bias the diode D2. The current will flow to R L through D1. Hence, the output
will be the same as the half-cycle of the input voltage.

For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage polarities on the secondary
are shown in Figure 2.10(b). The condition will reverse-bias the diode D 1 and
forward-bias the diode D2. The current will flow to RL through D2.

The turn ratio of the transformer will have an effect to the output voltage. If the
transformer’s turn ratio is equal to 1, the peak value of rectified output voltage is
equal to half of the peak value of input voltage minus the potential barrier.

In order to get output voltage with peak equal to input peak minus the potential
barrier, a step-up transformer with turn ratio equal to 2 must be used.

2.2.3 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

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The bridge rectifier circuit uses four diodes connected as shown in Figure 2.11(a).
When the input cycle is positive, diodes D2 and D3 are forward-biased while diodes
D1 and D4 are reverse-biased. The current path is shown in Figure 2.11(b). The
output voltage obtained across RL will be the same as the positive half input cycle.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.11: The bridge full-wave rectifier; (a) Circuit (b) Positive half-cycle;
(c) Negative half-cycle

When the input cycle is negative, diode D 1 and D4 are forward-biased while diodes
D2 and D3 are reverse-biased. The direction of current is shown in Figure 2.11(c) to
the RL. A full-wave rectified output voltage will be obtained across RL.

During the positive half-cycle and negative half-cycle, two diodes will always in
series with the load resistor. If these diodes are taken into account, the output
voltage is

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

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The PIV of a diode is the peak voltage across the diode when it is reversed bias. The
PIV rating of a diode is the maximum PIV that the diode is able to withstand when it
is reversed biased.

Summary for Rectifier Circuits:

Rectifier Ideal VDC Realistic VDC PIV
Half Wave Rectifier VDC = 0.318(Vp) VDC = 0.318 [Vp – 0.7] Vp

Bridge Rectifier VDC = 0.636(Vp) VDC = 0.636 [Vp – 2(0.7)] Vp

Center-Tapped 2Vp
VDC = 0.636(Vp) VDC = 0.636 [Vp – 0.7]
Transformer Rectifier

2.3 Clippers
Diodes may be used as clippers or limiters. Figure 2.12 shows a series clipper
circuit. The diode ‘clips’ any voltage that does not forward bias it, that is when it is
reversed biased or the forward biased polarity is less than 0.7 V for a silicon diode.

Figure 2.12: Series Clipper Circuit

Figure 2.13 shows a parallel clipper circuit that ‘clips’ any voltages that forward
biased it.

Figure 2.13: Parallel Clipper Circuit

Figure 2.14 shows a clipper circuit with load RL. The circuit will clip the positive
part of the input voltage.

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 (a) Limiting the positive alternation

(b) Limiting the negative alternation

Figure 2.14: Clipper circuit with load RL

As the input goes positive, the diode becomes forward-biased and conducts current.
Point A is limited to +0.7V when the input voltage exceeds this value. When the
input voltage goes back to 0.7V, the diode is reverse-biased and appears as an open
circuit. The output voltage looks like the negative part of the input voltage, with
magnitude determined by the voltage divider formed by R1 and the load resistor RL.

When the diode is turned around as shown in Figure 2.14(b), the negative part of the
input voltage is clipped off. The diode is forward-biased during the negative part of
the input voltage. Point A is held at -0.7V by the diode drop. When the input voltage
goes above -0.7V, the diode is no longer forward-biased and the output voltage
across load resistor RL is proportional to the input voltage.

DC biasing can be added in series with the clipping diode to change the clipping
level as it changes the effective forward bias of the diode. Figure 2.15 shows a
biased clipper circuit. Figure 2.15 shows biased parallel clipper circuits and their
output waveforms assuming that ideal diodes are used.

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Figure 2.15: Biased Parallel Clipper Circuits

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2. 4 Clampers
Clampers are used to clamp a signal to a different dc level without any change in the
shape of the signal. They are also called dc restorers. A diode together with a
capacitor can be used to ‘clamp’ an AC voltage to a specific DC level.

(i) Square wave input

Figure 2.16: Clamper circuit with square wave input and its output waveform

(ii) Sinusoidal Input

Figure 2.17(a) shows the diode clamper circuit that inserts a positive dc level in the
output waveform. When the input voltage goes negative, the diode is forward-
biased. This allows the capacitor to charge near the peak of the input (
). Just after the negative peak, the diode is reverse-biased. This is because the
cathode is held near by the charge of capacitor. The capacitor can
only discharge through the high resistance of RL. So, from the peak of one negative
half-cycle to the next, the capacitor discharges very little depending on the value of
RL.

(a) Positive clamper

(b) Negative clamper

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Figure 2.17: Clamper circuits with sinusoidal input

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(iii) Biased Clamper Circuits
When a voltage source is added in series with the diode, it a biased clamper circuit
as shown in Figure 2.18.

Figure 2.18: Biased Clamper Circuit

Summary of Clamper Circuits

Figure 2.19: Clamper Circuits

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2.5 Zener Diode
The symbol for a zener diode is shown in Figure 2.20. The symbol of zener diode is
a bit different from the ordinary diode. A zener diode is a p-n junction device which
is designed for a specific reverse breakdown voltage. The reverse breakdown
voltage for a zener diode is much smaller than the regular diode and referred as the
nominal zener voltage VZ. The breakdown voltage level VZ is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture.

Figure 2.20: Symbol of zener diode

Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse

breakdown in a zener diode are the avalanche effect and zener effect.

Zener effect: high reverse voltages can provide electrons enough energy to “jump”
from valence band to conduction band, thus creating free electrons. Hence, the diode
conducts a high current under reverse bias.

Avalanche effect: Minority carriers in the depletion region are strongly accelerated
by the electric field, thus creating electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. The
increase of free carriers increases the current, which provides more carriers to create
impact ionization.

Figure 2.21: IV characteristic of zener diode

Referring from the zener diode IV characteristic, when reverse voltage VR is

increased, the reverse current IR remain extremely small up to the ‘knee’ of the
curve. The reverse current is also called zener current IZ. At this point, the
breakdown effect begins. The internal zener resistance (also called zener impedance
ZZ) begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the
knee, the zener breakdown voltage VZ remains essentially constant as zener current
IZ increases as shown in Figure 2.21.

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The ideal model of zener diode in reverse breakdown and the ideal characteristic
curve is shown in Figure 2.22. It has constant voltage drop equal to the nominal
zener voltage. This constant voltage drop across the zener diode produced by reverse
breakdown is represented by a dc voltage symbol even though the zener diode does
not produce a voltage. The Zener model to be employed for the “on” and “off” state
are shown below.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.22: Reversed biased Ideal zener diode (a) model; (b) characteristic curve

2.4.1 Application of Zener Diode

Zener diodes are used in voltage regulator circuits as well as clipper circuits. Figure
2.23 shows a zener diode clipper circuit.
At forward biased condition, the voltage across Zener will follow the diode voltage
(e.g. Silicon = 0.7V). At reverse biased condition, the voltage across Zener is equal
to its Zener voltage.

Figure 2.23: Zener Diode Clipper

Circuit analysis
For positive cycle;
Diode-reverse biased
VO = VZ = 5V

For negative cycle;

Diode-forward biased
VO = -0.7 V

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2.6 Power Supply Filter and Regulator
Rectifiers are used in DC power Supply to convert mains AC power to DC power.
However, the output from rectifier circuits is a pulsating DC (not constant), thus
power supply filters and voltage regulators are required to produce a
constant/regulated DC voltage. Figure 2.24 shows the block diagram of a simple DC
power supply.

Figure 2.24: Block Diagram of a Simple DC power Supply

Function for each stage:

i. Transformer - convert the voltage from the wall outlet (AC voltage) to a
lower voltage.
ii. Rectifier - change the AC voltage to DC voltage
iii. Filter - smooth out the voltage ripple that is left after the rectification.
iv. Voltage Regulator – provide a constant DC output voltage that is
essentially independent of the input voltage, output load current and
temperature.
v. Load is the part of the circuit to which the DC power is delivered to
perform useful operation.

2.6.1 Capacitor Filter

A power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the output voltage of a
half-wave or full-wave rectifier and produces a constant – level dc voltage. Filtering
is necessary because electronic circuits require a constant dc voltage and current to
provide power and biasing for proper operation.
A very popular power supply filter is the capacitor filter (Figure 2.25). A capacitor is
connected at the rectifier output and dc voltage with small ripple content will be
obtained across the capacitor.

AC Rectifier DC
input Circuit Load
(RL)

Output of rectifier circuit Capacitor

filter
Figure 2.25: Simple capacitor filter

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 (a) without filter (b) with filter
Figure 2.26: Capacitor filter operation: (a) full wave rectifier voltage
(b) filtered output voltage

Figure 2.27: Approximate output voltage of capacitor filter circuit

Figure 2.27 shows the output waveform from a capacitor filter where V DC is a dc or
average value and Vr (p-p) is the peak-peak ripple voltage. The ripple content is the
result of the charging and discharging cycle of the capacitor.

The peak-peak ripple voltage is given as

where Idc = dc load current

fo = ripple frequency (Note fo = 2fin for full wave rectifier output)
C = capacitance
and the peak ripple voltage is
where Vr(rms) is the rms value of ripple voltage

The DC current is:

DC Voltage, VDC :

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Example 5
Assuming that C = 1000µF, determine the output ripple, V r(p-p) and average value of
Vo for the full wave bridge circuit in Figure 2.28. The load current is 0.1A. Use
second approximation model for diode.
(Ans. : Vr(p-p) = 1V, 15.07V)

Figure 2.28

Solution:

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2.6.2 Zener diode Voltage Regulator
Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator for providing stable constant
reference voltages. Figure 2.29 show a Zener Diode Voltage Regulator.

Figure 2.29: Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

The analysis of the Zener diode Voltage Regulator can be broken down into two
steps:
Step 1
Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and
calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.

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 V=
If V > VZ, Zener diode is ON, VL = Vz
If V < VZ, Zener diode is OFF, VL =V

Step 2
Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns.

(a) Zener diode ON : diode acts as a battery

Voltage across the Zener is VZ ;

VL = VZ
Zener current: IZ = IR – IRL
Load current, IRL =
The total current flow in R is:

Zener diode Power: PZ = VZIZ

(b) Zener diode OFF: diode acts as an open circuit

Example 6
(a) For the Zener diode network in Figure 2.30, determine VL, VR, IZ and PZ.
(Ans: 8.73V, 7.27V, 0)
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 kΩ.
(Ans:10V, 6V, 2.67mA, 26.7mW)

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 Figure 2.30

Solution:

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2.6.3 A Simple DC Power Supply

Figure 2.31: A Simple DC Power Supply

Example 7
For the DC power supply circuit shown on Figure 2.31, determine V out, the value of the
ripple voltage at the filter output, and Rs. Assume that RL = 100 Ω , Vz = 5 V and
Iz = 20 mA. Assume the forward voltage drop of diode is 0.7 V.
(Ans: 5V, 0.212V, 149 Ω)

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2.7 Voltage Multipliers
One of the applications of diode is voltage multiplier. Voltage multiplier circuits use a
combination of diodes and capacitors to step up the output voltage of rectifier circuits.
The three types of voltage multipliers are:
 Voltage Doubler
 Voltage Tripler
 Voltage Quadrupler

(a) Voltage Doubler

Figure 2.32: The voltage doubler circuit

o This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm
where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer

Example 8

Circuit analysis;
Positive Half-Cycle
 D1 conducts
 D2 is switched off
 Capacitor C1 charges to Vm
Negative Half-Cycle
 D1 is switched off
 D2 conducts
 Capacitor C2 charges to 2Vm

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

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(c) Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler

Figure 2.33: The voltage tripler and quadrupler circuit

Operation
Positive Half cycle of input:
D1 ON  C1 charges to Vm

Negative Half cycle of input:

D1 OFF, D2 ON  C2 charges to 2Vm

Positive Half cycle of input:

D3 ON  Voltage in C2 charges C3 to 2Vm

Negative Half cycle of input:

D2 and D4 conducts  C3 charges C4 to 2Vm

Voltage across C2 is 2Vm

C1 & C3 is 3Vm
C2 & C4 is 4Vm

Transformer rating = Vm
PIV for each diode = 2Vm.

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TUTORIAL 2

1. Using the 2nd Approximation, determine the values of VD1 , VR1 , and IT for the
circuit in Figure Q1. (0.7 V, 0.3 V, 3 mA)
D1

R1
1V
100

Figure Q1

2. In Figure Q2, calculate the load current, load voltage, load power, diode power,
and total power if the diode is ideal.

20 V 1 k

Figure Q2

3. Calculate the load current, load voltage, load power, diode power, and total
power if the diode in Figure Q2 is a practical diode (2nd Approximation).

4. In Figure Q4, calculate the load current, load voltage, load power, diode power,
and total power if the diode’s bulk resistance (RB) is 0.23 . (silicon diode )

470 

15 V

Figure Q4

5. Using the ideal diode model, determine the voltage drop across each of the
components in Figure Q5.
1.5 k 1.8 k
R1 R2

D1 10 V
D2

Figure Q5

6. Using the 2nd Approximation, determine the values of VD1 , VR1 , I1 , VD2,, VR2 ,
and I2 for the circuit in Figure Q5.
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7. For the circuit in Figure Q7, determine if the diode is assumed to be ideal:
(a) The peak load voltage
(b) The average (dc) load voltage
(16.97V, 5.4V)

Figure Q7

8. For the circuit in Figure Q8, determine the values of VL(pk), Vave, and PIV if the
diode is assumed to be ideal:
(12.73V, 8.1V, 25.46V)

Figure Q8

9. A bridge rectifier with a 1.2 kΩ load is driven by a 48 Vac transformer. Draw

the schematic for the circuit and calculate the dc load voltage and current
values. Determine the PIV of each diode in the circuit.

10. For the circuit in Figure Q10, determine:

(a) the total circuit current when the zener diode is ON.
(b) the value of IL for RL = 2 kΩ
(c) the value of IL for RL = 3 kΩ
(d) the minimum allowable value of RL
(13.33mA, 3mA, 2mA)

Figure Q10

11. For the circuit shown in Figure Q11:

(a) Determine the minimum value of RL to ensure that the Zener diode is in

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 the “on” state.
(b) Determine the value of RL that will establish maximum power conditions
for the Zener diode.

Figure Q11
(304.6 Ω, 1.98 kΩ)

12. Plot the output voltage, V0(t) and the diode voltage, Vd(t) for each of the circuits
in Figure Q12 if the input voltage is Vi.

Figure Q12
13. Determine νo for each network shown in Figure Q13 for the given input signal.

Figure Q13

14. A simple DC power supply consists of a centre-tapped transformer with turns

ratio 10:1, a two-diode full-wave rectifier, and a capacitor as a filter. This power
supply load current varies from 100 mA to 500 mA. The ac mains input supply is
240V at 50 Hz. Assume that the diode forward voltage = 0.7 V.
(a)Draw and label completely this DC power supply circuit.
(b) Determine:
(i) The peak output voltage from the filter.
(ii) The filter capacitor value so that the peak ripple voltage from the
filter is 1 V at maximum load current.

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