6

Learning and Memory

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR Buying,

Having, and Being

ELEVENTH EDITION

Michael R. Solomon

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education 6-1

 Learning Objectives
1. It is important to understand how consumers learn about
products and services.
2. Conditioning results in learning.
3. There is a difference between classical and instrumental
conditioning and both processes help consumers to learn about
products.
4. Our brains process information about brands to retain them in
memory.

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 Learning Objective 1
It is important to understand how
consumers learn about products and
services

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 Learning is an ongoing process
Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world constantly
updates as we are exposed to new stimuli and as we receive ongoing
feedback that allows us to modify our behaviour when we find ourselves in
similar situations at a later time

Stimulus Reaction > Behaviour

Association

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 Theories of Learning
• Learning: permanent change in behavior based on experience.
• The learner do not have the experience directly; he can also
learn when observe events that affect others.
• Incidental Learning: unintentional acquisition of knowledge.
• We learn even when we don't try: We recognize many brand
names and hum many product jingles, even for products we
don't personally use

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 Theories of Learning
• Psychologists who study learning advance several theories to
explain the learning process.
• These theories range from those that focus on simple stimulus-
response connections (behavioural theories) to perspectives that
regard consumers as solvers of complex problems who learn
abstract rules and concepts when they observe what others say
and do (cognitive theories).
• It's important for marketers to understand these theories as well,
because basic learning principles are at the heart of many
consumer purchase decisions.

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 Theories of Learning

Behavioral Learning Cognitive Learning

• Learning based on • Learning based on

observable mental information
behaviors processing
• Responses occur as • Often in response to
the result of problem solving
exposure to stimuli

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 Theories of Learning

Behavioral theories Cognitive Theories

Classical Instrumental / Operant Observational Learning

conditioning conditioning (effective)

• Stimulus Repetition • Positive reinforcement

• Stimulus Generalization • Negative reinforcement
• Stimulus Discrimination • Punishment Modeling

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 Learning Objective 2
Conditioning results in learning.

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 Behavioural learning theories
• Assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to
external events.
• According to the behavioural learning perspective, the feedback
we receive as we go through life shapes our experiences.
• EX: Consumers who receive compliments on a product choice
will be more likely to buy that brand again.
• EX: A person who get food poisoning at a new restaurant are
not likely to patronize that restaurant in the future.
• Two major approaches to learning represent this view: classical
conditioning and instrumental conditioning.
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 Types of Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical conditioning: a stimulus that
produces a response is paired with
another stimulus that initially does not
produce a response on its own.
• Over time, the second stimulus causes a
similar response because we associate
it with the first stimulus.
• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who
conducted research on digestion in
animals, first demonstrated this
phenomenon in dogs

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 Classical Conditioning
• Components of Conditioning:
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -
naturally cause the response
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - we
learn to associate
• Conditioned response (CR) -
SALIVATION

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 Classical Conditioning application on consumer behavior

When marketers consistently pair these cues that induce hunger,

thirst, and other basic drives with conditioned stimuli, such as brand
names, consumers may learn to feel hungry, thirsty when they
encounter these brand cues at a later point.

American Express slogan - People learn they

can make larger purchases with credit cards
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 Classical Conditioning application
on consumer behavior

People enjoy watching football and cheer certain teams, and

if that team is sponsored by a company, such as Fly
Emirates, then people may end up experiencing positive
feelings when they use their service.
Of course, the sponsor wants to sponsor only good teams
and good athletes because these create more pleasurable
responses.

Ronaldo – Pleasure - Victory

Association

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 Classical Conditioning application

Repetition Family branding

Product line extensions

Conditioning Stimulus
generalization
issues Licensing

Stimulus
discrimination Look-alike packaging

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 Conditioning Issues
1. Stimulus Repetition : Conditioning effects are more likely to
occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned
stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times. This effect is
known as repetition.
2. Stimulus generalization : Stimuli similar to a conditioned
stimuli (CS) may evoke similar responses. This is known as
stimulus generalization.
3. Stimulus discrimination : Conditions may also weaken over
time especially when a unconditioned stimuli (UCS) does not
follow a stimulus similar to a CS. This is called stimulus
discrimination.
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 1. Repetition
• Repetition increases learning
• More exposures = increased
brand awareness
• However, too MUCH exposure
leads to advertising wear out

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 2. Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus generalization: tendency for
stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus
to evoke similar, unconditioned
responses.
• Family branding - Family branding
enables products to capitalize on the
reputation of a company name.

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 Stimulus Generalization
• Product line extensions - Marketers can use product
line extensions by adding related products to an
established brand

Procter & Gamble is opening a new line of Tide Dry Cleaners,

named after its bestselling laundry detergent.

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 Stimulus Generalization
• Licensing - allows companies to rent well-
known names
Zippo Manufacturing Co., long known for its
"windproof" cigarette lighters, is marketing a men's fragrance

McDonald's Celebrates Walt Disney

World's 50th Anniversary with 50
Limited Edition Happy Meal Toys

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 Stimulus Generalization
• Look-alike packaging - Distinctive packaging designs create
strong associations with a particular brand. Companies that make
generic or private-level brands and want to communicate a quality
image often exploit this linkage when they put their products in
similar packages to those of popular brands

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 3. Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a Conditioned Stimuli (CS) is not
followed by an Unconditioned Stimuli UCS. In these situations, reactions are weakened and will
soon disappear. Part of the learning process involves making a response to some stimuli but not
to other, similar stimuli.

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 Stimulus Discrimination

Manufacturers of well-established brands commonly urge

consumers not to buy ‘cheap imitations’ because the results will
not be what they expect.

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 Learning Objective 3
There is a difference between
classical and instrumental
conditioning and both processes
help consumers to learn about
products.

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 Theories of Learning

Behavioral theories Cognitive Theories

Classical Instrumental / Operant Observational Learning

conditioning conditioning (effective)

• Stimulus Repetition • Positive reinforcement

• Stimulus • Negative reinforcement
Generalization • Punishment Modeling
• Stimulus
Discrimination

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 Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning)
• Instrumental conditioning (or operant
conditioning ) occurs when we learn to perform
behaviors that produce positive outcomes and
avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
• We associate this learning process with the
psychologist B. F. Skinner, who demonstrated
the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching
pigeons and other animals to dance and perform
other activities when he systematically rewarded
them for desired behaviors.
B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990)

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 Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning)
• Responses to classical conditioning are fairly simple and
involuntary, but the responses we make to instrumental
conditioning are related to obtaining a goal.
• We may learn the desired behavior over a period of time as a
shaping process rewards our intermediate actions.
• One way that instrumental conditioning may occur is through
positive reinforcement

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 Types of Behavioral Learning Theories

Instrumental conditioning
(also, operant conditioning):
the individual learns to
perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes
and to avoid those that yield
negative outcomes.

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 How Does Instrumental Conditioning Occur?
• Positive reinforcement: in the form of a reward, this
strengthens the response and we learn the appropriate
behaviour
• Negative reinforcement - strengthens responses so that we
learn the appropriate behaviour
• Punishment occurs (positive and negative) when
unpleasant events follow a response

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6-31
 Reinforcement Theory

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 Positive Reinforcement
Increase the behaviour : of drinking milk
Reward : good bone and teeth

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 Positive Reinforcement

Starbucks implements operant conditioning (instrumental

conditioning) to promotional program, My Starbucks Reward,
offered to customers.
My Starbucks Rewards is the loyalty program that provide its
customers exclusive rewards, which are definitely positive
reinforcement. Customers can enjoy the rewards, including
free drinks, exclusive early access to Starbucks’ newest
products, and quick and easy payment with Starbucks’ mobile
app, when purchase coffee and join the program. These
rewards provide the positive experience and strengthen the
consumer behaviour.

My Starbucks Reward

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 Positive Reinforcement
Increase the behaviour : of eating KitKat
Reward : boosting moral and re-energize

Take Break - Take KitKat -

Hammada.mp4

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 Negative Reinforcement
Increase the behaviour : of drinking milk
Remove stimulus : preservatives taste is bad and cause being not happy

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 Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement

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 Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement

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 Positive Punishment
decrease the behaviour :
of drinking preservative
milk
Positive punishment :
affecting health

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 Punishment theory applied in service companies to
reduce negative behaviours of their customers

Utility • Paying Penalty for utility • Warning letter of cutting the

companies : company in case of delay in service
paying the bill

• Paying interest + penalty on • Downgrading the customer

Banks: your credit card in case of membership in case his
delay in paying your credit deposits decreased under
card certain limit
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 ‫‪Punishment theory applied in service companies to‬‬
‫‪reduce negative behaviours of their customers‬‬

‫آخر موعد لسداد فاتورة التليفون األرضي شهر يوليو ‪2020‬‬

‫•يبدأ سداد الفاتورة بدءا من ‪ 15‬يوليو ولمدة شهر حتى ‪ 14‬أغسطس وهو آخر موعد لسداد‬
‫فاتورة التليفون األرضي لشهر يوليو ‪ ،2020‬حتى تتجنب إنقطاع اإلرسال أو االستقبال لخطك‬
‫األرضي‪.‬‬
‫•وتبدأ فترة السماح لدفع فاتورة يوليو بعد ‪ 14‬أغسطس وفي هذه الفترة تنقطع خدمة إرسال‬
‫المكالمات‪ ،‬فيما تظل خدمة استقبال المكالمات تعمل بشكل طبيعي لمدة شهر حتى ‪ 14‬سبتمبر‪.‬‬
‫•بدءا من يوم ‪ 15‬سبتمبر يتم قطع خدمة االرسال واالستقبال و تحصيل غرامة‪.‬‬
‫•في حالة عدم سدادك للفاتورة خالل فترة السماح‪ ،‬فانك ستعرض نفسك إليقاف خدمة الخط‬
‫األرضي‪ ،‬وكذلك ستقوم بدفع غرامة تأخير سداد فاتورتك‪.‬‬
‫غرامات تأخير سداد فاتورة التليفون األرضي‬
‫نوضح لجميع المشتركين أنه بعد انتهاء فترة السماح التي قررتها الشركة لعمالئها لمدة شهر‪،‬‬
‫بعدها يكون على المتأخر غرامة تصل نسبتها إلى ‪ %1.5‬من االشتراك‪ ،‬أي بحد أدنى ‪10‬‬
‫جنيهات‪ ،‬هذا بالنسبة للتليفون األرضي المنزلي‪ ،‬أما التليفون التجاري فالغرامة المقررة عليه‬
‫تكون بنسبة ‪ %1.5‬من قيمة االشتراك كل شهر لمدة ‪ 11‬شهر من بدء الرسوم االدارية‪ ،‬وال يتم‬
‫بعدها اضافة رسوم‪ ،‬ثم بعد ذلك تحسب ‪ 10‬جنيهات غرامة كحد أدنى‬
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 Star Alliance using instrumental conditioning

Increase the
Decrease the behaviour :
behaviour : Travelling frequently
Not travelling Reward : Upgrading
frequently tier and more
punishment : privileges
Downgrading tier
and less privilege

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 Theories of Learning

Behavioral theories Cognitive Theories

Classical Instrumental / Operant Observational Learning

conditioning conditioning (effective)

• Stimulus Repetition • Positive reinforcement

• Stimulus • Negative reinforcement
Generalization • Punishment Modeling
• Stimulus
Discrimination

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 2-47

 Cognitive learning theory
• cognitive learning theory approaches stress the
importance of internal mental processes.
• This perspective views people as problem
solvers who actively use information from the
world around them to master their environments.

jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist
1896 – 1980

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 Cognitive learning theory
• Observational learning:
people watch actions of others and note the
reinforcement they receive for their behavior, then they
store it in memory to use it from their own behavior.

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 Modeling
• is the process of imitating the
behaviour of others.
• A woman buying a perfume
because of the reactions her
friend received when wearing
this perfume

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 Commercial application on Modelling

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 Commercial application on Modelling
The aim of this ad is to underline that kids tend
to use their relative adults as models, thus
learning new behaviours by watching them

The slogan “smoking. Don’t keep it in the family” was

a great way to communicate to the audience in this
case parents. It has a shock factor and leads to the
brand message that children copy everything their
parents do so something needs to change like quit
smoking. “Wanna be like you” song was used to
Wanna be like you_360p
emphasis the message.
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 Commercial application on Modelling
The advertisement shows Cristiano Ronaldo, the Portuguese soccer legend, which shows off his skills and
demonstrates how he tries to find the perfection all the times: indeed, the main slogan is “Driven to
perfection, fueled by Herbalife”. If the customers watch this spot, they will be driven to buy the product that
could boost their physical performance.
This is an evidence of cognitive approach too, that we would like to analysing through observational
learning.

CR7 Driven to Perfection

Fueled by Herbalife

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 THE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING PROCESS

• We learn about products by observing others’ behavior.

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 Learning Objective 4
• Our brains process information about brands to retain
them in memory.

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 Memory
• Memory is a process of acquiring information and storing
it over time so that it will be available when we need it.

Information
is retained
Information in memory
is placed in
memory

Information
stored in
memory is
found as
needed

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 Memory Systems

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 Memory Systems

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 How We Retrieve Memories When We Decide What to Buy
• In one major study, only 23 percent of the respondents
could recall a new product introduced in the past year

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 Learning Objective 5
Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.

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 How We Measure Consumers’ Recall
of Marketing Messages
1. Recognition versus Recall
• One indicator of good advertising is the impression it
makes on us.
• Recognition test: researchers show ads to subjects one
at a time and ask if they have seen them before.
• Recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what
they have seen without being prompted for this information
first.

Facebook uses
Estimated Ad Recall Lift (People) Metric

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 How We Measure Consumers’ Recall
of Marketing Messages
1. Recognition versus Recall
• Recognition scores are almost always
better than recall scores because
recognition is a simpler process and the
consumer has more retrieval cues
available.
• Recall tends to be more important in
situations in which consumers do not
have product data at their disposal, so
they must rely on memory to generate
this information

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 How We Measure Consumers’ Recall
of Marketing Messages
2. Problems with Memory Measures
• Response bias:
• People tend to give “yes” responses to questions, regardless
of what the item asks.
• Experimental subjects often are eager to be “good subjects”:
They try to figure out what the experimenter is looking for and
give the response they think they are supposed to give.
• Memory Lapses:
• People are prone to forget information or retain inaccurate
memories
• Omitting (leaving facts out)
• Averaging (the tendency to “normalize” memories by not
reporting extreme cases)
• Telescoping (inaccurate recall of time)
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 How We Measure Consumers’ Recall
of Marketing Messages
Many ad campaigns use the impact of “feeling” ads whose objective is to
arouse strong emotion, the marketers hope to create a long-term build up of
positive feelings rather than relying on a one-shot attempt to convince
consumers to buy their products.

Mohamed Salah DHL Express Commercial

Getting in touch for real DHL Express.mp4

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 What we have learned from this chapter?
• Learning and incidental learning > impact on information search and change behaviour
• Theories of learning:
• Behavioural theories – stimulus
• Classical conditioning : Stimulus Repetition- Stimulus Generalization- Stimulus
Discrimination
• Instrumental/operant conditioning: Positive reinforcement- Negative reinforcement-
Punishment
• Cognitive theories – Observation: Modelling
• The observational learning process :Attention-retention- production process-
motivation
• Memory: External inputs > encoding > storage>retrieval
• Memory system: Sensory memory>Attention>Short term memory > Elaborative rehearsal>
Long term memory
• Measure Consumers’ Recall vs recognition
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