Linear DEs of the 𝒏𝒏 Order

𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒉

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

where 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑎𝑎0(𝑥𝑥), 𝑎𝑎1(𝑥𝑥), … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥) are functions of 𝑥𝑥 or constants, and

𝑎𝑎0(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0.

The 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ order linear differential equation is considered normal on an

interval (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) if the functions 𝑎𝑎0, 𝑎𝑎1, … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛, and 𝑓𝑓 are continuous on (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏)
and the function 𝑎𝑎0 has no zeroes on (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏).

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

2
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Homogeneous
A higher order linear differential equation is considered homogeneous
if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

3
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Homogeneous
Examples:

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+4 + 4𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑3 𝑥𝑥
5𝑡𝑡 3 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

4
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Non-Homogeneous
A higher order linear differential equation is considered non-
homogeneous if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 ≠ 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

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Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Non-Homogeneous
Examples:

𝑑𝑑3 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3
− 2+ + 3𝑦𝑦 = 5 cos 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
− 2 − 3𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+4 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 10 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

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Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 General Solution of a Homogeneous DE
Theorem 1:
Let {𝑦𝑦1, 𝑦𝑦2, 𝑦𝑦3, … , 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦} be a linearly independent set of solutions to the
homogenous equation

𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

for all values of 𝑥𝑥 on the interval 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏, and that the given
equation is normal on the same interval.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

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Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 General Solution of a Homogeneous DE
Theorem 1:
If 𝜙𝜙 is any solution to the given differential equation valid on the
interval 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏, there exists a set of constants 𝐶𝐶1′, 𝐶𝐶2′, 𝐶𝐶3′, … , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶′ such
that

𝜙𝜙 = 𝐶𝐶1′ 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐶𝐶2′ 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝐶𝐶3′ 𝑦𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛′ 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑐3 𝑦𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛

where 𝑐𝑐1 , 𝑐𝑐2 , 𝑐𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 are arbitrary constants.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

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Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 General Solution of a Non-Homogeneous DE
For a non-homogeneous 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ order linear equation
𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
+ ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

the general solution 𝑦𝑦 is given as 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒚𝒚𝒄𝒄 + 𝒚𝒚𝒑𝒑

𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 is the solution to the homogeneous equation that corresponds to
the given non-homogeneous DE, that is, when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0, also known as the
complementary function or the homogeneous solution, and
𝑦𝑦𝑝𝑝 is the particular solution, also known as the non-homogeneous
solution.
ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay
9
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Linear Dependence and Independence
Theorem 2:
Given the functions 𝑓𝑓1, 𝑓𝑓2, 𝑓𝑓3, …, 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛, if a set of non-zero constants
𝑐𝑐1, 𝑐𝑐2, 𝑐𝑐3, … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 exists such that 𝑐𝑐1𝑓𝑓1(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐2𝑓𝑓2(𝑥𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥) = 0 for all
values of 𝑥𝑥 for some interval 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏, then the functions are said to be
linearly dependent on the given interval.

Otherwise, if the constants are equal to zero, 𝑐𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑐2 = 𝑐𝑐3 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
0, then the functions are linearly independent.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

10
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Linear Dependence
If the functions of a set are linearly dependent, at least one of them is a
linear combination of the other.
3 2
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥 2 ,
𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 2𝑥𝑥 2
2
For example, these three functions are linearly dependent, since the second
and third functions 𝑦𝑦2 and 𝑦𝑦3 are just linear combinations of the first function
𝑦𝑦1 .
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦2 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥
These three are also linearly dependent, since we can write the third function
𝑦𝑦3 as a linear variation of the first two functions, that is, 3𝑦𝑦1 + 2𝑦𝑦2 .

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

11
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Linear Independence
If the functions of a set are linearly independent, none of them is a linear
combination of the other.

𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦2 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 𝑥𝑥 3

For example, these three functions are linearly independent, none of the
functions are linear combinations of the other.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

12
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Wronskian Determinant
Given 𝑐𝑐1 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑓𝑓2 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 0 , and the functions
𝑓𝑓1 , 𝑓𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 are differentiable at least (𝑛𝑛 − 1) times in the interval 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏,
then if we take the derivative of

𝑐𝑐1 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑓𝑓2 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 0

we get
𝑐𝑐1 𝑓𝑓1 ′ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑓𝑓2 ′ 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 0
…
𝑐𝑐1 𝑓𝑓1𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑓𝑓2𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 = 0

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

13
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Wronskian Determinant
The determinant of that system of equations for any fixed value of 𝑥𝑥 in
the interval 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 is given by

𝑓𝑓1 (𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓2 (𝑥𝑥) … 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥)

𝑓𝑓1′ (𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓2′ (𝑥𝑥) … 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑓𝑓1𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓2𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑥) … 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑥)

If 𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0 for some 𝑥𝑥0 on this interval, then 𝑐𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑐2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 = 0, thus,
the functions 𝑓𝑓1 , 𝑓𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 are linearly independent on the given interval.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

14
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 1

2
3 2
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 2𝑥𝑥 2
2

3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 2
𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 =

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

15
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 1

2
3 2
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 2𝑥𝑥 2
2

3 2 3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 2
𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

16
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 1

2
3 2
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 2𝑥𝑥 2
2

3 2 3 2 3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 2
𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
2 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥
2 3 4

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

17
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 1

3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 2
2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥
2 3 4

𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 4
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 =
2
3 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2
2
2
3 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥 3
2
ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay
18
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 1

3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 2
2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥
2 3 4
2
3 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 3𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2
2
3 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 3𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 4𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2
2
3 2 3 2
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 3𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 4𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 𝟎𝟎
2 2

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

19
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 2

𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥

The first row of the matrix will contain the three given functions:
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 4𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 9𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥

The second row will contain the first derivatives, and the third will contain the
second derivatives.

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

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Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Example 2

𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 4𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 9𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 9𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 4𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥
− 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + (9𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 )(𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 )(𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 )

𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 = 18𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 + 12𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 + 9𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥
= 25𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 − 23𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝟎𝟎

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

21
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation
 Exercise
Find the Wronskian to determine if the following sets contain linearly
independent functions:

Set 1:
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 4 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 𝑥𝑥

Set 2:
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑦𝑦3 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers | Engr. Zephaniah G. Silabay

22
Unit 4 – Higher Order Linear Differential Equation