DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF RUHUNA

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS LABORATORY

ME 7302: HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
TITLE: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (L2)
ACADEMIC YEAR 2023

Signature of the
Instructor
Student Number EG/2019/3785

Lab Conducted Date 11/03/2024

Lab Due Date 17/03/2024

Report

Submitted 17/03/2024
Date

Evaluation (Instructor Use Only)

Evaluation Component Allocated Marks Student Achieved Marks

Out of 10.0

1 Participation 2.0

2 Observations 1.0

3 Calculation 1.0

4 Discussion 6.0

Total 10.0

Signature of the Evaluator

Evaluator’s Comments:
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF RUHUNA

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS LABORATORY

ME 7302 – HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
TITLE: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (L2)
Pre-Lab sheet

NOTATIONS:

Symbol Description Units

𝐴 Cross sectional area of the specimen [m²]
𝐶𝑝𝑤 Specific heat capacity of water [J/kgK]
𝑑 Diameter of the specimen [m]
𝑙 Current [A]
𝑘 Thermal conductivity of steels [W/mK]
𝐿 Length between two thermocouples [m]
𝑚˙ Mass flow rate of water [kg/s]
𝑃 Electrical Power [W]
𝑄̇˙𝑤 Rate of heat absorbed by water [W]
𝑞˙ Rate of heat flow [W]
𝑇1 Temperature at the thermocouple one [0C]
𝑇2 Temperature at the thermocouple two [0C]
𝑇3 Temperature at the thermocouple three [0C]
𝑇4 Temperature at the thermocouple four [0C]
𝑉 Voltage [V]
∆𝑇 Temperature difference [K]
∆𝑋 Distance [m]

THEORY:

From Fourier’s law of heat conduction,

𝑞˙ 𝖺 𝐴
𝑞˙ 𝖺 ∆𝑇
𝑞˙ 𝖺 1/∆𝑋
∴ 𝑞˙ 𝖺 𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑋)

As ∆X is very small,
𝑞˙ = 𝑘 × 𝐴(𝑑𝑇⁄𝑑𝑋)

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,

∴ 𝑞˙ = 𝑘 × 𝐴(𝑑𝑇⁄𝑑𝑋)

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At the steady state, i.e. when the temperature does not change with time,

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

i.e.𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
൭𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟൱ =ቌ 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 ቍ = ቌ 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 ቍ = ൭ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ൱
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

i.e. 𝑃 = = = 𝑄̇˙𝑤
𝑞˙𝑎 𝑞𝑏˙
Electrical Resistor

◦ 𝑇1
Specimen A

◦ 𝑇2
◦ 𝑇3
Specimen B

◦ 𝑇4
𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡

Figure 1: Test Section

Total Power input

𝑃 = 𝑉 ×𝐼

Rate of heat flow across the specimens

For specimen A,
𝑞˙𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 × 𝐴𝑎 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)/𝐿𝑎

For specimen B,
𝑞˙𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇4)/𝐿𝑏

For cooling water

𝑄̇𝑤 = 𝑚˙ × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × (𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖)
˙

∴ 𝑉 ×𝐼 = 𝑘 ×𝐴 (𝑇1−𝑇2) ×𝐴 ×
(𝑇3−𝑇4)
= 𝑚˙ × 𝐶 × 𝑇
( −𝑇 )
𝑎 𝑎× = 𝑘𝑏 𝑏 𝑝𝑤 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖
𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑏

∴ 𝑘𝑎 = ( 𝑚˙ × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × (𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖))⁄(𝐴𝑎 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)/𝐿𝑎)

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𝑘𝑏 = ( 𝑚˙ × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × (𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖))⁄(𝐴𝑏 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇4)/𝐿𝑏)

Note:

Subscript ‘a’ refers to specimen A

Subscript ‘b’ refers to specimen B

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the main elements of the instrument

• Power supply, Control, and Regulation
• Thermal energy source
• Dewar Vessel

2. Apply a light smear of Silicone Grease at the ends of the given specimens and make sure that the
contact surfaces are completely free from dirt.

3. Operate the clamp by moving the protruding lever positioned on the front of the Apparatus to a
download position and place specimens between heating element and clamp, in such a way that
the short specimen (Mild Steel, i.e. low conductivity material) in lower position and long
specimen (Copper, i.e. high conductivity material) in upper position. Release the lever, thereby
clamping specimens in position.

4. Insert thermocouples into holes provided.

5. Place the Dewar vessel in position over specimens in order to minimize the heat transfer from the
lateral surface of the specimens.

6. Open the network water feeding slowly with care to maintain a constant water flow rate in the
range 20 ~ 30 litres per hour.

7. Switch on the power button of the apparatus. (230V - 50/60Hz single phase)

8. Ensure that the temperature of the hot end of high conducting material (T1) is bought to a
temperature of approximately 200℃ and maintained at this temperature until the thermocouples
indicate a stable output.

9. Once the steady state is attained, take the following measurements at constant time intervals (e.g.:
every 150 s), over a time span of 10 minutes and average the readings.
• Cooling water flow rate
• Cooling water inlet and outlet temperature
• Specimen temperatures (T1, T2, T3, T4)

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OBSERVATIONS:

Table 1:

Temperature/(oC)
Test Time/(s) Specimen Water Water
inlet outlet
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇𝑤𝑖 𝑇𝑤𝑜
1 0 203.9 185.2 153.8 83.8 28 37.3

2 150 203.9 185.6 154.0 84.0 28 37.3

3 300 203.9 185.6 154.1 84.3 28 37.4

4 450 203.9 185.3 154.0 83.7 28 37.0

5 600 204.0 185.4 154.4 83.4 28 37.0

203.9 185.4 154.1 83.8 28.0 37.2

Average Values

Volume flow rate of water (in litres per hour) = 1.5 × 10−3 𝑙/𝑠

Volume flow rate of water = 1.5 × 10−6 𝑚3/𝑠

DATA:

Specimen A: Copper bar Specimen B: Mild Steel bar

𝑑𝑎 = 𝑑𝑏 = 25𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑎 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑏 = 25𝑚𝑚

Find the value of 𝐶𝑝𝑤 at particular temperature from the given graph.

𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 4178 J/kg.K

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CALCULATIONS:

• Find the thermal conductivity coefficient for Copper and Mild Steel.

Volume flow rate of water = 1.5 × 10−6 𝑚3/𝑠

Mass flow rate of water (𝑚˙ ) = 1.5 × 10−6 𝑚3/𝑠 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 1.5 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑇𝑤𝑖(𝑎𝑣𝑔)+𝑇𝑤𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔)
Average temperature of water =
2
28 ℃+37.2 ℃
=
2
= 32.6 ℃
= 305.75 K
According to the given graph,
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 4178 J/kg.K
𝜋𝑑𝑎2
Cross sectional area of copper bar (𝐴𝑎) =
4
𝜋×0.0252
=
4
= 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝜋𝑑𝑏2
Cross sectional area of mild steal bar (𝐴𝑏) =
4

= 𝜋×0.0252
4
= 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚2
˙ 𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑇𝑤𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖 )
𝑚×
Thermal conductivity of copper (𝐾𝑎 ) =
𝐴𝑎(𝑇1−𝑇2)/𝐿𝑎
1.5×10−3×4178(37.2−28)
=
4.91×10−4(203.9−185.4)/0.05

= 317.37 W/m.K
˙ 𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑇𝑤𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖 )
𝑚×
Thermal conductivity of mild steel (𝐾 ) =
𝑏
𝐴𝑏(𝑇3−𝑇4)/𝐿𝑏
1.5×10−3×4178(37.2−28)
=
4.91×10−4(154.1−83.8)/0.025

= 41.76 W/m.K

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RESULTS:

• Compare the actual values and practical values obtained for thermal conductivity of Copper and
Mild Steel.

Material Theoretical Value Experimental Value

Copper 398 W/m.K 317.37 W/m.K
Mild Steel 50 W/m.K 41.76 W/m.K

The experimental data deviate from the theoretical values, as can be seen from the above table.
The primary cause of such can be errors made during the practical. Additionally, those variations
may be influenced by the calculations' assumptions.

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DISCUSSION:

1. Comment on the facts determining the thermal conductivity of a material.

Temperature: Thermal conductivity often changes with temperature. Some materials, like metals, exhibit
increasing thermal conductivity with temperature due to increased atomic vibrations that aid heat transfer.
On the other hand, semiconductors may show decreasing thermal conductivity as temperature rises,
influenced by changes in electron mobility.

Material Type: The type of material significantly affects its thermal conductivity. Metals, such as copper
and aluminium, have high thermal conductivity due to their free electron movement, allowing efficient heat
transfer. In contrast, insulating materials like rubber or wood have low thermal conductivity because of
limited heat-carrying capabilities.

Density: The density of a material plays a role in determining its thermal conductivity. Higher-density
materials tend to have higher thermal conductivity because there are more particles available to conduct
heat. This is evident in metals, where denser structures lead to better heat transfer.

Impurities and Defects: Impurities and structural defects can hinder the flow of heat in a material,
reducing its thermal conductivity. For instance, in semiconductors, impurities introduced through doping
can alter electron behaviour and impact thermal conductivity. Similarly, structural defects like dislocations
in metals can disrupt heat flow pathways.

Crystal Structure: The arrangement of atoms or molecules in a material influences its thermal
conductivity. Materials with highly ordered crystal structures, such as diamond or graphite, exhibit high
thermal conductivity due to efficient heat propagation along crystal planes. In contrast, amorphous
materials lack long-range order and typically have lower thermal conductivity.

Moisture Content: The presence of moisture can significantly affect thermal conductivity, especially in
porous materials like soil or concrete. Moisture acts as a thermal insulator, reducing heat transfer efficiency
within the material.

Pressure: In certain materials, such as gases, thermal conductivity can vary with pressure. For example, the
thermal conductivity of air increases with pressure due to enhanced molecular collisions and heat transfer
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mechanisms.

2. Mention the reasons for the deviation of the values you obtained from the theoretical values.

Several factors can cause differences between experimental results and theoretical values. Thesfactors may
include:
• Assumptions in theoretical calculations: Theoretical values are often based on simplifications that
may not hold true in real-world experiments. Incorrect assumptions, such as steady-state heat
transfer, constant material properties, conduction-only heat transfer, and negligible convection and
radiation heat loss, can lead to inaccuracies in theoretical predictions.

• Experimental setup imperfections: Imperfections in the experimental setup, such as heat losses,
leaks, or measurement errors (e.g., calibration errors in thermocouples or water flow leakages), can
affect the accuracy of experimental measurements and result in deviations from expected values.

• Environmental variations: Changes in environmental conditions like temperature, pressure, or

humidity can also impact experimental measurements, causing deviations from the expected values.

• Human errors: Errors during data collection, such as incorrect readings due to parallax or
measurement mistakes, can contribute to discrepancies between expected and observed values.

To minimize these factors' effects, careful experiment design and error control are crucial. This includes
conducting multiple measurements, employing statistical analysis to address variability, and taking
measures to mitigate potential sources of error in the experimental setup. Furthermore, evaluating the
applicability of assumptions made in theoretical calculations to the experimental context is essential for
accurate predictions.

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3. Explain the practical importance of the Experiment.

Thermal conductivity experiments play a crucial role as they offer vital insights into a material's heat
transfer capabilities, which holds significant importance across various industrial sectors:

• Manufacturing Optimization: Thermal conductivity experiments are instrumental in monitoring and

refining manufacturing processes involving heat transfer, such as casting, welding, and heat
treatment. This optimization enhances product quality and aids in product design by identifying new
materials with improved thermal properties.

• Building Efficiency: In building and construction, these experiments aid in selecting and designing
materials for optimal insulation and energy efficiency. Materials like aerogels, fiberglass, and foam
with low thermal conductivity are used for insulation, reducing heat loss in buildings, pipes, and
appliances, thus cutting energy expenses and reducing carbon footprints.

• Materials Research: Researchers benefit from thermal conductivity experiments as they offer
valuable insights into fundamental material properties and facilitate the discovery of new materials
with desirable characteristics.

• Electronics Cooling Systems: In the electronics industry, these experiments are crucial for designing
and optimizing cooling systems for electronic components. High thermal conductivity materials
such as copper and aluminum are used in heat sinks and thermal interface materials to dissipate heat
effectively, preventing overheating and extending device lifespan.

• Aerospace Applications: Thermal conductivity experiments are utilized in the aerospace industry to
select materials for high-temperature environments like aircraft engines. Materials with high thermal
conductivity play a critical role in thermal management and heat shielding, safeguarding sensitive
components and ensuring operational safety.

In essence, thermal conductivity experiments are indispensable in providing essential information about
material thermal properties, contributing significantly to diverse industrial applications including
manufacturing, construction, materials science, electronics, and aerospace.

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4. What is the reason for placing lower conductivity material at lower portion of the specimen?

Placing a material with lower thermal conductivity at the bottom of a heat conductivity measurement
experiment serves as insulation. This material conducts heat less effectively than the higher conductivity
material under examination, thus obstructing heat transfer between the two materials. By positioning the
lower conductivity material at the base of the arrangement, the majority of the heat is directed through the
higher conductivity material being tested, minimizing heat loss at the bottom. This approach leads to more
precise thermal conductivity measurements for the higher conductivity material. Conversely, if a material
with higher conductivity were placed at the bottom, it would allow more heat to pass through it, diverting
heat away from the material being tested and causing inaccuracies in readings. Hence, placing the material
with the lowest thermal conductivity at the bottom ensures that most of the heat flows through it, resulting
in more accurate thermal conductivity measurements for the higher conductivity material.

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REFERENCES:

• YUNUS A. CENGEL, Introduction to Thermodynamics & Heat transfer, International

edition 1997, McGraw hill company, New York.
• R.C. SACHDEVA, Fundamentals of Engineering Heat & Mass transfer, 1st edition, New
age international 2000, Delhi.
• T.D. EASTOP, A. McCONKEY, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technology,
5th edition, Addison Wesley Longman limited, Harlow.

Annex 01:

4178

305.75

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