4.

3 Conservation of Mass 91

Example 4.1 MASS FLOW AT A PIPE JUNCTION

Consider the steady flow in a water pipe joint shown in the diagram. The areas are: A1 = 0:2 m2 , A2 = 0:2 m2 , and A3 = 0:15 m2 . In
addition, fluid is lost out of a hole at , estimated at a rate of 0:1 m3 =s. The average speeds at sections and are V1 = 5 m=s
and V3 = 12 m=s, respectively. Find the velocity at section .

Given: Steady flow of water through the device.

A1 = 0:2 m2 A2 = 0:2 m2 A3 = 0:15 m2

V1 = 5 m=s V3 = 12 m=s ρ = 999 kg=m3
4
Volume flow rate at = 0:1 m3 =s 1

Find: Velocity at section . = 30° 3

Solution: Choose a fixed control volume as shown. Make an assumption that

the flow at section is outwards, and label the diagram accordingly (if this
assumption is incorrect our final result will tell us).
2
Governing equation: The general control volume equation is Eq. 4.12, but
we can go immediately to Eq. 4.13b because of assumptions (2) and (3) below,
X ! !
CS
V  A =0

Assumptions:
1 Steady flow (given). 4
1
2 Incompressible flow.
3
3 Uniform properties at each section.
Hence (using Eq. 4.14a for the leak) CV
! ! ! ! ! !
V 1  A1 + V 2  A2 + V 3  A3 + Q4 = 0 ð1Þ
2
where Q4 is the flow rate out of the leak.

Let us examine the first three terms in Eq. 1 in light of the discussion of
Fig. 4.3 and the directions of the velocity vectors:
 ! ! 
! !
V 1  A1 = − V1 A1 Sign of V 1  A1 is
V1 1
negative at surface
A1

 ! ! 
! !
V 2  A2 = + V2 A2 Sign of V 2  A2 is
positive at surface
2

A2
V2
92 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

 ! ! 
! !
V 3  A3 = + V3 A3 Sign of V 3  A3 is
V3
positive at surface
A3
3

Using these results in Eq. 1,

−V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3 + Q4 = 0
or
V1 A1 − V3 A3 − Q4
V2 =
A2
m m 0:1 m3
5 × 0:2 m2 − 12 × 0:15 m2 −
= s s s
0:2 m2
= − 4:5 m=s  V2
 This problem demonstrates use of the sign
R ! !
Recall that V2 represents the magnitude of the velocity, which we assumed was convention for evaluating A V  dA or
! !

outwards from the control volume. The fact that V2 is negative means that in fact ΣCS V  A. In particular, the area normal is
always drawn outwards from the control
we have an inflow at location —our initial assumption was invalid.
surface.

Example 4.2 MASS FLOW RATE IN BOUNDARY LAYER

The fluid in direct contact with a stationary solid boundary has zero velocity; there is no slip at the boundary. Thus the flow over a
flat plate adheres
!
to the plate surface and forms a boundary layer, as depicted below. The flow ahead of the plate is uniform with
velocity V = U ^i; U = 30 m=s. The velocity distribution within
the boundary layer ð0 ≤ y ≤ δÞ along cd is approximated as U U
CV
u=U = 2ðy=δÞ − ðy=δÞ2 . b c
The boundary-layer thickness at location d is δ = 5 mm. The y Edge of
boundary
fluid is air with density ρ = 1:24 kg=m3 . Assuming the plate layer
width perpendicular to the paper to be w = 0:6 m, calculate the x
a d
mass flow rate across surface bc of control volume abcd.

Given: Steady, incompressible flow over a flat

!
plate, ρ = 1:24 kg=m3 . Width of plate, w = 0:6 m
Velocity ahead of plate is uniform: V = U ^i, U = 30 m=s.
At x = xd :
δ = 5 mm
u  y   y 2
=2 −
U δ δ

Find: Mass flow rate across surface bc.

U U
CV
Solution: The fixed control volume is shown by the dashed lines. b c
y
Governing equation: The general control volume equation is δ = 5 mm
Eq. 4.12, but we can go immediately to Eq. 4.15a because of x
assumption (1) below, a d
Z
! !
ρV dA =0
CS
 4.3 Conservation of Mass 93

Assumptions:
1 Steady flow (given).
2 Incompressible flow (given).
3 Two-dimensional flow, given properties are independent of z.
Assuming that there is no flow in the z direction, then
 
no flow
across da
Z Z Z Z

!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
ρV  dA þ ρV  dA þ ρV  dA þ ρV  dA ¼ 0 ð1Þ


Aab A A A
Z bc Z cd Z da
! ! ! ! ! !
∴m_ bc ¼ ρV  dA ¼ − ρV  dA − ρV  dA
Abc Aab Acd

We need to evaluate the integrals on the right side of the equation.

Z For depth w inZthe z direction,
Z we
y
obtain
b ! ! 
! !
ρV  dA = − ρu dA = − ρuw dy V  dA is negative
b
Aab Aab ya dA = wdy
Z δ Z δ dA fu = U over area abg
=− ρuw dy = − ρUw dy
0 0 V
Z
! ! a
ρV  dA = − ½ρUwyδ0 = − ρUwδ ! ! 
Aab V  dA is positive
Z Z Z c
! !
yc dA = wdy
ρV  dA = ρu dA = ρuw dy dA
Acd Acd yd
Z δ Z δ  y   y 2 V

= ρuw dy = ρwU 2 − dy d
0 0 δ δ
Z δ
! ! y2 y3 1 2ρUwδ
ρV  dA = ρwU − = ρwUδ 1 − =
Acd δ 3δ2 0 3 3

Substituting into Eq. 1, we obtain

2ρUwδ ρUwδ
∴m_ bc = ρUwδ− =
3 3
1 kg m m
= × 1:24 3 × 30 × 0:6 m × 5 mm ×
3 m s 1000 mm
Positive sign indicate flow
m_ bc = 0:0372 kg=s
out across surface bc: m_ b This problem demonstrates use of the

conservation of mass equation when we
have nonuniform flow at a section.

Example 4.3 DENSITY CHANGE IN VENTING TANK

A tank of 0:05 m3 volume contains air at 800 kPa (absolute) and 15 C. At t = 0, air begins escaping from the tank through a valve
with a flow area of 65 mm2 . The air passing through the valve has a speed of 300 m=s and a density of 6 kg=m3 . Determine the
instantaneous rate of change of density in the tank at t = 0.

--- = 0:05 m3 contains air at p = 800 kPa ðabsoluteÞ, T = 15 C. At t = 0, air escapes through a valve. Air
Given: Tank of volume V
leaves with speed V = 300 m=s and density ρ = 6 kg=m3 through area A = 65 mm2 .
94 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Find: Rate of change of air density in the tank at t = 0. y

Solution: Choose a fixed control volume as shown by the dashed line.

x
Governing equation: Z Z
∂ ! !
ρ dV
--- + ρV  dA = 0
∂t CV CS 1
CV
Assumptions:
1 Properties in the tank are uniform, but time-dependent.
2 Uniform flow at section .
Since properties are assumed uniform in the tank at any instant, we can take ρ out from within the volume integral of the
first term,
Z Z
∂ ! !
ρCV --- +
dV ρV  dA = 0
∂t CV CS
R
Now, CV dV --- = V
---, and hence
Z
∂ ! !
ðρV ÞCV +
--- ρV  dA = 0
∂t CS

The only place where mass crosses the boundary of the control volume is at surface . Hence
Z Z Z
! ! ! ! ∂ ! !
ρV  dA = ρV  dA and ðρV Þ + ρV  dA = 0
---
CS A1 ∂t A1
! !
At surface the sign of ρV  dA is positive, so
Z A1
∂
ðρV
---Þ + ρV dA = 0 V1
∂t A1

Since flow is assumed uniform over surface , then

∂ ∂
ðρV
---Þ + ρ1 V1 A1 = 0 or ðρV
---Þ = −ρ1 V1 A1
∂t ∂t
---, of the tank is not a function of time,
Since the volume, V
∂ρ
-V-- = − ρ1 V1 A1
∂t
and
∂ρ ρ V1 A1
=− 1
∂t -V--
At t = 0,
∂ρ kg m 1 m2
= − 6 3 × 300 × 65 mm3 × × 6
∂t m s 0:05 m 3
10 mm2
∂ρ
∂ρ fThe density is decreasing:g This problem demonstrates use of the
= − 2:34ðkg=m3 Þ=s ∂t
∂t  conservation of mass equation for unsteady
flow problems.
96 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Example 4.4 CHOICE OF CONTROL VOLUME FOR MOMENTUM ANALYSIS

Water from a stationary nozzle strikes a flat plate as shown. The water leaves the nozzle at 15 m=s; the nozzle area is 0:01 m2 .
Assuming the water is directed normal to the plate, and flows along the plate, determine the horizontal force you need to resist to
hold it in place.

Given: Water from a stationary nozzle is directed normal to the plate; subsequent flow is Plate
parallel to plate.
!
Jet velocity, V = 15^i m=s
Nozzle area, An = 0:01 m2 Nozzle
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 97

Find: Horizontal force on your hand.

Solution: We chose a coordinate system in defining the problem above. We must now choose
a suitable control volume. Two possible choices are shown by the dashed lines below.
In both cases, water from the nozzle crosses the control surface through area A1 (assumed
equal to the nozzle area) and is assumed to leave the control volume tangent to the plate surface V
in the + y or −y direction. Before trying to decide which is the “best” control volume to use, let
us write the governing equations.
y
Z Z Z Z
! ! ! ∂ ! ! ! ! ∂ ! ! x
F = FS + FB = V ρdV --- + V ρV  dA and ρ dV--- + ρV  dA = 0
∂t CV CS ∂t CV CS

CVI
Assumptions: A
1 Steady flow. 1

2 Incompressible flow. y

3 Uniform flow at each section where fluid crosses the CV boundaries. x

Regardless of our choice of control volume, assumptions (1), (2), and (3) lead to
CVII
! ! ! X ! ! ! X ! !
F = FS + FB = CS
V ρV  A and CS
ρV  A = 0
1 Ap
Evaluating the momentum flux term will lead to the same result for both control volumes. We y
should choose the control volume that allows the most straightforward !
evaluation of the forces.
Remember in applying the momentum equation that the force, F , represents all forces acting on x
the control volume.
Let us solve the problem using each of the control volumes.
patm patm
CVI
The control volume has been selected so that the area of the left surface is equal to the area of the right
surface. Denote this area by A.
Ry Rx
The control volume cuts through your hand. We denote the components of the reaction force of W
your hand on the control volume as Rx and Ry and assume both to be positive. (The force of the
control volume on your hand is equal and opposite to Rx and Ry .)
Atmospheric pressure acts on all surfaces of the control volume. Note that the pressure in a free y
x
jet is ambient, i.e., in this case atmospheric. (The distributed force due to atmospheric pressure has
been shown on the vertical faces only.)
The body force on the control volume is denoted as W.
Since we are looking for the horizontal force, we write the x component of the steady flow momentum equation
X ! !
FSx + FBx = CS
u ρV  A

There are no body forces in the x direction, so FBx = 0, and

X ! !
FSx = CS
u ρV  A

To evaluate FSx , we must include all surface forces acting on the control volume

FSx = patm A − patm A + Rx

force due to atmospheric force due to atmospheric force of your hand on
pressure acts to right pressure acts to left control volume
ðpositive directionÞ ðnegative directionÞ ðassumed positiveÞ
on left surface on right surface
98 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Consequently, FSx = Rx , and

X ! ! ! !
Rx = CS
u ρV  A = u ρV  Aj1 fFor top and bottom surfaces, u = 0g
! !
At , ρV 1  A1 = ρð −V1 A1 Þ since
! !
Rx = − u1 ρV1 A1 V 1 and A1 are 180∘ apart:
Note that u1 = V1 g
m kg m N s 2
Rx = − 15 × 999 3 × 15 × 0:01 m2 × fu1 = 15 m=sg
s m s kg  m
Rx = − 2:25 kN fRx acts opposite to positive direction assumed:g

The horizontal force on your hand is

fforce on your hand acts to the rightg Kx

Kx = − Rx = 2:25 kN 

CVII with Horizontal Forces Shown

The control volume has been selected so the areas of the left surface and of the right surface are equal to
the area of the plate. Denote this area by Ap .
The control volume is in contact with the plate over the entire plate surface. We denote the horizontal patm
Bx
reaction force from the plate on the control volume as Bx (and assume it to be positive).
Atmospheric pressure acts on the left surface of the control volume (and on the two horizontal
surfaces).
The body force on this control volume has no component in the x direction.
Then the x component of the momentum equation,
patm
X ! !
FSx = CS
uρV  A Bx Rx

yields Ry
! !
FSx = patm Ap + Bx = u ρV  Aj1 = −u1 V1 A1 = −2:25 kN

Then

Bx = −patm Ap −2:25 kN

To determine the net force on the plate, we need a free-body diagram of the plate:
P
Fx = 0 = − Bx − patm Ap + Rx
Notes:
• This problem demonstrates how
Rx = patm Ap + Bx
thoughtful choice of the control volume
Rx = patm Ap + ð − patm Ap − 2:25 kNÞ = −2:25 kN can simplify use of the momentum
equation.
• The analysis would have been greatly
Then the horizontal force on your hand is Kx = −Rx = 2:25 kN.
simplified if we had worked in gage
Note that the choice of CVII meant we needed an additional free-body dia- pressures (see Example 4.6).
gram. In general it is best to select the control volume so that the force sought • For this problem the force generated was
acts explicitly on the control volume. entirely due to the plate absorbing the
jet’s horizontal momentum.
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 99

Example 4.5 TANK ON SCALE: BODY FORCE

A metal container 0.61 m high, with an inside cross-sectional area of 0:09 m2 , weighs 22.2 N when empty. The container is placed
on a scale and water flows in through an opening in the top and out through the two equal-area openings in the sides, as shown in
the diagram. Under steady flow conditions, the height of the water in the tank
is 0:58 m.
A1 = 0:009 m2 V1
1
!
V 1 = − 3^j m=s
A2 = A3 = 0:009 m2 3 h 2
V3 V2
Your boss claims that the scale will read the weight of the volume of water in the y
tank plus the tank weight, i.e., that we can treat this as a simple statics problem. Scale
You disagree, claiming that a fluid flow analysis is required. Who is right, and what x
does the scale indicate?

Given: Metal container, of height 0.61 m and cross-sectional area A = 0:09 m2 , weighs 22.2 lbf when empty. Container rests on
scale. Under steady flow conditions water depth is h = 0:58 m. Water enters vertically at section and leaves horizontally
through sections and
V1 1
A1 = 0:009 m2 CV
!
V 1 = −3^j m=s Wtank
2 3 h 2
A2 = A3 = 0:009 m
V3 WH O V2
y
2
Find: Scale reading.

Solution: Choose a control volume as shown; Ry is the force of the scale on the x
control volume (exerted on the control volume through the supports) and is assumed Ry
positive.
The weight of the tank is designated Wtank ; the weight of the water in the tank is WH2 O .
Atmospheric pressure acts uniformly on the entire control surface, and therefore has no net effect on the control volume.
Because of this null effect we have not shown the pressure distribution in the diagram.
Governing equations: The general control volume momentum and mass conservation equations are Eqs. 4.17 and 4.12,
respectively,
¼ 0ð1Þ
Z Z
∂
!

! ! ! ! ! !
FS þ FB ¼ V ρ dV þ V ρV  dA
∂t CV


CS

¼ 0ð1Þ
Z Z
∂
!

! !
ρ dV þ ρV  dA ¼ 0
∂t CV


CS

Note that we usually start with the simplest forms (based on the problem assumptions, e.g., steady flow) of the mass conservation
and momentum equations. However, in this problem, for illustration purposes, we start with the most general forms of the
equations.
Assumptions:
1 Steady flow (given).
2 Incompressible flow.
3 Uniform flow at each section where fluid crosses the CV boundaries.
We are only interested in the y component of the momentum equation
100 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Z
! ! ð1Þ
FSy + FBy = υρV  dA
CS
F Sy = R y fThere is no net force due to atmosphere pressure:g
FBy = − Wtank − WH2 O fBoth body forces act in negative y direction:g
WH2 O = ρgV --- = γAh
(! ! )
Z Z Z
! ! ! ! V  dA is negative at
υ ρV  dA = υ ρV  dA = υð−ρV1 dA1 Þ
CS A1 A1 υ = 0 at sections and
 
We are assuming uniform
= υ1 ð − ρV1 A1 Þ
properties at
Using these results in Eq. 1 gives
Ry − Wtank − γAh = υ1 ð −ρV1 A1 Þ
!
Note that υ1 is the y component of the velocity, so that υ1 = −V1 , where we recall that V1 = 3 m=s is the magnitude of velocity V 1 .
Hence, solving for Ry ,
Ry = Wtank + γAh + ρV12 A1
N kg m2 N  s2
= 22:2 N + 9800 × 0:09 m2 × 0:58 m + 1000 3 × 9 2 × 0:009 m2 ×
m 3 m s kg  m
= 22:2 N + 511:6 N + 81 N
Ry
Ry = 614:8 N  
Note that this is the force of the scale on the control volume; it is also the reading
on the scale. We can see that the scale reading is due to: the tank weight (22.2 N),
the weight of water instantaneously in the tank (511.6 N), and the force involved
in absorbing the downward momentum of the fluid at section (81 N). Hence
your boss is wrong—neglecting the momentum results in an error of almost This problem illustrates use of the
13 percent. momentum equation including significant
body forces.

Example 4.6 FLOW THROUGH ELBOW: USE OF GAGE PRESSURES

Water flows steadily through the 90 reducing elbow shown in the diagram. At the inlet to the elbow, the absolute pressure is
220 kPa and the cross-sectional area is 0:01 m2 . At the outlet, the cross-sectional area is 0:0025 m2 and the velocity is 16 m=s. The
elbow discharges to the atmosphere. Determine the force required to hold the elbow in place.

Given: Steady flow of water through 90 reducing elbow.

!
p1 = 220 kPa ðabsÞ A1 = 0:01 m2 V 2 = −16 ^j m=s A2 = 0:0025 m2 1

Find: Force required to hold elbow in place.

y
Solution: Choose a fixed control volume as shown. Note that we have several surface force
computations: p1 on area A1 and patm everywhere else. The exit at section is to a free jet, x
2
and so at ambient (i.e., atmospheric) pressure. We can use a simplification here: If we subtract
patm from the entire surface (a null effect as far as forces are concerned) we can work in gage
pressures, as shown.
Note that since the elbow is anchored to the supply line, in addition to the reaction forces Rx and Ry (shown), there would also
be a reaction moment (not shown).
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 101

1 patm

Rx W Rx W
V1 p1
– patm =
p1g
Ry Ry
2 patm
CV V2

Governing equations:

¼ 0ð4Þ Z
Z
∂

!
! ! ! ! ! ! !
F ¼ FS þ FB ¼ V ρ dV þ V ρV  dA
∂t CV


CS
¼ 0ð4Þ Z
Z
∂

!
! !
ρ dV þ ρV  dA ¼ 0
∂t CV

CS

Assumptions:
1 Uniform flow at each section.
2 Atmospheric pressure, patm = 101 kPa ðabsÞ.
3 Incompressible flow.
4 Steady flow (given).
5 Neglect weight of elbow and water in elbow.
Once again (although we didn’t need to) we started with the most general form of the governing equations. Writing the x com-
ponent of the momentum equation results in
Z Z
! ! ! !
FSx = uρV  dA = uρV  dA f FBx = 0 and u2 = 0 g
CS A1 Z
! !
p1g A1 + Rx = u ρV  dA
A1

so
Z
! !
Rx = −p1g A1 + u ρV  dA
A1
= −p1g A1 + u1 ð−ρV1 A1 Þ
Rx = −p1g A1 −ρV12 A1
Note that u1 is the x component of the velocity, so that u1 = V1 . To find V1 , use the mass conservation equation:
Z Z Z
! ! ! ! ! !
ρV  dA = ρV  dA + ρV  dA = 0
CS A1 A2
∴ð−ρV1 A1 Þ + ðρV2 A2 Þ = 0
and
A2 m 0:0025
V1 = V2 = 16 × = 4 m=s
A1 s 0:01
We can now compute Rx
Rx = −p1g A1 −ρV12 A1
N kg m2 N  s2
= −1:19 × 105 × 0:01 m 2
−999 × 16 × 0:01 m 2
×
m2 m3 s2 kg  m
Rx
Rx = −1:35 kN 
102 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Writing the y component of the momentum equation gives

Z Z
! ! ! !
FSy + FBy = Ry + FBy = υ ρV  dA = υ ρV  dA fυ1 = 0g
CS A2

or
Z
! !
Ry = −FBy + υ ρV  dA
A2
= −FBy + υ2 ðρV2 A2 Þ
Ry = −FBy −ρV22 A2
Note that υ2 is the y component of the velocity, so that υ2 = −V2 , where V2 is the magnitude of the exit velocity.
Substituting known values
Ry = − FBy + − ρV22 A2
kg 2m
2
N  s2
= − FBy − 999 × ð16Þ × 0:0025 m 2
×
m3 s2 kg  m
Ry
= − FBy − 639 N  
Neglecting FBy gives
This problem illustrates how using gage
Ry
Ry = − 639 N  pressures simplifies evaluation of the sur-
face forces in the momentum equation.

Example 4.7 FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FORCE

Water in an open channel is held in by a sluice gate. Compare the horizontal force of the water on the gate (a) when the gate is
closed and (b) when it is open (assuming steady flow, as shown). Assume the flow at sections and is incompressible and
uniform, and that (because the streamlines are straight there) the pressure distributions are hydrostatic.

Given: Flow under sluice gate. Width = w.

Find: Horizontal force (per unit width) on the closed and open gate.

Solution: Choose a control volume as shown for the open gate. Note
that it is much simpler to work in gage pressures, as we learned in V1 = 1 m/s
Example 4.6. D2 = 0.429 m
D1 = 3 m
The forces acting on the control volume include: V2 = 7 m/s

• Force of gravity W. Water

• Friction force Ff .
• Components Rx and Ry of reaction force from gate. 1 2
• Hydrostatic pressure distribution on vertical surfaces, assumption (6).
• Pressure distribution pb ðxÞ along bottom surface (not shown).
Apply the x component of the momentum equation.
Governing equation:

¼ 0ð2Þ ¼ 0ð3Þ
Z Z
∂
!
!

! !
FSx þ FBx ¼ u ρdV þ u ρV  dA
∂t CV



CS
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 103

Ry
1
D2 = 0.429 m p1(y)
V1 = 1 m/s V2 = 7 m/s
D1 = 3 m Rx
W

Water
Ff p2(y)

Assumptions:
1 Ff negligible (neglect friction on channel bottom).
2 FBx = 0.
3 Steady flow.
4 Incompressible flow (given).
5 Uniform flow at each section (given).
6 Hydrostatic pressure distributions at and (given).
Then
FSx = FR1 + FR2 + Rx = u1 ð −ρV1 wD1 Þ + u2 ðρV2 wD2 Þ
The surface forces acting on the CV are due to the pressure distributions and the unknown force Rx . From assumption (6), we can
integrate the gage pressure distributions on each side to compute the hydrostatic forces FR1 and FR2 ,
ZD1 ZD1 D1
y2 1
FR1 = p1 dA = w ρgy dy = ρgw = ρgwD21
2 0 2
0 0

where y is measured downward from the free surface of location , and

ZD2 ZD2 D2
y2 1
FR2 = p2 dA = w ρgy dy = ρgw = ρgwD22
2 0 2
0 0

where y is measured downward from the free surface of location . (Note that we could have used the hydrostatic force equation,
Eq. 3.10b, directly to obtain these forces.)
Evaluating FSx gives
ρgw 2
FSx = Rx + ðD1 − D22 Þ
2
Substituting into the momentum equation, with u1 = V1 and u2 = V2 , gives
ρgw 2
Rx + ðD1 −D22 Þ = −ρV12 wD1 + ρV22 wD2
2
or
ρgw 2
Rx = ρwðV22 D2 −V12 D1 Þ − ðD1 −D22 Þ
2
The second term on the right is the net hydrostatic force on the gate; the first term “corrects” this (and leads to a smaller net force)
for the case when the gate is open. What is the nature of this “correction”? The pressure in the fluid far away from the gate in either
direction is indeed hydrostatic, but consider the flow close to the gate: Because we have significant velocity variations here (in
magnitude and direction), the pressure distributions deviate significantly from hydrostatic—for example, as the fluid accelerates
under the gate there will be a significant pressure drop on the lower left side of the gate. Deriving this pressure field would be a
difficult task, but by careful choice of our CV we have avoided having to do so!
104 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

We can now compute the horizontal force per unit width,

Rx ρg
= ρðV22 D2 −V12 D1 Þ − ðD21 −D22 Þ
w 2
kg m2 N  s2
= 999 3 × ½ð7Þ ð0:429Þ−ð1Þ2 ð3Þ 2 m ×
2
m s kg  m
1 kg m N  s2
− × 999 3 × 9:81 2 × ½ð3Þ2 − ð0:429Þ2 m2 ×
2 m s kg  m
Rx
= 18:0 kN=m −43:2 kN=m
w
Rx
= − 25:2 kN=m
w

Rx is the external force acting on the control volume, applied to the CV by the gate. Therefore, the force of the water on the gate is
Kx , where Kx = − Rx . Thus,
Kx
Kx Rx w
= − = 25:2 kN=m 
w w
This force can be compared to the force on the closed gate of 44.1 kN (obtained
from the second term on the right in the equation above, evaluated with D2 set to
zero because for the closed gate there is no fluid on the right of the gate)—the This problem illustrates the application
force on the open gate is significantly less as the water accelerates out under of the momentum equation to a control
the gate. volume for which the pressure is not
uniform on the control surface.

Example 4.8 CONVEYOR BELT FILLING: RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM IN CONTROL VOLUME

A horizontal conveyor belt moving at 0:9 m=s receives sand from a hopper. The sand falls vertically from the hopper to the belt at
a speed of 1:5 m=s and a flow rate of 225 kg=s (the density of sand is approximately 1580 kg=m3 ). The conveyor belt is initially
empty but begins to fill with sand. If friction in the drive system and rollers is negligible, find the tension required to pull the belt
while the conveyor is filling.

Given: Conveyor and hopper shown in sketch.

Find: Tbelt at the instant shown. Hopper

Solution: Use the control volume and coordinates shown. Apply 1 Vsand = 1.5 m/s
y
the x component of the momentum equation. Vbelt = 0.9 m/s CV
Sand 2 T
Governing equations: belt
x

¼ 0ð2ÞZ Z Z Z
∂ ! ! ∂ !
!

!
FSx þ FBx ¼ u ρdV þ u ρV  dA ρdV þ ρV  dA ¼ 0
∂t CV ∂t


CS CV CS

Assumptions:
1 FSx = Tbelt = T.
2 FBx = 0.
3 Uniform flow at section .
4 All sand on belt moves with Vbelt = Vb .
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 105

Then Z
∂
T= --- + u1 ð−ρV1 A1 Þ + u2 ðρV2 A2 Þ
uρ dV
∂t CV

Since u1 = 0, and there is no flow at section , Z

∂
T= ---
uρ dV
∂t CV

From assumption (4), inside the CV, u = Vb = constant, and hence

Z
∂ ∂M
T = Vb --- = Vb s
ρ dV
∂t CV ∂t
where Ms is the mass of sand on the belt (inside the control volume). This result is perhaps not surprising—the tension in the belt
is the force required to increase the momentum inside the CV (which is increasing because even though the velocity of the mass in
the CV is constant, the mass is not). From the continuity equation,
Z Z
∂ ∂ ! !
ρ dV
--- = Ms = − ρV  dA = m_ s = 225 kg=s
∂t CV ∂t CS
Then
m kg N  s2
T = Vb m_ s = 0:9 × 225 ×
s s kg  m This problem illustrates application of the
T momentum equation to a control volume in
T = 203:4 N 
which the momentum is changing.
 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 109

Example 4.10 VANE MOVING WITH CONSTANT VELOCITY

The sketch shows a vane with a turning angle of 60 . The vane moves at constant speed, U = 10 m=s, and receives a jet of water
that leaves a stationary nozzle with speed V = 30 m=s. The nozzle has an exit area of 0:003 m2 . Determine the force components
that act on the vane.
!
Given: Vane, with turning !angle θ = 60 , moves with constant velocity, U = 10^
i m=s. Water from a constant area nozzle,
A = 0:003 m2 , with velocity V = 30^i m=s, flows over the vane as shown.
= 60°
Find: Force components acting on the vane.
!
Solution: Select a control volume moving with the vane at constant velocity, U , as shown
U
by the dashed lines. Rx and Ry are the components of force required to maintain the velocity V
of the control volume at 10^i m=s.
The control volume is inertial, since it is not accelerating ðU = constantÞ.
Remember that all velocities must be measured relative to the control volume y = 60°
in applying the basic equations. x 2

Governing equations: CV
Z Z V
! ! ∂ ! ! ! ! 1 U
FS + FB = V xyz ρ dV
--- + V xyz ρ V xyz  d A Y
∂t CV
Z Z CS
Rx
∂ ! !
ρ dV
--- + ρV xyz  d A = 0 X
∂t CV CS Ry
110 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Assumptions:
1 Flow is steady relative to the vane.
! !
2 Magnitude of relative velocity along the vane is constant: jV 1 j = jV 2 j = V − U.
3 Properties are uniform at sections and .
4 FBx = 0.
5 Incompressible flow.
The x component of the momentum equation is
¼ 0ð4Þ ¼Z0ð1Þ Z
∂

!
! !

!
FSx þ FBx ¼ uxyz ρ dV þ uxyz ρ V xyz  dA
∂t CV



CS

There is no net pressure force, since patm acts on all sides of the CV. Thus
Z Z
Rx = uð− ρVdAÞ + uðρVdAÞ = + u1 ð−ρV1 A1 Þ + u2 ðρV2 A2 Þ
A1 A2

(All velocities are measured relative to xyz.) From the continuity equation
Z Z
ð− ρVdAÞ + ðρVdAÞ = ð −ρV1 A1 Þ + ðρV2 A2 Þ = 0
A1 A2

or
ρV1 A1 = ρV2 A2
Therefore,
Rx = ðu2 −u1 ÞðρV1 A1 Þ
All velocities must be measured relative to the CV, so we note that
V1 = V −U V2 = V −U
u1 = V −U u2 = ðV −UÞcos θ
Substituting yields
Rx = ½ðV − UÞ cos θ − ðV −UÞðρðV −UÞA1 Þ = ðV −UÞðcos θ −1ÞfρðV −UÞA1 g
 
m kg m N  s2
= ð30 − 10Þ × ð0:50 −1Þ × 999 3 ð30 − 10Þ × 0:003 m2 ×
s m s kg  m
Rx = − 599N fto the leftg
Writing the y component of the momentum equation, we obtain
¼Z0ð1Þ Z
∂
!

! !
FSy þ FBy ¼ υxyz ρ dV þ υxyz ρ V xyz  dA
∂t CV


CS

Denoting the mass of the CV as M gives

Z Z 8 9
Ry − Mg =
! !
υρV  dA =
! !
υρV  dA fυ1 = 0g < All velocities are =
CS A2 measured relative to
Z : ;
xyz:
= υðρVdAÞ = υ2 ðρV2 A2 Þ = υ2 ðρV1 A1 Þ fRecall ρV2 A2 = ρV1 A1 :g
A2
= ðV −UÞsin θfρðV − UÞA1 g
 
m kg m N  s2
= ð30 − 10Þ × ð0:866Þ × ð999Þ 3 ð30 −10Þ × 0:003m ×
2
s n s kg  m
 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 111

Ry −Mg = 1:04 kN fupwardg

Thus the vertical force is
Ry = 1:04 kN + Mg fupwardg
Then the net force on the vane (neglecting the weight of the vane and water within
the CV) is This problem illustrates how to apply the
! momentum equation for a control
!
R = − 0:599^i + 1:04^j kN R
 volume in constant velocity motion by
evaluating all velocities relative to
the control volume.
 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 113

Example 4.11 VANE MOVING WITH RECTILINEAR ACCELERATION

A vane, with turning angle θ = 60 , is attached to a cart. The cart and vane, of mass M = 75 kg, roll on a level track. Friction and
air resistance may be neglected. The vane receives a jet of water, which leaves a stationary nozzle horizontally at V = 35 m=s. The
nozzle exit area is A = 0:003 m2 . Determine the velocity of the cart as a function of time and plot the results.

Given: Vane and cart as sketched, with M = 75 kg.

Find: UðtÞ and plot results. 2 θ = 60°
Y y
Solution: Choose the control volume and coordinate sys- ρ = 999 kg/m3 1
V = 35 m/s x
tems shown for the analysis. Note that XY is a fixed frame, M CV
A = 0.003 m2 U
while frame xy moves with the cart. Apply the x component X
of the momentum equation.
Governing equations:
¼ 0ð1Þ ¼ 0ð2Þ ’ 0ð4Þ
Z Z Z
∂
!
!

!

! !
FSx þ FBx − arfx ρ dV ¼ uxyz ρ dV þ uxyz ρV xyz  dA
∂t





CV CV CS
Assumptions:
1 FSx = 0, since no resistance is present.
2 FBx = 0.
3 Neglect the mass of water in contact with the vane compared to the cart mass.
4 Neglect rate of change of momentum of liquid inside the CV.
Z
∂
uxyz ρ dV
--- ’ 0
∂t CV
114 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

5 Uniform flow at sections and .

! !
6 Speed of water stream is not slowed by friction on the vane, so jV xyz1 j = jV xyz2 j.
7 A2 = A1 = A.
Then, dropping subscripts rf and xyz for clarity (but remembering that all velocities are measured relative to the moving coor-
dinates of the control volume),
Z
− ax ρ dV
--- = u1 ð −ρV1 A1 Þ + u2 ðρV2 A2 Þ
CV
= ðV −UÞf −ρðV −UÞAg + ðV −UÞcos θfρðV −UÞAg
= −ρðV −UÞ2 A + ρðV −UÞ2 Acos θ
For the left side of this equation we have
Z
dU
− ax ρ dV
--- = −ax MCV = − ax M = − M
CV dt
so that
dU
−M = − ρðV − UÞ2 A + ρðV −UÞ2 Acos θ
dt
or
dU
M = ð1 −cos θÞρðV −UÞ2 A
dt
Separating variables, we obtain
dU ð1 −cos θÞρA ð1 −cosθÞρA
2
= dt = bdt where b =
ðV − UÞ M M
Note that since V = constant, dU = − dðV − UÞ. Integrating between limits U = 0 at t = 0, and U = U at t = t,
Z U Z U #U Z
dU −dðV −UÞ 1 t
= = = bdt = bt
0 ðV − UÞ
2
0 ðV −UÞ2 ðV −UÞ 0
0

or
1 1 U
− = = bt
ðV − UÞ V VðV −UÞ
Solving for U, we obtain
U Vbt
=
V 1 + Vbt
Evaluating Vb gives
ð1 −cos θÞρA
Vb = V
M
m ð1 −0:5Þ kg
Vb = 35 × × 999 3 × 0:003 m2 = 0:699 s − 1
s 75 kg m
Thus
U 0:699t ðt in secondsÞ UðtÞ
= 
V 1 + 0:699t

Plot:
1.0
_U
__
V The graph was generated from an
0.5 Excel workbook. This workbook
is interactive: It allows one to see the effect
of different values of ρ, A, M, and θ on U=V
0
0 5 10 15 20 against time t, and also to determine the
Time, t (s) time taken for the cart to reach, for
example, 95 percent of jet speed.
 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 115

Example 4.12 ROCKET DIRECTED VERTICALLY

A small rocket, with an initial mass of 400 kg, is to be launched vertically. Upon ignition the rocket consumes fuel at the rate of
5 kg=s and ejects gas at atmospheric pressure with a speed of 3500 m=s relative to the rocket. Determine the initial acceleration of
the rocket and the rocket speed after 10 s, if air resistance is neglected.

Given: Small rocket accelerates vertically from rest.

Initial mass, M0 = 400 kg.
Air resistance may be neglected. y
Rate of fuel consumption, m_ e = 5 kg=s.
Exhaust velocity, Ve = 3500 m=s, relative to rocket, leaving at atmospheric pressure. x

Find: (a) Initial acceleration of the rocket. CV

(b) Rocket velocity after 10 s.

Solution: Choose a control volume as shown by dashed lines. Because the control volume is accel-
erating, define inertial coordinate system XY and coordinate system xy attached to the CV. Apply the y
component of the momentum equation.
Governing equation: Z Z Z Ve Y
∂ ! !
FSy + FBy − arfy ρ dV
--- = υxyz ρ dV
--- + υxyz ρV xyz  d A
CV ∂t CV CV X

Assumptions:
1 Atmospheric pressure acts on all surfaces of the CV; since air resistance is neglected, FSy = 0.
2 Gravity is the only body force; g is constant.
3 Flow leaving the rocket is uniform, and Ve is constant.
Under these assumptions the momentum equation reduces to
Z Z Z
∂ ! !
FBy − arfy ρ dV
--- = υxyz ρ dV
--- + υxyz ρV xyz  dA
CV ∂t CV CS ð1Þ

Let us look at the equation term by term:

Z Z
FBy = − g ρ dV
--- = −g ρ dV
--- = −gMCV fsince g is constantg
CV CV

The mass of the CV will be a function of time because mass is leaving the CV at rate m_ e . To determine MCV as a function of time,
we use the conservation of mass equation
Z Z
∂ ! !
ρ dV
--- + ρV  dA = 0
∂t CV CS

Then
Z Z Z
∂ ! !
ρ dV
--- = − ρV  dA = − ðρVxyz dAÞ = − m_ e
∂t CV CS CS

The minus sign indicates that the mass of the CV is decreasing with time. Since the mass of the CV is only a function of time,
we can write
dMCV
= − m_ e
dt
To find the mass of the CV at any time, t, we integrate
Z M Z t
dMCV = m_ e dt where at t = 0, MCV = M0 , and at t = t ,MCV = M
M0 0
116 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Then, M − M0 = − m_ e t, or M = M0 − m_ e t.
Substituting the expression for M into term , we obtain
Z
FBy = − --- = −gMCV = −gðM0 − m_ e tÞ
g ρ dV
CV
Z
− arfy ρ dV
---
CV

The acceleration, arfy , of the CV is that seen by an observer in the XY coordinate system. Thus arfy is not a function of the coor-
dinates xyz, and
Z Z
− arfy ρ dV
--- = −arfy --- = −arfy MCV = − arfy ðM0 − m_ e tÞ
ρ dV
CV CV
Z
∂
υxyz ρ dV
---
∂t CV

This is the time rate of change of the y momentum of the fluid in the control volume measured relative to the control volume.
Even though the y momentum of the fluid inside the CV, measured relative to the CV, is a large number, it does not change
appreciably with time. To see this, we must recognize that:
1 The unburned fuel and the rocket structure have zero momentum relative to the rocket.
2 The velocity of the gas at the nozzle exit remains constant with time as does the velocity at various points in the nozzle.
Consequently, it is reasonable to assume that
Z
∂
υxyz ρ dV
--- ≈0
∂t CV
Z Z Z
! !
υxyz ρV xyz  dA = υxyz ðρVxyz dAÞ = −Ve ðρVxyz dAÞ
CS CS CS

The velocity υxyz (relative to the control volume) is −Ve (it is in the negative y direction), and is a constant, so was taken outside
the integral. The remaining integral is simply the mass flow rate at the exit (positive because flow is out of the control volume),
Z
ðρVxyz dAÞ = m_ e
CS

and so
Z
! !
υxyz ρV xyz  dA = −Ve m_ e
CS

Substituting terms through into Eq. 1, we obtain

− gðM0 − m_ e tÞ −arfy ðM0 − m_ e tÞ = −Ve m_ e
or
Ve m_ e
arfy = −g ð2Þ
M0 − m_ e t
At time t = 0,
Ve m_ e m kg 1 m
arfy Þt = 0 = −g = 3500 × 5 × − 9:81 2
M0 s s 400 kg s
arfy Þt = 0
arfy Þt = 0 = 33:9 m=s2 

The acceleration of the CV is by definition

dVCV
arfy =
dt
 4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 117

Substituting from Eq. 2,

dVCV Ve m_ e
= −g
dt M0 − m_ e t
Separating variables and integrating gives
Z VCV Z t Z t
Ve m_ e dt M0 − m_ e t
VCV = dVCV = − gdt = − Ve ln −gt
0 0 M 0 − m_ e t 0 M0
At t = 10 s, The velocity-time graph is shown
m 350 kg m in an Excel workbook. This work-
VCV = − 3500 × ln −9:81 2 × 10 s book is interactive: It allows one to see
s 400 kg s
the effect of different values of Mo , Ve , and
VCV Þt = 10⁣s
VCV = 369 m=s  m_ e on VCV versus time t. Also, the time at
which the rocket attains a given speed, e.g.,
2000 m=s, can be determined.
118 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Example 4.13 LAWN SPRINKLER: ANALYSIS USING FIXED CONTROL VOLUME

A small lawn sprinkler is shown in the sketch at right. At an inlet gage pressure of 20 kPa, the total volume flow rate of water
through the sprinkler is 7.5 liters per minute and it rotates at 30 rpm. The diameter of each jet is 4 mm. Calculate the jet speed
relative to each sprinkler nozzle. Evaluate the friction torque at the sprinkler pivot.

Given: Small lawn sprinkler as shown. Vrel Vrel

ω
Find: (a) Jet speed relative to each nozzle. α = 30°
(b) Friction torque at pivot.

Solution: Apply continuity and angular momentum equations using fixed Q = 7.5 L/min
ω = 30 rpm psupply = 20 kPa (gage)
control volume enclosing sprinkler arms. R = 150 mm
 4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 119

Governing equations: Q = 7.5 L/min CV

ω = 30 rpm
¼ 0Zð1Þ Z Vrel Vrel
∂

!
! ! ω
ρdV þ ρV  dA ¼ 0 Z
∂t CV


Z ZCS Z α = 30° O Y
! ! ! ! ! ∂ ! ! ! ! !
O X
r × Fs + r × gρdV
--- + T shaft = r × V ρdV--- + r! × V ρV  dA ð1Þ Tf
CV ∂t CV (Control volume psupply = 20 kPa (gage)
CS
is fixed
wrt XYZ) R = 150 mm
where all velocities are measured relative to the inertial coordinates XYZ.
Assumptions:
1 Incompressible flow.
2 Uniform flow at each section.
!
3 ω = constant:
From continuity, the jet speed relative to the nozzle is given by
Q Q 4
Vrel = =
2Ajet 2 πD2jet
1 L 4 1 m3 6 mm
2
min
= × 7:5 × × × 10 ×
2 min π ð4Þ2 mm2 1000 L m2 60 s

Vrel = 4:97 m=s Vrel


Consider terms in the angular momentum equation separately. Since
!
atmospheric pressure acts on the entire control surface, and
!
the pressure force at the inlet causes no moment about O, r × F s = 0. The moments of the body (i.e., gravity) forces in the two
arms are equal and opposite and hence the second term on the left side of the equation is zero. The only external torque acting on
the CV is friction in the pivot. It opposes the motion, so
!
T shaft = −Tf K^ ð2Þ
Our next task is to determine the two angular momentum terms on the right side of Eq. 1. Consider the unsteady term:
!
This
!
is the rate of change of angular momentum in the control volume. It is clear that although the position r and velocity
V of fluid particles are functions of time in XYZ coordinates, because the sprinkler rotates at constant speed the control volume
angular momentum is constant in XYZ coordinates, so this term is zero; however, as an exercise in manipulating vector quantities,
let us derive this result. Before we can evaluate
!
the control volume integral, we need to develop expressions for the instantaneous
!
position vector, r , and velocity vector, V (measured relative to the fixed coordinate system XYZ) of each element of fluid in the
control volume. OA lies in the XY plane; AB is inclined at angle α to the XY plane; point B0 is the projection of point B on the
XY plane.
We assume that the length, L, of the tip AB is small compared with the length, R, of the horizontal arm OA. Consequently we
neglect the angular momentum of the fluid in the tips compared with the angular momentum in the horizontal arms.

Z
A
ω θ
Y A
θ B'
B O X

O
θ
α
X B'
Isometric view Plan view
120 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Consider flow in the horizontal tube OA of length R. Denote the radial distance from O by r. At Y
any point in the tube!the fluid velocity relative to fixed coordinates XYZ is the sum of the velocity
! ! rω
relative to the tube V t and the tangential velocity ω × r. Thus A
θ
!
^ t cos θ −rω sin θÞ + JðV
V = IðV ^ t sin θ + rω cos θÞ r Vt
θ
(Note that θ is a function of time.) The position vector is O
X

!
^ cos θ + Jr
r = Ir ^ sin θ Plan view

and
!
!
^ 2 ω cos2 θ + r 2 ω sin2 θÞ = Kr
r × V = Kðr ^ 2ω

Then
Z Z
^ 2 ωρA dr = K^ R ω ρA
!
R 3
!
r × V ρ dV
--- = Kr
-V-OA O 3
and
Z
∂ ! ! ∂ ^ R3 ω
r × V ρ dV
--- = K ρA = 0 ð3Þ
∂t -V-OA ∂t 3
where A is the cross-sectional area of the horizontal tube. Identical results are obtained for the other horizontal tube in the control
volume. We have confirmed our insight that the angular momentum within the control volume does not change with time.
Now we need to evaluate the second term on the right, the flux of momentum across the control surface. !
There are three
! !
surfaces through which we have mass and therefore momentum flux: the supply line (for which r × V = 0) because r = 0
and the two nozzles. Consider the nozzle at the end of branch OAB. For L  R, we have
! ! !
^ cos θ + Jr
r jet = rB ≈ r jr = R = ðIr ^ sin θÞjr = R = IR
^ cos θ + JR
^ sin θ
!
and for the instantaneous jet velocity V j we have
! ! !
^ rel cos α sin θ − JV
V j = V rel + V tip = IV ^ rel cos α cos θ + KV^ rel sin α − IωR
^ sin θ + JωR
^ cos θ
!
^ rel cos α−ωRÞsin θ − JðV
V j = IðV ^ rel cos α−ωRÞcos θ + KV ^ rel sin α
! !
!
^ ^
r B × V j = IRVrel sin α sin θ −J RVrel sin α cos θ − KRðVrel cos α −ωRÞðsin2 θ + cos2 θÞ
! !
!
^ rel sin α sin θ −J RVrel sin α cos θ − KRðV
r B × V j = IRV ^ rel cos α −ωRÞ

The flux integral evaluated for flow crossing the control surface at location B is then
Z
! ! !   Q
!
^ rel sin α sin θ − JRV
r × V j ρV  dA = IRV ^ rel sin α cos θ − KRðV
^ rel cos α −ωRÞ ρ
CS 2
The velocity and radius vectors for flow in the left arm must be described in terms of the same unit vectors used for the right
arm. In the left arm the I^ and J^ components of the cross product are of opposite sign, since sinðθ + πÞ = −sin ðθÞ and
cos ðθ −πÞ = −cos ðθÞ. Thus for the complete CV,
Z
! ! !
!
^
r × V j ρV  dA = − KRðVrel cos α−ωRÞρQ ð4Þ
CS

Substituting terms (2), (3), and (4) into Eq. 1, we obtain

−Tf K^ = − KRðV
^ rel cos α−ωRÞρQ

or
Tf = RðVrel cos α−ωRÞρQ
This expression indicates that when the sprinkler runs at constant speed the friction torque at the sprinkler pivot just balances the
torque generated by the angular momentum of the two jets.
 4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 121

From the data given,

rev rad min m
ωR = 30 × 150 mm × 2π × × = 0:471 m=s
min rev 60 s 1000 mm
Substituting gives
This problem illustrates use of the angular
 
m m kg L momentum principle for an inertial control
Tf = 150 mm × 4:97 × cos 30 − 0:471 999 3 × 7:5 volume. Note that in this example the
s s m min !
fluid particle position vector r and velocity
m3 min N  s3 m !
× × × × vector V are time-dependent (through θ)
1000 L 60 s kg  m 1000 mm in XYZ coordinates. This problem is also
Tf
Tf = 0:0718 N  m  solved using a noninertial (rotating) xyz
coordinate system in Example W4.2
(on the web).
124 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Example 4.14 COMPRESSOR: FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

Air at 101 kPa, 21 C, enters a compressor with negligible velocity and is
p1 = 101 kPa p2 = 344 kPa
discharged at 344 kPa, 38 C through a pipe with 0:09 m2 area. The flow
1
rate is 9 kg=s. The power input to the compressor is 447 kW. Determine 2
the rate of heat transfer. V1= 0 A2 = 0.09m2

T1 = 21°C T2 = 38°C
Given: Air enters a compressor at and leaves at with conditions as CV
shown. The air flow rate is 9 kg=s and the power input to the compressor is
447 kW.
Find: Rate of heat transfer.

Solution:

Governing equations:
¼ 0ð1Þ
Z Z
∂
!

! !
ρ dV þ ρV  dA ¼ 0
∂t CV


CS

¼ 0ð4Þ ¼ 0ð1Þ
Z Z  
V2
_shear ¼ ∂
!

! !
!

_Q− W
_ s −W e ρ dV þ u + pυ + + gz ρV  dA
∂t CV


2


CS

Assumptions:
1 Steady flow.
2 Properties uniform over inlet and outlet sections.
3 Treat air as an ideal gas, p = ρRT.
4 Area of CV at and _ shear = 0.
perpendicular to velocity, thus W
5 z 1 = z2 .
6 Inlet kinetic energy is negligible.
Under the assumptions listed, the first law becomes
Z  
V2 ! !
Q_ − W
_ s= u + pυ + + gz ρV  dA
CV  2
Z 
V2 ! !
Q_ − W
_ s= h+ + gz ρV  dA
CS 2
 4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 125

or Z  
V2 ! !
Q_ = W
_ s+ h+ + gz ρV  dA
CS 2
For uniform properties, assumption (2), we can write
≈0ð6Þ
 2
  2


!
_ s þ h1 þV1 þ gz1 ð −ρ1 V1 A1 Þ þ h2 þ V2 þ gz2 ðρ2 V2 A2 Þ
_Q ¼ W


2 2
For steady flow, from conservation of mass,
Z
! !
ρV  dA = 0
CS

_ Hence we can write

Therefore, − ðρ1 V1 A1 Þ + ðρ2 V2 A2 Þ = 0, or ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2 = m.
¼ 0ð5Þ
2

!
V
Q_ ¼ W
_ s þ m_ ðh2 −h1 Þ þ 2 þ g ðz2 −z1 Þ


2
Assume that air behaves as an ideal gas with constant cp . Then h2 −h1 = cp ðT2 −T1 Þ, and
2
_ s + m_ cp ðT2 −T1 Þ + V2
Q_ = W
2
_ 2 A2 . Since p2 = ρ2 RT2 ,
From continuity V2 = m=ρ
m_ RT2 9 kg 1 j 1 Pa  m2 N  m
V2 = = × × 287 
× ð38 þ 273Þ K × × ×
A2 p 2 s 0:09 m 2 kg  K 344,000 Pa N j
V2 = 25:9 m=s
_ s = −447 kW, and
Note that power input is to the CV, so W
V2
Q_ = W
_ s + mc
_ p ðT2 − T1 Þ + m_ 2
2
kg j W s
Q_ = − 447; 000 W × 9 × 1005 
× ½ð273 + 38Þ −ð273 + 21Þ K ×
s kg  K j
kg ð25:9Þ2 m2 N  s2 W  s2
+9 × × × This problem illustrates use of the first law
s 2 s2 kg  m N  m of thermodynamics for a control volume.
fheat rejectiongQ_ It is also an example of the care that must
Q_ = − 290:2 kW  be taken with unit conversions for mass,
energy, and power.

Example 4.15 TANK FILLING: FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

A tank of 0:1 m3 volume is connected to a high-pressure air line; both line and tank are initially at a uniform temperature of 20 C.
The initial tank gage pressure is 100 kPa. The absolute line pressure is 2.0 MPa; the line is large enough so that its temperature and
pressure may be assumed constant. The tank temperature is monitored by a fast-response thermocouple. At the instant after the
valve is opened, the tank temperature rises at the rate of 0.05 C/s. Determine the instantaneous flow rate of air into the tank if heat
transfer is neglected.

Given: Air supply pipe and tank as shown. At t = 0 + , ∂T=∂t = 0:05 C=s.
_ at t = 0 + .
Find: m
126 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume

Solution: Choose CV shown, apply energy equation.

High-pressure line
Governing equations:
CV
¼ 0ð1Þ ¼ 0ð2Þ ¼ 0ð3Þ ¼ 0ð4Þ
Z Z T = 20°C Valve
_ other ¼ ∂
p = 20 MPa
!

!

! !
!
!

_Q −W_ s −W
_shear − W e ρ dV þ ðe þ pυÞρV  dA (absolute)
∂t CV







CS

’ 0ð5Þ ’ 0ð6Þ Tank V = 0.1 m3

Initial conditions: T = 20°C
V2
!

!
p = 100 kPa (gage)
e¼uþ þ gz



2

Assumptions:
1 Q_ = 0 (given).
2 W_ s = 0.
3 W_ shear = 0.
4 W_ other = 0.
5 Velocities in line and tank are small.
6 Neglect potential energy.
7 Uniform flow at tank inlet.
8 Properties uniform in tank.
9 Ideal gas, p = ρRT, du = cυ dT.
Then
Z
∂
utank ρ dV
--- + ðu + pυÞjline ð −ρVAÞ = 0
∂t CV

This expresses the fact that the gain in energy in the tank is due to influx of fluid energy (in the form of enthalpy h = u + pυ) from
the line. We are interested in the initial instant, when T is uniform at 20 C, so utank = uline = u, the internal energy at T; also,
pυline = RTline = RT, and
Z
∂
u ρ dV
--- + ðu + RTÞð− ρVAÞ = 0
∂t CV
Since tank properties are uniform, ∂=∂t may be replaced by d=dt, and
d
ðuMÞ = ðu + RTÞm_
dt
(where M is the instantaneous mass in the tank and m_ = ρVA is the mass flow rate), or
dM du
u + M = um_ + RT m_ ð1Þ
dt dt

The term dM=dt may be evaluated from continuity:

Governing equation:
Z Z
∂ ! !
ρdV
--- + ρV  dA = 0
∂t CV CS
dM dM
+ ð −ρVAÞ = 0 or = m_
dt dt
Substituting in Eq. 1 gives
dT
um_ + Mcυ = um_ + RT m_
dt
 4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 127

or
Mcυ ðdT=dtÞ ρV
---cυ ðdT=dtÞ
m_ = = ð2Þ
RT RT
But at t = 0, ptank = 100 kPa (gage), and
ptank N kg  K 1
ρ = ρtank = = ð1:00 + 1:01Þ105 2 × ×
RT m 287 N  m 293 K
= 2:39 kg=m3
Substituting into Eq. 2, we obtain
kg N m K
m_ = 2:39 × 0:1 m3 × 717 × 0:05
m3 kg  K s
kg  K 1 g This problem illustrates use of the first law
× × × 1000
287 N  m 293 K kg of thermodynamics for a control volume.
It is also an example of the care that must
m_ = 0:102 g=s m_
 be taken with unit conversions for mass,
energy, and power.