Mataria Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical Power Department

POWER STATION
CHAPTER [2]
THERMAL STEAM POWER CYCLE

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed A. A. Nawar Dr. Eng. Ahmed T. M. Kotb

Mechanical Power Engineering Department Mechanical Power Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering-Mattaria Faculty of Engineering-Mattaria
Helwan University Helwan University

Cairo 2024
PLEASE
 Lecture Outlines
1. Carnot cycle
• Carnot vapor cycle processes.
• Limitations of Carnot cycle.
2. Rankine cycle
• Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle.
• Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones.
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
• The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.
• The concept of infinite reheat processes.
• How to select reheat points from different points of view.
• Advantages and disadvantages of the reheat Rankine Cycle.
• The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
• The regenerative Rankine cycle
• The binary Rankine cycle
• Thermosyphon Rankine power plant
1- Carnot cycle
• Since no power cycle can have a thermal efficiency of 100%, it is of
interest to investigate the maximum theoretical efficiency.

• Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified
temperature limits.

• A Carnot engine is a reversible heat engine that operates between a high-

temperature heat source at TH and a low-temperature heat sink at TL .
The thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is simply (𝜼𝑻 )Carnot = 1 – (TL /
TH).

• The “concept” of a Carnot engine is important because it turns out that no

other heat engine can have a thermal efficiency higher than that of a
Carnot engine operating between the same two temperature limits.
1- Carnot cycle
• So, the value of the Carnot engine is only as a benchmark with which to
compare the thermal efficiencies of other actual operating heat engines.

• The Carnot cycle has become the universal standard by which the
performance of other heat engine cycles can be measured.

• It is natural to look at the Carnot cycle first as a prospective ideal cycle

for vapor power plants.

• If we could, we would certainly adopt it as the ideal cycle. As explained

below, however, the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for power
cycles. Throughout the discussions, we assume steam to be the working
fluid since it is the working fluid predominantly used in vapor power
cycles.
1- Carnot cycle
Carnot vapor cycle processes
• Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle executed within the saturation dome of a
pure substance. The four processes of the cycle are:
• (1) Process 1–2: The fluid is heated reversibly and isothermally in a boiler,
where the temperature is TH.
• (2) Process 2–3: The fluid is expanded isentropically in a turbine.
• (3) Process 3–4: The fluid is condensed reversibly and isothermally in a
condenser, where the temperature is TL.
• (4) Process 4–1: The fluid is compressed isentropically by a pump to the initial
state.
1- Carnot cycle
Limitations of Carnot cycle
• Several impracticalities are associated with this cycle as follows: 1-
Isothermal heat transfer
• Isothermal heat transfer to or from a two-phase system is not difficult to
achieve in practice since maintaining a constant pressure in the device
automatically fixes the temperature at the saturation value.

• Therefore, processes 1-2 and 3-4 can be approached closely in actual boilers
and condensers.

• However, limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems

severely limits the maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (it
has to remain under the critical point value, which is 374°C for water).

• Limiting the maximum temperature in the cycle also limits the thermal
efficiency. Any attempt to raise the maximum temperature in the cycle
involves heat transfer to the working fluid in a single phase, which is not
easy to accomplish isothermally.
1- Carnot cycle
Limitations of Carnot cycle
• Several impracticalities are associated with this cycle as follows: 2- The
isentropic expansion process (process 2-3)
• The isentropic expansion process (process 2-3) can be approximated closely
by a well-designed turbine.

• However, the quality of the steam decreases during this process.

• Thus, the turbine must handle steam with low quality, that is, steam with a
high moisture content.

• The impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causes erosion

and is a major source of wear.

• Thus, steam with qualities less than about 90 percent cannot be tolerated in
the operation of power plants.

• This problem could be eliminated by using a working fluid with a very

steep saturated vapor line.
1- Carnot cycle
Limitations of Carnot cycle
• Several impracticalities are associated with this cycle as follows: 3- The
isentropic compression process (process 4-1)
• The isentropic compression process (process 4-1) involves the compression
of a liquid–vapor mixture to a saturated liquid.

• There are two difficulties associated with this process. First, it is not easy to
control the condensation process so precisely as to end up with the desired
quality at state 4.

• Second, it is not practical to design a pump that handles two phases.

1- Carnot cycle
Limitations of Carnot cycle
• Some of these problems could be eliminated by executing the Carnot cycle
in a different way (the following Figure).
• This cycle, however, presents other problems such as isentropic
compression to extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at
variable pressures.
• Thus, we conclude that the Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in actual
devices and is not a realistic model for vapor power cycles.
2- Rankine cycle
• Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be
eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser, as shown schematically on a T-s diagram in
Following Figure.
• The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for
vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes.
2- Rankine cycle
• (1) Process 1–2: Isentropic compression in a pump. Where, water enters
the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to
the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases
somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to a slight
decrease in the specific volume of water. The vertical distance between
states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
2- Rankine cycle
• (2) Process 2–3: Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler. Where, water
enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated
vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat
originating from combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is
transferred to the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler, together
with the section where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often
called the steam generator.
2- Rankine cycle
(3) Process 3–4: Isentropic expansion in a turbine. Where, The superheated
vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and
produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The
pressure and the temperature of steam drop during this process to the values at
state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam is usually a
saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality.
2- Rankine cycle
(4) Process 4–1: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser. Where, Steam is
condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat
exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the
atmosphere. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump,
completing the cycle. In areas where water is precious, the power plants are cooled
by air instead of water. This method of cooling, which is also used in car engines,
is called dry cooling.
2- Rankine cycle
• Note that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the
heat transfer for internally reversible processes, we see that the area under
process curve 2-3 represents the heat transferred to the water in the boiler and
the area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat rejected in the
condenser. The difference between these two (the area enclosed by the cycle
curve) is the net work produced during the cycle.
2- Rankine cycle
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle

• All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine,
and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes.

• The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative
to the work and heat transfer terms and are therefore usually neglected.

• The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump and the
turbine are assumed to be isentropic. Then the conservation of energy relation
for each device can be expressed as follows:

• For pump: 𝒘𝒊𝒏,𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝑜𝑟 𝒘𝒊𝒏,𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝝑 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏

• For boiler: 𝒒𝒊𝒏,𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟐

2- Rankine cycle
Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle
• For turbine: 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒
• For condenser: 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒉𝟒 − 𝒉𝟏
𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕
• The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from: η𝒕𝒉 = =
𝒒𝒊𝒏
𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝟏− .
𝒒𝒊𝒏

• 𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒘𝒊𝒏

• Another parameter used to describe power plant performance is the back work
ratio, or BWR, defined as the ratio of the pump work input to the work
𝒉 −𝒉
developed by the turbine = 𝟐 𝟏.
𝒉𝟑 −𝒉𝟒

• The conversion efficiency of power plants in the United States is often expressed
in terms of heat rate, which is the amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s, to generate 1
kWh of electricity. The smaller the heat rate, the greater the efficiency.
Considering that 1 kWh = 3412 Btu, the relation between the heat rate and the
𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟐
thermal efficiency can be expressed as: .
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
2- Rankine cycle
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
• Despite of all vapor cycle heat engines operate on the Rankine cycle, and using
the Carnot cycle for engineering comparison purposes is purely academic, A
more realistic comparison would be between the isentropic Rankine cycle and
the actual Rankine cycle.
• The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as
illustrated in Following Figure, because of irreversibilities in various
components.
• Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of
irreversibilities.
2- Rankine cycle
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones

• Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping
between various components.

• As a result, steam leaves the boiler at a somewhat lower pressure. Also, the
pressure at the turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that at the boiler exit due to
the pressure drop in the connecting pipes.

• The pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate for
these pressure drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher
pressure than the ideal cycle calls for. This requires a larger pump and larger
work input to the pump.
2- Rankine cycle
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones

• The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the
surroundings as the steam flows through various components. To maintain the
same level of net work output, more heat needs to be transferred to the steam
in the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat losses. As a result, cycle
efficiency decreases.

• Of particular importance are the irreversibilities occurring within the pump and
the turbine. A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a
smaller work output because of irreversibilities.

• Under ideal conditions, the flow through these devices is isentropic. The
deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be
accounted for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies.
2- Rankine cycle
Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
• The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be
accounted for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies, defined as
𝒉𝟐𝒔 −𝒉𝟏
• η𝑷 = − 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑
𝒉𝟐𝒂 −𝒉𝟏
𝒉𝟑 −𝒉𝟒𝒂
• η𝑻 = − 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝒉𝟑 −𝒉𝟒𝒔

• Other factors also need to be considered in the analysis of actual vapor power cycles. In
actual condensers, for example, the liquid is usually subcooled to prevent the onset of
cavitation, the rapid vaporization and condensation of the fluid at the low-pressure side
of the pump impeller, which may damage it.

• Additional losses occur at the bearings between the moving parts because of friction.

• Steam that leaks out during the cycle and air that leaks into the condenser represent two
other sources of loss. Finally, the power consumed by the auxiliary equipment such as
fans that supply air to the furnace should also be considered in evaluating the overall
performance of power plants.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?

• Steam power plants are responsible for the production of most electric power
in the world, and even small increases in thermal efficiency can mean large
savings from the fuel requirements.

• The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of
a power cycle is the same:

• Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the

working fluid in the boiler or decrease the average temperature at which
heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

• That is, the average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during
heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
1- Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
• Therefore, lowering the operating pressure of the condenser automatically lowers
the temperature of the steam, and thus the temperature at which heat is rejected.
• For comparison purposes, the turbine inlet state is maintained the same.
• The colored area on this diagram represents the increase in net work output because
of lowering the condenser pressure from 𝑃4 to 𝑃4′ . The heat input requirements also
increase (represented by the area under curve 2'-2), but this increase is very small.
Thus, the overall effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
1- Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
• To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers of
steam power plants usually operate well below the atmospheric pressure.

• This does not present a major problem since the vapor power cycles operate in a
closed loop. However, there is a lower limit on the condenser pressure that can be
used.

• It cannot be lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the

temperature of the cooling medium.

• Consider, for example, a condenser that is to be cooled by a nearby river at 15°C.

Allowing a temperature difference of 10°C for effective heat transfer, the steam
temperature in the condenser must be above 25°C; thus, the condenser pressure must
be above 5.2 kPa, which is the saturation pressure at 25°C.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
1- Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
• Lowering the condenser pressure is not without any side effects, however. For
one thing, it creates the possibility of air leakage into the condenser. More
importantly, it increases the moisture content of the steam at the final stages of
the turbine. The presence of large quantities of moisture is highly undesirable in
turbines because it decreases the turbine efficiency and erodes the turbine blades.

• Summary: Qadd : increase - Qrej : decrease – Condenser size: decrease –

Dryness fraction : decrease – Efficiency : increase – Work : increase
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
2- Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
• The average temperature at which heat is transferred to steam can be
increased without increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to
high temperatures.
• The effect of superheating on the performance of vapor power cycles is
illustrated on a T-s diagram in Following Figure. The colored area on this
diagram represents the increase in the net work.
• The total area under the process curve 3-3' represents the increase in the heat
input.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
2- Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
• Thus, both the net work and heat input increase because of superheating the
steam to a higher temperature.
• The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since the average
temperature at which heat is added increases.
• Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable effect:
It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit, as can be seen
from the T-s diagram (the quality at state 4' is higher than that at state 4).
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
2- Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

• The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited, however, by

metallurgical considerations.

• Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine inlet is about
620°C (1150°F).

• Any increase in this value depends on improving the present materials or

finding new ones that can withstand higher temperatures. Ceramics are very
promising in this regard.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
2- Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

• The degree of superheat is defined to be the difference between the actual

superheated vapor temperature and the saturation temperature at the pressure
of the superheated vapor

• Summary: Qadd : increase - Qrej : increase – Condenser size: increase –

Dryness fraction : increase – Pipe and boiler initial cost : increase –
Efficiency : increase – Work : increase
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
3- Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• Another way of increasing the average temperature during the heat-addition
process is to increase the operating pressure of the boiler, which automatically
raises the temperature at which boiling takes place.

• This, in turn, raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the
steam and thus raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
3- Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of vapor power
cycles is illustrated on a T-s diagram in Following Figure. Notice that for a fixed
turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content of
steam at the turbine exit increases.

• This undesirable side effect can be corrected, however, by reheating the steam,
as discussed in the next section.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
3- Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• Today many modern steam power plants operate at supercritical pressures (P >
22.06 MPa) and have thermal efficiencies of about 40 percent for fossil-fuel
plants and 34 percent for nuclear plants.

• The lower efficiencies of nuclear power plants are due to the lower maximum
temperatures used in those plants for safety reasons. The T-s diagram of a
supercritical Rankine cycle is shown in Following Figure.
2- Rankine cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
3- Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• Regarding the effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the work produced in
the beginning, the work increases due to the increase in added heat and the
decrease in rejected heat. As we continue to increase the boiler pressure, the
added heat decreases, as does the rejected heat which leads to a decrease in
the work produced.

• Summary: Qrej : decrease – Condenser size: decrease – Dryness fraction :

decrease – Pipe and boiler initial cost : increase - Efficiency : increase
2- Rankine cycle
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• A further modification normally employed in vapor power plants is reheat.
With reheat, a power plant can take advantage of the increased efficiency that
results from higher boiler pressures and yet avoid low-quality steam at the
turbine exhaust.

• In the ideal reheat cycle shown in Following Figure, the steam does not expand
to the condenser pressure in a single stage.
2- Rankine cycle
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• The steam expands through a first-stage turbine (Process 1–2) to some pressure
between the steam generator and condenser pressures. The steam is then
reheated in the steam generator (Process 2–3).

• Ideally, there would be no pressure drop as the steam is reheated. After

reheating, the steam expands in a second-stage turbine to the condenser
pressure (Process 3–4).
2- Rankine cycle
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• The principal advantage of reheat is to increase the quality of the steam at the
turbine exhaust. This can be seen from the T–s diagram of Following Figure by
comparing state 4 with state 4՝, the turbine exhaust state without reheating.

• When computing the thermal efficiency of a reheat cycle, it is necessary to

account for the work output of both turbine stages as well as the total heat
addition occurring in the vaporization/superheating and reheating processes.
2- Rankine cycle
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• SUPERCRITICAL CYCLE. The temperature of the steam entering the
turbine is restricted by metallurgical limitations imposed by the materials used
to fabricate the superheater, reheater, and turbine.

• High pressure in the steam generator also requires piping that can withstand
great stresses at elevated temperatures.
2- Rankine cycle
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• Although these factors limit the gains that can be realized through superheating
and reheating, improved materials and methods of fabrication have permitted
significant increases over the years in the maximum allowed cycle temperatures
and steam generator pressures, with corresponding increases in thermal
efficiency.
• This has progressed to the extent that vapor power plants can be designed to
operate with steam generator pressures exceeding the critical pressure of water
22.1 MPa, and turbine inlet temperatures exceeding 600°C.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• The main priorities of the reheat process are as follows:

• Increase the steam dryness fraction

• Increase the work generated
• Increase the thermal cycle efficiency if possible

• The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the
number of expansion and reheat stages. As the number of stages is increased, the
expansion and reheat processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum
temperature, as shown in Following Figure.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• The use of more than two reheat stages, however, is not practical.

• The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the second reheat is about half
of that which results from a single reheat. If the turbine inlet pressure is not
high enough, double reheat would result in superheated exhaust.

• This is undesirable as it would cause the average temperature for heat

rejection to increase and thus the cycle efficiency to decrease.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• Therefore, double reheat is used only on supercritical pressure (P > 22.06 MPa)
power plants.

• A third reheat stage would increase the cycle efficiency by about half of the
improvement attained by the second reheat. This gain is too small to justify the
added cost and complexity.

• The reheat temperatures are very close to or equal to the turbine inlet
temperature.

• The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
For example, the optimum reheat pressure for a cycle with a boiler pressure of 12
MPa is about 3 MPa.

• Remember that the sole purpose of the reheat cycle is to reduce the moisture
content of the steam at the final stages of the expansion process.

• If we had materials that could withstand sufficiently high temperatures, there

would be no need for the reheat cycle.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• Following Figure illustrates the concept of infinite reheat processes through state 1-
d-f-1`-1``-h. This hypothesis makes the reheating process an isothermal process.

• In zone (A), where the dryness fraction will be increased up to 100% in this region
as the priority request, it is advantageous to make a reheat (despite the number of
reheat procedures).

• Besides, the work developed, and efficiency will be enhanced.

2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• In zone (B), there is no dryness fraction, and the work developed is increased.
However, the thermal energy rejected in the condenser per kilogram of steam is
very large. This, in turn, enlarges the condenser size and deteriorates the cycle
thermal efficiency.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• Accordingly, a new terminology named the degree of reheat is created to
characterize and control the reheat concept. The degree of reheat (ζ) is the ratio
between the increase in entropy due to a real reheat (Δs) to the maximum
entropy increase due to the infinite reheat processes (Δsmax), as prescribed in
Following Figure.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• The effect of the reheat, at different values of Pmax and constant Tmax = 600
°C, on the specific work and cycle thermal efficiency is presented in Following
Figure.

• Any point in this graph represents a thermal power cycle. At ζ = 0, the thermal
power cycle represents a simple Rankine cycle.
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• For example, at Pmax = 1000 atm, Tmax = 600 °C, the dryness fraction,
specific work developed, and thermal cycle efficiency are <0.9, 580 kcal/kg,
and 0.54, respectively. However, at the same values of Pmax and Tmax, but at ζ =
0.6, the dryness fraction, specific work developed, and thermal cycle efficiency
changed to values 100%, 720 kcal/kg, and 0.558, respectively. Therefore, it is
better to do the reheat during the range from ζ = (0.4 to 0.6).
2- Rankine cycle
The concept of infinite reheat processes
• By analogy, The effect of the reheat, at different values of Tmax and constant
Pmax = 100 atm, on the specific work and cycle thermal efficiency is presented
in Following Figure.
2- Rankine cycle
How to select reheat points from different points of view
Heat transfer point view

• At low reheat pressure, the steam temperature is low so temperature difference

between the steam temperature and gases of boiler is high and reheat
effectiveness is high.

Thermodynamics point view

• At high reheat pressure, heat reject is low, so condenser size is low.

Fluid mechanics point view

• At high reheat pressure, friction losses are high, and power produced is low.
2- Rankine cycle
Advantages and disadvantages of the reheat Rankine Cycle.
Advantages:
1. Enhance the steam dryness fraction.
2. Erosion and corrosion problems in the steam turbine are eliminated/or
may be avoided.
3. Enhance the steam turbine service life.
4. Enhance the cycle reliability.
5. Enhance the power generated.
6. Reduce the cost of each MW produced.
2- Rankine cycle
Advantages and disadvantages of the reheat Rankine Cycle.

Disadvantages:

1. Enlarge the size of the power plant.

2. Increase the condenser size.

3. Increase the power plant capital cost.

4. Reheating requires more maintenance.

5. Very low efficiency at part loads.

3- The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
• The only priority of the regeneration process is to increase the thermal cycle
efficiency despite the reduction in the work developed.
• The concept of enhancing cycle efficiency is how to save the thermal energy
added to the cycle.
• A careful examination of the T-s diagram of the Rankine cycle redrawn in
following figure reveals that heat is transferred to the working fluid during the
process 3-4``-4`-4 at a relatively low temperature.
3- The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
• This lowers the average heat-addition temperature and thus the cycle efficiency.
• To remedy this shortcoming, we look for ways to raise the temperature of the liquid
leaving the pump (called the feedwater) before it enters the boiler.
• One such possibility is to transfer heat to the feedwater from the expanding steam
in a counterflow heat exchanger built into the turbine, that is, to use regeneration.
• This solution is also impractical because it is difficult to design such a heat
exchanger and because it would increase the moisture content of the steam at the
final stages of the turbine.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
• A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by
extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points.
• This steam, which could have produced more work by expanding further in the
turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead.
• The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a
regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).
• Regeneration not only improves cycle efficiency but also provides a convenient
means of deaerating the feedwater (removing the air that leaks in at the
condenser) to prevent corrosion in the boiler.
• It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at the final stages of
the turbine (due to the large specific volumes at low pressures).
• A feedwater heater is a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the
steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feedwater
heaters) or without mixing them (closed feedwater heaters).
• Regeneration with both types of feedwater heaters is discussed next.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• Let us consider how regeneration can be accomplished using an open feedwater
heater, a direct contact-type heat exchanger in which streams at different
temperatures mix to form a stream at an intermediate temperature.
• Shown in following figure are the schematic diagram and the associated T–s
diagram for a regenerative vapor power cycle having one open feedwater
heater.
• For this cycle, the working fluid passes isentropically through the turbine stages
and pumps, and the flow through the steam generator, condenser, and
feedwater heater takes place with no pressure drop in any of these components.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• Steam enters the first-stage turbine at state 1 and expands to state 2, where a
fraction of the total flow is extracted or bled, into an open feedwater heater
operating at the extraction pressure, p2.
• The rest of the steam expands through the second-stage turbine to state 5. This
portion of the total flow is condensed to saturated liquid, at state 4, and then
pumped to the extraction pressure and introduced into the feedwater heater at
state 5.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• A single mixed stream exits the feedwater heater at state 6.
• For the case shown in following figure, the mass flow rates of the streams
entering the feedwater heater are chosen so that the stream exiting the
feedwater heater is a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure.
• The liquid at state 6 is then pumped to the steam generator pressure and enters
the steam generator at state 7. Finally, the working fluid is heated from state 7 to
state 1 in the steam generator.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• Referring to the T–s diagram of the cycle, note that the heat addition would take
place from state 7 to state 1, rather than from state (a) to state 1, as would be the
case without regeneration.
• Accordingly, the amount of energy that must be supplied from the combustion
of a fossil fuel, or another source, to vaporize and superheat the steam would be
reduced. This is the desired outcome.
• Only a portion of the total flow expands through the second stage turbine
(Process 2–3), however, so less work would be developed as well.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• In practice, operating conditions are chosen so that the reduction in the heat
added more than offsets the decrease in network developed, resulting in
increased thermal efficiency in regenerative power plants.
• Accordingly, a new terminology named the degree of regeneration is created to
characterize and control the regeneration concept.
• The degree of reheat (ρ) is the ratio between the actual enthalpy increase due
to the feedwater heater to the maximum increase in enthalpy where the
working fluid is heated to reach a saturated liquid at the boiler pressure
(dryness fraction equal zero). 𝒉𝟕 − 𝒉𝒂
𝝆=
𝒉𝒙 − 𝒉𝒂

x
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• Taking a single control volume enclosing both turbine stages, the mass rate
balance reduces at a steady state to
ṁ𝟐 + ṁ𝟑 = ṁ 𝟏

ṁ𝟐 ṁ𝟑
+ = 𝟏
ṁ𝟏 ṁ𝟏
ṁ
• Denoting the fraction of the total flow extracted at state 2 by (𝐲 = ṁ𝟐), the fraction of the
𝟏
total flow passing through the second-stage turbine is
ṁ𝟑
= 𝟏−𝒚
ṁ𝟏
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• The fraction y can be determined by applying the conservation of mass and
conservation of energy principles to a control volume around the feedwater
heater.
• Assuming no heat transfer between the feedwater heater and its surroundings
and ignoring kinetic and potential energy effects, the mass and energy rate
balances reduce at a steady state to give
𝒉𝟔 = 𝒚𝒉𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝒚 𝒉𝟓
𝒉𝟔 − 𝒉𝟓
𝒚=
𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟓
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• Beginning with the turbine, the total work is the sum of the work developed by
each turbine stage.
• Neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects and assuming no heat transfer
with the surroundings, we can express the total turbine work based on a unit of
mass passing through the first-stage turbine as
Ẇ𝒕
= (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) + 𝟏 − 𝒚 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑 )
ṁ𝟏
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• The total pump work is the sum of the work required to operate each pump
individually. Based on a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine, the
total pump work is
Ẇ𝒑
= (𝒉𝟕 − 𝒉𝟔 ) + 𝟏 − 𝒚 (𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟒 )
ṁ𝟏
• The energy added by heat transfer to the working fluid passing through the
steam generator, per unit of mass expanding through the first-stage turbine, is
𝑸𝒊𝒏
= (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟕 )
ṁ𝟏
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• The total pump work is the sum of the work required to operate each pump
individually. Based on a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine, the
total pump work is
Ẇ𝒑
= (𝒉𝟕 − 𝒉𝟔 ) + 𝟏 − 𝒚 (𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟒 )
ṁ𝟏
• The energy added by heat transfer to the working fluid passing through the
steam generator, per unit of mass expanding through the first-stage turbine, is
𝑸𝒊𝒏
= (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟕 )
ṁ𝟏
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Open feedwater heaters
• The energy rejected by heat transfer to the cooling water is
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
= (𝟏 − 𝒚)(𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 )
ṁ𝟏
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• Regenerative feedwater heating also can be accomplished with closed feedwater
heaters.
• Closed heaters are shell-and-tube-type recuperators in which the feedwater
temperature increases as the extracted steam condenses on the outside of the
tubes carrying the feedwater.
• Since the two streams do not mix, they can be at different pressures.
• The diagrams of following figure show two different schemes for removing the
condensate from closed feedwater heaters.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• In following figure a, this is accomplished using a pump whose function is to
pump the condensate forward to a higher pressure point in the cycle.
• In following figure b, the condensate is allowed to pass through a trap into a
feedwater heater operating at a lower pressure or into the condenser. A trap is a
type of valve that permits only liquid to pass through to a region of lower
pressure.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• A regenerative vapor power cycle having one closed feedwater heater with the
condensate trapped into the condenser is shown schematically in following
figure.
• For this cycle, the working fluid passes isentropically through the turbine stages
and pumps, and there are no pressure drops accompanying the flow through the
other components. The T–s diagram shows the principal states of the cycle.
• The total steam flow expands through the first-stage turbine from state 1 to state
2.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• At this location, a fraction of the flow is bled into the closed feedwater heater,
where it condenses. Saturated liquid at the extraction pressure exits the
feedwater heater at state 7.
• The condensate is then trapped in the condenser, where it is reunited with the
portion of the total flow passing through the second-stage turbine.
• The expansion from state 7 to state 8 through the trap is irreversible, so it is
shown by a dashed line on the T–s diagram.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• The total flow exiting the condenser as a saturated liquid at state 4 is pumped
to the steam generator pressure and enters the feedwater heater at state 5.
• The temperature of the feedwater is increased in passing through the feedwater
heater.
• The feedwater then exits at state 6. The cycle is completed as the working fluid is
heated in the steam generator at constant pressure from state 6 to state 1.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Closed feedwater heaters
• The fraction of the total flow extracted, y, can be determined by applying the
conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles to a control volume
around the closed heater.
• Assuming no heat transfer between the feedwater heater and its surroundings
and neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects, the mass and energy rate
balances reduce at a steady state to give
𝟎 = 𝒚(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟕 ) + (𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟔 )
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Multiple feedwater heaters

• The thermal efficiency of the regenerative cycle can be increased by

incorporating several feedwater heaters at suitably chosen pressures.

• The number of feedwater heaters used is based on economic

considerations since incremental increases in thermal efficiency
achieved with each additional heater must justify the added capital
costs (heater, piping, pumps, etc.).

• Power plant designers use computer programs to simulate the

thermodynamic and economic performance of different designs to help
them decide on the number of heaters to use, the types of heaters, and
the pressures at which they should operate.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Multiple feedwater heaters
• Following figure shows the layout of a power plant with three closed feedwater
heaters and one open heater.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Multiple feedwater heaters
• Power plants with multiple feedwater heaters ordinarily have at least one open
feedwater heater operating at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure so
that oxygen and other dissolved gases can be vented from the cycle.
• This procedure, known as deaeration, is needed to maintain the purity of the
working fluid to minimize corrosion. Actual power plants have many of the
same basic features as the one shown in the figure.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Effect of number of feedwater heaters on thermal cycle efficiency
• The degree of regeneration (ρ) and thermal cycle efficiency improve as the
number of feedwater heaters increases. From an economic point of view, the
optimum number of feedwater heaters is between (3 to 7), see following
Figure.
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
Characteristic charts for reheat and regeneration Rankine cycle
4- The regenerative Rankine cycle
How to select regenerative points from different points of view
Heat transfer point view

• At high regenerative pressure, the steam temperature is high so temperature

difference between the steam temperature and feedwater temperature is high and
feedwater heater effectiveness is high.

Thermodynamics point view

• At high regenerative pressure, heat reject is low, so condenser size is low, and
cycle efficiency is high.

Fluid mechanics point view

• At low regenerative pressure, friction losses are low, and cycle efficiency is
high.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
• In general, though, the term “binary cycle” can cover any thermodynamic conversion
system of heat into electricity with two different fluids involved in the process.

• In a binary vapor power cycle, two working fluids are used, one with good high-
temperature characteristics and another with good characteristics at the lower-
temperature end of the operating range.

• Following figure shows a schematic diagram and an accompanying T–s diagram of a

binary vapor cycle using water and a suitable liquid metal, with each substance in both
the liquid and vapor phases.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
• In this arrangement, two ideal Rankine cycles are combined, with the heat rejection from
the high-temperature cycle (the topping cycle) being used as the energy input for the
low-temperature cycle.

• This energy transfer is accomplished in an interconnecting heat exchanger, which

serves as the condenser for the metal cycle and the boiler for the water cycle.

• Since the increase in the specific enthalpy of the water as it passes through the heat
exchanger is typically several times the magnitude of the specific enthalpy decrease of
the metal, several units of mass of metal must circulate in the topping cycle for each
unit of mass of water in the other cycle.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
• Binary vapor power cycles can operate with higher average temperatures of
heat addition than conventional cycles using water only and thus can attain
higher thermal efficiencies.
• However, the higher efficiencies achieved in this manner must justify the
increased costs related to the construction and operation of the more complex
cycle arrangement.
5- The binary Rankine cycle

a
Molecular weight (g=mol)
b
Critical temperature (°C)
c
Critical pressure (bar)
d
Melting temperature (°C)
e
Saturation temperature at 0:02 bar (°C)
f
Boiling temperature (°C)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document..1 Vapour

5- The binary Rankine cycle
The binary Potassium and Rubidium–steam cycle
• The most obvious solution in designing a binary liquid metal-steam cycle is
that of condensing the metal vapors at a temperature just slightly higher than
the maximum temperature of a steam cycle, according to the scheme in
following figure (a).
• However, in the configuration shown in following figure (a), there is great
irreversibility of heat exchange between the metal vapors that condense and
the vapor that preheats, evaporates, and superheats (irreversibility due to the
great difference between the condensation temperature of the metal cycle and
the evaporation temperature of the steam).
5- The binary Rankine cycle
The binary Potassium and Rubidium–steam cycle
• A more efficient solution from a thermodynamic point of view is shown in
following figure (b), with two levels of condensation for the metal cycle.
• Multilevel condensation is thermodynamically advantageous, just like
multilevel evaporation, which is typical of combined cycles with gas turbines
and steam.
• Following figure (b), reports the total entropy and not the specific entropy for
the expanding metal vapor: the entropy of the diagram is the sum of the
entropy of the fluid that continues the expansion and the entropy of the vapor
that condenses.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
The binary Potassium and Rubidium–steam cycle
• As a further example, a configuration like that of following figure (with the
metal cycle at a maximum temperature equal to that of the steam cycle) would
allow a significant reduction of the irreversibilities (that is, the thermodynamic
imperfections) typical of the steam cycle: an average temperature of heat
introduction originating from the primary energy source, which is far lower
than the maximum temperature of the cycle.
• In following figure, the condensation of the metal vapors at low temperatures
brings about the evaporation of the steam (from point 1 to point 2), and the
condensation at a higher temperature is responsible for superheating the
steam up to the temperatures (to be optimized) corresponding to points 3 and 5.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
The binary Potassium and Rubidium–steam cycle
• The final superheating and resuperheating must occur (in the scheme of
following figure) using thermal energy originating from the outside.
5- The binary Rankine cycle
Disadvantages of Binary vapor power cycle
1. Hg specific volume is very large at condenser pressure compared
with steam
vg = 1000 vH2O
1. Large condenser size
2. Large Boiler size
3. Large blade height
4. Large centrifugal force due to blade height
5. 1 kg of the steam needs 10 kg of Hg for vaporization
6- Thermosyphon Rankine power plant
• Following figure shows a
Simplified configuration of
thermosyphon Rankine power
plant which has one end immersed
in a solar pond and the other
exposed to the ambient air.
• At the lower end, a working fluid
is vaporized by heat transfer from
the hot water of the solar pond.
• The vapor flows upward through
an axial-flow turbine to the upper
end, where condensation occurs
by heat transfer to the ambient air.
The condensate drains to the
lower end by gravity.