114 4.

CONSERVATION LAWS

EXAMPLE 4.2
The density in a horizontal flow u ¼ U(y, z)ex is given by r(x, t) ¼ f(x e Ut,y,z), where f(x, y, z) is
the density distribution at t ¼ 0. Is this flow incompressible?

Solution
There are two ways to answer this question. First, consider (4.9) and evaluate Dr/Dt, letting
x ¼ x e Ut:
Dr vr vr vr vr vx vr vx vr vr
¼ þ u$Vr ¼ þU ¼ þU ¼ ðUÞ þ U ð1Þ ¼ 0:
Dt vt vt vx vx vt vx vx vx vx
Second, consider (4.10) and evaluate V$u:
vUðy; zÞ
V$u ¼ þ 0 þ 0 ¼ 0:
vx
In both cases, the result is zero. This is an incompressible flow, but the density may vary when f is
not constant.
118 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

EXAMPLE 4.4
A long bar with constant cross section is held perpendicular to a uniform horizontal flow of
speed UN, as shown in Figure 4.2. The flowing fluid has density r and viscosity m (both constant).
The bar’s cross section has characteristic transverse dimension d, and the span of the bar is l with
l [ d. The average horizontal velocity profile measured downstream of the bar is U(y), which is less
than UN due to the presence of the bar. Determine the required force per unit span, eFD/l, applied
to the ends of the bar to hold it in place. Assume the flow is steady and two dimensional in the plane
shown. Ignore body forces.

Solution
Before beginning, it is important to explain the sign convention for fluid dynamic drag forces.
The drag force on an inanimate object is the force applied to the object by the fluid. Thus, for stationary
objects, drag forces are positive in the downstream direction, the direction the object would
accelerate if released. However, the control volume laws are written for forces applied to the contents
of the volume. Thus, from Newton’s third law, a positive drag force on an object implies a negative
force on the fluid. Therefore, the FD appearing in Figure 4.2 is a positive number and this will be
borne out by the final results. Here we also note that since the horizontal velocity downstream of
the bar, the wake velocity U(y), is less than UN, the fluid has been decelerated inside the control
volume and this is consistent with a force from the body opposing the motion of the fluid as
shown.

FIGURE 4.2 Momentum and mass balance for U y U

top
flow past long bar of constant cross section placed
perpendicular to the flow. The intersection of the rec-
outlet

–FD U(y) x
ommended stationary control volume with the x-y plane d
inlet

is shown is shown with dashed lines. The force eFD H

holds the bar in place and slows the fluid that enters the bottom
control volume.
 4.4 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 119
The basic strategy is to select a stationary control volume, and then use (4.5) and (4.17) to
determine the force FD that the body exerts on the fluid per unit span in terms of r, U, and U(y). The
first quantitative step in the solution is to select a rectangular control volume with flat control
surfaces aligned with the coordinate directions. The inlet, outlet, top, and bottom sides of such a
control volume are shown in Figure 4.2. The vertical sides parallel to the x-y plane are not shown.
However, the flow does not vary in the third direction and is everywhere parallel to these surfaces
so these merely need be selected a comfortable distance l apart. The inlet control surface should be
far enough upstream of the bar so that the inlet fluid velocity is UNex, the pressure is pN, and both
are uniform. The top and bottom control surfaces should be separated by a distance H that is large
enough so that these boundaries are free from shear stresses, and the horizontal velocity and
pressure are so close to UN and pN that any difference can be ignored. And finally, the outlet surface
should be far enough downstream so that streamlines are nearly horizontal there, the pressure can
again be treated as equal to pN, and viscous normal stresses can be ignored.
For steady flow and the chosen stationary volume, the control surface velocity is b ¼ 0 and
the time derivative terms in (4.5) and (4.17) are both zero. In addition, the surface force integral
contributes eFDex where the beam crosses the control volume’s vertical sides parallel to the x-y
plane. The remainder of the surface force integral contains only pressure terms since the shear stress
is zero on the control surface boundaries. After setting the pressure to pN on all control surfaces,
(4.5) and (4.17) simplify to:
Z Z Z
ruðxÞ$n dA ¼ 0; and ruðxÞuðxÞ$n dA ¼  pN n dA  FD ex :
A ðtÞ A A

In this case the pressure integral may be evaluated immediately using Gauss’ divergence
theorem:
Z Z
pN n dA ¼ VpN dV ¼ 0;
A V

with the final value (zero) occurring because pN is a constant. After this simplification, denote
the fluid velocity components by (u,v) ¼ u, and evaluate the mass and x-momentum conserva-
tion equations:
Z Z Z Z
 rUN l dy þ rvl dx  rvl dx þ rUðyÞl dy ¼ 0; and
Z
inlet
Z
top bottom
Z outlet
Z
 2
rUN l dy þ rUN vl dx  rUN vl dx þ rU 2 ðyÞl dy ¼ FD ;
inlet top bottom outlet

where u$n dA is: eUNldy on the inlet surface, þvldx on the top surface, evldx on the bottom
surface, and þU(y)ldy on the outlet surface where l is the span of the flow into the page. Dividing
both equations by rl, and combining like integrals produces:

Z Z Z
þH=2

v dx  v dx ¼ ðUN  UðyÞÞdy and

top bottom H=2
0 1
Z Z Z
þH=2
 
UN @ v dx  v dxA þ U 2 ðyÞ  UN
2
dy ¼ FD =rl:
top bottom H=2
120 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Eliminating the top and bottom control surface integrals between these two equations leads to:

Z
þH=2

FD =l ¼ r UðyÞðUN  UðyÞÞdy;
H=2

which produces a positive value of FD when U(y) is less than UN. An essential feature of this
analysis is that there are nonzero mass fluxes through the top and bottom control surfaces. The final
formula here is genuinely useful in experimental fluid mechanics since it allows FD/l to be deter-
mined from single-component velocity measurements made in the wake of an object.

EXAMPLE 4.5
Using a stream-tube control volume of differential length ds, derive the Bernoulli equation,
rU2/2 þ gz þ p/r ¼ constant along a streamline, for steady, inviscid, constant density flow where
U is the local flow speed.

Solution
The basic strategy is to use a stationary stream-tube-element control volume, (4.5), and (4.17) to
determine a simple differential relationship that can be integrated along a streamline. The geometry
is shown in Figure 4.3. For steady inviscid flow and a stationary control volume, the control surface
velocity b ¼ 0, the surface friction forces are zero, and the time derivative terms in (4.5) and (4.17)
are both zero. Thus, these two equations simplify to:
Z Z Z Z
ruðxÞ$n dA ¼ 0; and ruðxÞuðxÞ$n dA ¼ rg dV  pn dA:
A ðtÞ A ðtÞ V  ðtÞ A ðtÞ

The geometry of the volume plays an important role here. The nearly conical curved surface is
tangent to the velocity while the inlet and outlet areas are perpendicular to it. Thus, u$n dA is:

FIGURE 4.3 Momentum and mass bal- p + (∂ p ∂ s)ds

ance for a short segment of a stream tube in
steady inviscid constant-density flow. Here, A + (∂ A ∂ s)ds
the inlet and outlet areas are perpendicular to U + (∂ U ∂ s)ds
extra g
the flow direction, and they are small enough ρ
pressure z
so that only first order corrections in the force
stream tube need to be considered. The ds
alignment of gravity and the stream tube θ
leads to a vertical change of sinqds ¼ dz
between its two ends. The area difference p y
between the two ends of the stream-tube A stream tube
leads to an extra pressure force. U x
ρ
 4.4 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 121

eUdA on the inlet surface, zero on the nearly conical curved surface, and þ[Uþ(vU/vs)ds]dA on the
outlet surface. Therefore, conservation of mass with constant density leads to:
  
vU vA
erUA þ r U þ ds A þ ds ¼ 0;
vs vs

where first-order variations in U and A in the stream-wise direction are accounted for. Now
consider the stream-wise component of the momentum equation recalling that u ¼ Ueu and setting
g ¼ egez. For inviscid flow, the only surface force is pressure, so the simplified version of (4.17)
becomes:
 2  
vU vA
rU 2 A þ r U þ ds Aþ ds
vs vs
      
vA ds vp ds vA vp vA
¼ rgsinq A þ ds þ pA þ p þ ds  p þ ds A þ ds :
vs 2 vs 2 vs vs vs

Here, the middle pressure term comes from the extra pressure force on the nearly conical surface of
the stream tube.
To reach the final equation, use the conservation of mass result to simplify the flux terms on the
left side of the stream-wise momentum equation. Then, simplify the pressure contributions by
canceling common terms, and note that sinq ds ¼ dz to find:
 
vU vU
rU 2 A þ rU U þ ds A ¼ rUA ds
vs vs
 
vA ds vp vA ðdsÞ2 vp vp vA
¼ rg A þ dz þ  A ds  ðdsÞ2 :
vs 2 vs vs 2 vs vs vs

Continue by dropping the second-order terms that contain ðdsÞ2 or dsdz, and divide by rA to reach:

vU 1 vp   
U ds ¼ gdz  ds; or d U2 2 þ gdz þ ð1=rÞdp ¼ 0 along a streamline
:
vs r vs

Integrate the final differential expression along the streamline to find:


U 2 2 þ gz þ p=r ¼ a constant along a streamline: (4.19)

EXAMPLE 4.6
Consider a small solitary wave that moves from right to left on the surface of a water channel of
undisturbed depth h (Figure 4.4). Denote the acceleration of gravity by g. Assuming a small change
in the surface elevation across the wave, derive an expression for its propagation speed, U, when the
channel bed is flat and frictionless.
122 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

h y

FIGURE 4.4 Momentum and mass balance for a small amplitude water wave moving into quiescent water of
depth h. The recommended moving control volume is shown with dashed lines. The wave is driven by the imbalance
of static pressure forces on the vertical inlet (left) and outlet (right) control surfaces.

Solution
Before starting the control volume part of this problem, a little dimensional analysis goes a long
way toward determining the final solution. The statement of the problem has only three parameters,
U, g, and h, and there are two independent units (length and time). Thus, there is only one
dimensionless group, U 2 =gh, so it must be a constant. Therefore, the final answer must be in the
pffiffiffiffiffi
form: U ¼ const:$ gh, so the value of the following control volume analysis lies merely in
determining the constant.
Choose the control volume shown and assume it is moving at speed b ¼ Uex . Here we assume
that the upper and lower control surfaces coincide with the water surface and the channel’s fric-
tionless bed. They are shown close to these boundaries in Figure 4.4 for clarity. Apply the integral
conservation laws for mass and momentum, (4.5) and (4.17).
With this choice of a moving control volume, its contents are constant so the d/dt terms in both
equations are zero leaving:
Z Z Z Z
rðu þ Uex Þ$n dA ¼ 0 and ruðu þ Uex Þ$n dA ¼ rg dV þ f dA:
A A ðtÞ V  ðtÞ A ðtÞ

Here, all velocities are referred to a stationary coordinate frame, so that u ¼ 0 on the inlet side of
the control volume in the undisturbed fluid layer. In addition, label the inlet (left) and outlet (right)
water depths as hin and hout, respectively, and save consideration of the simplifications that occur
when ðhout  hin Þ  ðhout þ hin Þ=2 for the end of the analysis. Let Uout be the horizontal flow speed
on the outlet side of the control volume and assume its profile is uniform. Therefore ðu þ Uex Þ$n dA
is eUldy on the inlet surface, and þ(Uout þ U)ldy on the outlet surface, where l is (again) the width
of the flow into the page. With these replacements, the conservation of mass equation becomes:
rUhin l þ rðUout þ UÞhout l ¼ 0; or Uhin ¼ ðUout þ UÞhout ;
and the horizontal momentum equation becomes:
Z Z Z
rð0Þð0 þ UÞhin l þ rUout ðUout þ UÞhout l ¼  pn$ex dA  pn$ex dA  pn$ex dA:
inlet outlet top
 4.4 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 123
Here, no friction terms are included, and the body force term does not appear because it has no
horizontal component. First, consider the pressure integral on the top of the control volume, and let
y ¼ h(x) define the shape of the water surface:
Z Z qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðdh=dx; 1Þ
po n$ex dA ¼ po qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi$ð1; 0Þl 1 þ ðdh=dxÞ2 dx
1 þ ðdh=dxÞ2
Z   Zhout
dh
¼ po  l dx ¼ po l dh ¼ po lðhout  hin Þ;
dx
hin

where the various square-root factors arise from the surface geometry; po is the (constant) atmo-
spheric pressure on the water surface. The pressure on the inlet and outlet sides of the control
volume is hydrostatic. Using the coordinate system shown, integrating (1.14), and evaluating the
constant on the water surface produces p ¼ po þ rg(h e y). Thus, the integrated inlet and outlet
pressure forces are:
Z Z Z
pdA  pdA  po n$ex dA
inlet outlet top
Zhin Zhout
     
¼ po þ rg hin  y ldy  po þ rg hout  y ldy þ po ðhout  hin Þl
0 0

Zhin Zhout !
h2in h2out
¼ rgðhin  yÞldy  rgðhout  yÞldy ¼ rg  l;
2 2
0 0

where the signs of the inlet and outlet integrals have been determined by evaluating the dot
products and we again note that the constant reference pressure po does not contribute to the net
pressure force. Substituting this pressure force result into the horizontal momentum equation
produces:
rg  2 
rð0Þð0 þ UÞhin l þ rUout ðUout þ UÞhout l ¼ h  h2out l:
2 in
Dividing by the common factors of r and l to reach:
g 2 
Uout ðUout þ UÞhout ¼ hin  h2out ;
2
and eliminating Uout via the conservation of mass relationship, Uout ¼ ðhin  hout ÞU=hout , leads to:
 
ðhin  hout Þ ðhin  hout Þ g 2 
U U þ U hout ¼ h  h2out :
hout hout 2 in
Dividing by the common factor of (hin e hout) and simplifying the left side of the equation produces:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 hin g ghout pffiffiffiffiffi
U ¼ ðhin þ hout Þ; or U ¼ ðhin þ hout Þ z gh;
hout 2 2hin

where the final approximate equality holds when the inlet and outlet heights differ by only a
small amount with both nearly equal to h.
124 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

EXAMPLE 4.7
Derive the differential equation for the vertical motion for a simple rocket having nozzle area Ae
that points downward, exhaust discharge speed Ve, and exhaust density re, without considering the
internal flow within the rocket (Figure 4.5). Denote the mass of the rocket by M(t) and assume the
discharge flow is uniform.

Solution
Select a control volume (not shown) that contains the rocket and travels with it. This will be an
accelerating control volume and its velocity b ¼ b(t)ez will be the rocket’s vertical velocity. In
addition, the discharge velocity is specified with respect to the rocket, so in a stationary frame of
reference, the absolute velocity of the rocket’s exhaust is u ¼ uzez ¼ (eVe þ b)ez.
The conservation of mass and vertical-momentum equations are:
Z Z
d
r dV þ rðu  bÞ$n dA ¼ 0
dt
V  ðtÞ A ðtÞ
Z Z Z Z
d
ruz dV þ ruz ðu  bÞ$n dA ¼ g r dV þ fz dA:
dt
V  ðtÞ A ðtÞ V  ðtÞ A ðtÞ

Here we recognize the first term in each equation as the time derivative of the rocket’s mass M, and
the rocket’s vertical momentum Mb, respectively. (The second of these identifications is altered when
the rocket’s internal flows are considered; see Thompson, 1972, pp. 43e47.) For ordinary rocketry,
the rocket exhaust exit will be the only place that mass and momentum cross the control volume
boundary and here n ¼ eez; thus ðu  bÞ$n dA ¼ ðVe ez Þ$ðez ÞdA ¼ Ve dA over the nozzle exit. In
addition, we will denote the integral of vertical surface stresses by FS, a force that includes the
aerodynamic drag on the rocket and the pressure thrust produced when the rocket nozzle’s outlet
pressure exceeds the local ambient pressure. With these replacements, the above equations become:
dM d
þ re Ve Ae ¼ 0 and ðMbÞ þ re ðVe þ bÞVe Ae ¼ Mg þ FS :
dt dt

FIGURE 4.5 Geometry and parameters for a simple rocket having z

mass M(t) that is moving vertically at speed b(t). The rocket’s exhaust
area, density, and velocity (or specific impulse) are Ae, re, and b(t)
Ve, respectively.

M(t)
Ve

Ae

ρ,V
e e
 4.4 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 125
Eliminating reVeAe between the two equations produces:
 
d dM
ðMbÞ þ ðVe þ bÞ  ¼ Mg þ FS ;
dt dt
which reduces to:
d2 zR dM
M ¼ Ve  Mg þ FS ;
dt2 dt
where zR is the rocket’s vertical location and dzR/dt ¼ b. From this equation it is clear that
negative dM/dt (mass loss) may produce upward acceleration of the rocket when its exhaust
discharge velocity Ve is high enough. In fact, Ve is the crucial figure of merit in rocket propulsion
and is commonly referred to as the specific impulse, the thrust produced per unit rate of mass
discharged.
 4.6 NAVIER-STOKES MOMENTUM EQUATION 131

EXAMPLE 4.9
Write out the Navier-Stokes equations in two-dimensional (x, y)-coordinates when u ¼ (u, v), and
simplify these to the one-dimensional flow case where u ¼ u(x,t) and v ¼ 0.

Solution
Evaluate each component of (4.38) to find:
      
vu vu vu vp v vu 2 vu vv v vv vu
r þu þv ¼  þ rgx þ 2m þ my  m þ þ m þ and
vt vx vy vx vx vx 3 vx vy vy vx vy
      
vv vv vv vp v vu vv v vv 2 vu vv
r þu þv ¼  þ rgy þ m þ þ 2m þ my  m þ
vt vx vy vy vx vy vx vy vy 3 vx vy

where g ¼ (gx, gy). To reach the appropriate one-dimensional form, work from the x-component
equation above, and drop the terms containing v and y-derivatives of u. The result is:
    
vu vu vp v 4 vu
r þu ¼  þ rgx þ my þ m :
vt vx vx vx 3 vx
In this case, the y-component equation reduces to a hydrostatic balance: 0 ¼ evp/vy þ rgy.
136 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

EXAMPLE 4.10
Find the radial and angular fluid momentum equations for viscous flow in the gaps between
plates of a von Karman viscous-impeller pump (see Figure 4.10) that rotates at a constant angular
speed Uz. Assume steady constant-density constant-viscosity flow, neglect the body force for
simplicity, and use cylindrical coordinates (Figure 3.3c).

Solution
First, a little background. A von Karman viscous impeller pump uses rotating plates to pump
viscous fluids via a combination of viscous and centrifugal forces. Although such pumps may be
inefficient, they are wear-tolerant and may be used to pump abrasive fluids that would damage the
vanes or blades of other pumps. Plus, their pumping action is entirely steady so they can be
exceptionally quiet, a feature occasionally exploited for air-moving applications for interior spaces
occupied by human beings.
For steady, constant-density, constant-viscosity flow without a body force in a steadily rotating
frame of reference, the momentum equation is a simplified version of (4.45):

rðu0 $V0 Þu0 ¼ V0 p þ r½2U  u0  U  ðU  x0 Þ þ mV0 u0 :

2

Ωz

R radial
outflow

axial
inflow
FIGURE 4.10 Schematic drawing of the impeller of a von Karman pump (Example 4.10).
 4.8 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 137
Here we are not concerned with the axial inflow or the flow beyond the outer edges of the disks.
Now choose the z-axis of the coordinate system to be coincident with the axis of rotation. For this
choice, the flow between the disks should be axisymmetric, so we can presume that u0R , u04 , u0z and p
only depend on R and z. To further simplify the momentum equation, drop the primes, evaluate the
cross products:

U  u ¼ Uz ez  ðuR eR þ u4 e4 Þ ¼ þUz uR e4  Uz u4 eR ; and U  ðU  x0 Þ ¼ U2z ReR ;

and separate the radial, angular, and axial components to find:

 2    
vuR vuR u4 vp 1 v vuR v2 uR uR
r uR þ uz  ¼  þ r 2Uz u4 þ U2z R þ m R þ 2  2
vR vz R vR R vR vR vz R
     
vu4 vu4 uR u4 1 v vu4 v2 u4 u4
r uR þ uz þ ¼ r½2Uz uR  þ m R þ 2  2
vR vz R R vR vR vz R
     
vuz vuz vp 1 v vuz v2 uz
r uR þ uz ¼  þm R þ 2 :
vR vz vz R vR vR vz
Here we have used the results found in the Appendix B for cylindrical coordinates. In the first
two momentum equations, the terms in [,]-brackets result from rotation of the coordinate
system.
 4.9 SPECIAL FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS 141

EXAMPLE 4.11
Starting from (4.56) and (4.60), determine the mechanical and thermal energy equations when the
flow is incompressible, and m and k are constants.

Solution
When the flow is incompressible, vum/vxm ¼ 0 and sij ¼ m(vui/vxj þ vuj/vxi) from (4.59). For the
mechanical energy equation (4.56), the only impact is on the last term:
     !
v   v vui vuj v vui v2 uj v2 uj
uj sij ¼ uj m þ ¼ muj þ 2 ¼ muj :
vxi vxi vxj vxi vxj vxi vxi vx2i

where m ¼ constant allows the second equality, and vui/vxi ¼ 0 allows for the third. Thus, the
incompressible constant viscosity form of (4.56) is:
 
D 1 2 vp v2 uj  
r uj ¼ rgj uj  uj þ uj m 2 ¼ u$ rg  Vp þ mV2 u :
Dt 2 vxj vxi

For the thermal energy equation (4.60), the incompressibility condition allows three terms to be
dropped. And, when k is constant it may be brought outside the divergence in the final term. Thus,
when (3.12) is used for Sij, (4.60) simplifies to:
   2
De  2 v vT m vui vuj v2 T
r ¼ þ2m Sij þ k ¼ þ þ k 2:
Dt vxi vxi 2 vxj vxi vxi

When the first term on the right is small and e is proportional to T (both common occurrences), this
becomes a linear equation for the fluid temperature T.
 4.9 SPECIAL FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS 143

EXAMPLE 4.12
Consider a lawn sprinkler as shown in Figure 4.12. The area of each nozzle exit is A, and the jet
velocity is U. Find the torque required to hold the rotor stationary.

FIGURE 4.12 Lawn sprinkler.

144 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Solution
Select a stationary volume Vo with area Ao as shown by the dashed lines. Pressure everywhere on
the control surface is atmospheric, and there is no net moment due to the pressure forces. The
control surface cuts through the vertical support and the torque M exerted by the support on
the sprinkler arm is the only torque acting on Vo. Apply the angular momentum balance
Z Z
ðr  ruÞðu$nÞdA ¼ ðr  fÞdA ¼ M;
Ao Ao

where the time derivative term must be zero for a stationary rotor. Evaluating the surface flux
terms produces:
Z
ðr  ruÞðu$nÞdA ¼ ðarU cosaÞUA þ ðarU cosaÞUA ¼ 2arAU2 cosa:
Ao

Therefore, the torque required to hold the rotor stationary is M ¼ 2arAU2 cosa. When the sprinkler
is rotating at a steady rate, this torque is balanced by air resistance and mechanical friction.
 4.9 SPECIAL FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS 151

EXAMPLE 4.13
A perfect gas with specific heat ratio g at temperature T1 escapes horizontally at the speed of
sound (u1 ¼ c) from a small leak in a pressure vessel (Figure 4.18). What is the temperature T2 of the
gas as it leaves the pressure vessel if its enthalpy is proportional to T (i.e., h ¼ cpT) and the flow is
steady and frictionless?

T1

FIGURE 4.18 Pressure vessel with a small leak.

Solution
Start with the steady compressible-flow Bernoulli equation (4.78) without the gravity term and
use (1.33), c2 ¼ gRT, for the speed of sound c:
1 1 1
h1 þ u21 ¼ h2 þ c2 or cp T1 þ 0 ¼ cp T2 þ gRT2 :
2 2 2
Here, u1 z 0 is the speed of the quiescent gas in the pressure vessel, and the sound speed is
evaluated at the gas temperature as it passes through the orifice. The second equation is readily
solved for T2:
 
1
T2 ¼ cp T1 cp þ gR ¼ 2T1 =ðg þ 1Þ;
2
where (1.29) and (1.30) have been used to reach the final form. Interestingly, this answer
does not depend on the pressure in the vessel, and it leads to a noticeable temperature
change: T1  T2 ¼ ½ðg  1Þ=ðg þ 1ÞT1 , which is nearly 50 C for pressurized air starting at room
temperature.

EXAMPLE 4.14
The density and flow speed in the intake manifold of a reciprocating engine are approximately ro
(a constant) and u(t) ¼ Uo(1 þ sin(2pft)). If the throttle-plate-to-cylinder-intake-valve runner is a
straight horizontal tube of length L, (see Figure 4.19) determine a formula for the pressure difference
required between the ends of this tube to sustain this fluid motion, assuming frictionless incom-
pressible flow.

(1) (2)
L

x u(t)

FIGURE 4.19 Simple intake manifold for a reciprocating internal combustion engine.
152 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Solution
Start with the unsteady Bernoulli equation (4.82) and use the tube-centerline streamline between
the throttle plate (1) and the intake valve (2). This streamline is the dashed line in Figure 4.19.
Several simplifications to (4.82) can be made immediately: the flow is horizontal so the gravity terms
do not enter; the fluid velocity is the same at both ends of the tube so the kinetic energy terms
cancel; and the dot-product in the acceleration term is readily evaluated ðvu=vtÞ$ds ¼ ðvu=vtÞdx.
Thus, (4.82) becomes:
Z2 Z2
vu p2 p1 vu vu
dx þ ¼ ; or p1  p2 ¼ r dx ¼ r ðx2  x1 Þ
vt r r vt vt (4.82)
1 1

¼ 2prfUo L cosð2pftÞ;

where x2 e x1 ¼ L, and the integral is elementary because vu/vt ¼ 2pfUocos(2pft) does not
depend on x.
Interestingly, even for a low air density (0.5 kg/m3), a low frequency (50 Hz), a low flow speed
(10 m/s), and a short runner length (0.3 m), this estimate produces pressure fluctuations that are
enormous from a sound amplitude standpoint: jp1 e p2j ¼ 2p(0.5 kg/m3)(50 Hz)(10 m/s)(0.3 m)
z 470 Pa. Although this pressure is a tiny fraction of atmospheric pressure, it corresponds to a
sound pressure level of more than 140 dB re 20 mPa, a level that quickly causes hearing damage or
loss.
 4.10 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 161

EXAMPLE 4.15
Calculate the shape of the free surface of a liquid adjoining an infinite vertical plane wall.

Solution
Here let z ¼ z(x) define the free surface shape. With reference to Figure 4.22 where the y axis
points into the page, 1/R1 ¼ [v2z/vx2][1 þ (vz/vx)2]e3/2, and 1/R2 ¼ [v2z/vy2][1 þ (vz/vy)2]e3/2 ¼ 0.
At the free surface, rgz  s/R1 ¼ const. As x / N, z / 0, and R2 / N, so const ¼ 0. Then rgz/s 
z00 /(1 þ z0 2)3/2 ¼ 0.
z

Gas
Solid
liquid surface
h
x
Liquid

FIGURE 4.22 Free surface of a liquid adjoining a vertical plane wall. Here the contact angle is q and the liquid
rises to z ¼ h at the solid wall.

Multiply by the integrating factor z0 and integrate. We obtain (rg/2s)z2 þ (1 þ z0 2)e1/2 ¼ C.

Evaluate C as x / N, z / 0, z0 / 0. Then C ¼ 1. We look at x ¼ 0, z ¼ z(0) ¼ h to find h. The slope
at the wall, z0 ¼ tan(q þ p/2) ¼ cot q. Then 1 þ z0 2 ¼ 1 þ cot2q ¼ csc2q. Thus we now have (rg/2s)
h2 ¼ 1  1/cscq ¼ 1  sinq, so that h2 ¼ (2s/rg)(1  sinq). Finally we seek to integrate to obtain the
shape of the interface. Squaring and rearranging the result above, the differential equation we must
solve may be written as 1 þ (dz/dx)2 ¼ [1  (rg/2s)z2]e2. Solving for the slope and taking the
negative square root (since the slope is negative for positive x):
 n    2 o1=2    1
dz dx ¼  1  1  rg 2s z2 1  rg 2s z2 :

Define s/rg ¼ d2, z/d ¼ g. Rewriting the equation in terms of x/d and g, and separating variables:
 1=2
2ð1  g2 =2Þg1 4  g2 dg ¼ dðx=dÞ:

The integrand on the left is simplified by partial fractions and the constant of integration is eval-
uated at x ¼ 0 when h ¼ h/d. Finally:
  1=2   1=2
cosh1 ð2d=zÞ  4  z2 d2  cosh1 ð2d=hÞ þ 4  h2 d2 ¼ x=d

gives the shape of the interface in terms of x(z).

 4.11 DIMENSIONLESS FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS AND DYNAMIC SIMILARITY 169

EXAMPLE 4.16
A ship 100 m long (l) is expected to cruise at 10 m/s (U). It has a submerged surface of 300 m2 (A).
Find the model speed for a 1/25 scale model, neglecting frictional effects. The drag force FD is
measured to be 60 N when the model is tested in a towing tank at this model speed. Estimate the full
scale drag when the skin-friction drag coefficient for the model is 0.003 and that for the full-scale
ship is 0.0015.

Solution
The ship’s hull will interact with the water’s surface and directly with the water, so both wave
drag and friction drag will occur. In dimensionless form, this requires a dimensionless drag force to
depend on the Froude number, the Reyonlds number, and an aspect ratio:
   .pffiffiffiffi
1 2 pffiffiffiffi. 
FD rU A ¼ J U gl; rUl=m; A l ;
2
where J is an undetermined function. Here it will not be possible to match both Fr and Re between
the model and the full-scale device. However, the aspect ratio is matched automatically for a true
scale-model test so it’s not considered further.
To find the model test speed, equate the model and ship Froude numbers:
 .pffiffiffiffi  .pffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
U gl ¼ U gl ; which implies : Um ¼ Us glm =gls ¼ ð10 m=sÞ 1=25 ¼ 2 m=s:
m s

Here subscripts “m” and “s” denote model and ship parameters, respectively.
The total drag on the model is measured to be 60 N at this model speed, and part of this is friction
drag. Here we can use Froude’s hypothesis that the unknown function J is a sum of a frictional drag
term Jf that only depends on the Reynolds number (and surface roughness ratio), and a wave
drag term Jw that only depends on the Froude number.
   .pffiffiffiffi
1 2
FD rU A ¼ Jw U gl þ Jf ðrUl=mÞ:
2
Futhermore, treat the submerged portion of the hull as a flat plate for which the friction drag co-
efficient CD is a function of the Reynolds number, i.e., set CD ¼ Jf. The problem statement sets the
frictional drag coefficients as CD,m ¼ 0.003 and CD,s ¼ 0.0015, and these are consistent with
the length-based Re values for the model and the ship, 8  106 and 109, respectively. Using a value
of r ¼ 1000 kg/m3 for water, the model’s friction drag can be estimated:
 
1 2      
rU ACD ¼ ð0:5Þ 103 kg m3 ð2 m=sÞ2 300 m2 252 ð0:003Þ ¼ 2:88 N:
2 m
170 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Thus, out of the total model drag of 60 N, the model’s wave drag is (FWD)m ¼ 60  2.88 ¼ 57.12 N.
And this wave drag obeys the scaling law above, which means that:
! !
FWD FWD
ðJw Þm ¼ ðJw Þs ¼ 1 2 ¼ 1 2 :
2
rU A 2
rU A
m s

Thus, the wave drag on the ship (FWD)s can be estimated as follows:
 2
r U 2 As 10 m=s
ðFWD Þs ¼ ðFWD Þm s 2s ¼ ð57:12 NÞð1Þ ð25Þ2 ¼ 8:925  105 N;
rm Um Am 2 m=s

where the area ratio is the square of the length-scale ratio. To this must be added the ship’s frictional
drag:
 
1 2    
rU ACD ¼ ð0:5Þ 103 kg=m3 ð10 m=sÞ2 300 m2 ð0:0015Þ ¼ 0:225  105 N:
2 s

Therefore, total drag on ship is predicted to be: (8.925 þ 0.225)  105 ¼ 9.15  105 N. If no correction
was made for friction, and all the measured model drag was assumed due to wave effects, then the
prediced ship drag would be:
 2
r U2 As 10 m=s
ðFD Þs ¼ ðFD Þm s 2s ¼ ð60 NÞð1Þ ð25Þ2 ¼ 9:37  105 N;
rm Um Am 2 m=s
which is a few percent higher than the friction-corrected estimate.