Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

MODULE1
Introduction: Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, Internet History, Standards and
Administration, Networks Models: Protocol Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model, Introduction
to Physical Layer-1: Data and Signals, Digital Signals, Transmission Impairment, Data Rate limits,
Performance, Digital Transmission: Digital to digital conversion (Only Line coding: Polar, Bipolar and
Manchester coding).
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they
are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets
are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with
40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms

of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof., Dept., of CSE, BGSIT Page 1

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

DATA REPRESENTATION
1. Text
 In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed some
decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and
is also referred to as Basic Latin. Appendix A includes part of the Unicode.

2. Numbers
 Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used
to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.

3. Images
 Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of
a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
 The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided
into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the
image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image.
 After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the
value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only black-and-white
dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not
made of pure white and pure black pixels, we can increase the size of the bit pattern to
include gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, we can use 2-bit
patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray
pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11.
 There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so
called because each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green,
and blue. The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it.
Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other
primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.

4. Audio
 Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use
a microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous
signal.

5. Video
 Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 1

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

DATA FLOW
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in
Figure 1.2.

1. Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 1.2a).
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can
only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Figure 1.2 Data Flow Mode

2. Half-Duplex
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever
of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band)
radios are both half-duplex systems.

3. Full-Duplex
 In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 2

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

NETWORKS
 A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable for communication. Here a
device can be a host (sometimes called end system) such as a large computer, desktop,
laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
 A device can also be a connecting device such as a router-which connects the network to
other networks, a switch-which connects devices together, a modem (modulator-
demodulator)-which changes the form of data, and so on.

Network Criteria
 A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.

1. Performance
 Performance can be measured in many ways, which includes transit time and
response time. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
 We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput
but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.

2. Reliability

 Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security
 Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
Type of Connection
 A network is the collection of two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
 There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

1. Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
 When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television’s control system.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 3

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

2. Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Figure 1.3 Type of Connection

Network Topology
 Network topology refers to the arrangement of elements in a communication network
such as links, nodes, and so on.

 The term network topology refers to the arrangement of various types of

telecommunication networks, such as command and control radio networks, industrial
field buses, and computer networks.

 Local area networks, a common computer network installation, contain examples of

network topologies.

Network topologies are classified into two types: physical and logical:
While logical topology emphasizes the pattern of data transfer between network nodes,
physical topology emphasizes the physical layout of the connected devices and nodes.
Types of Network Topologies In computer networks, there are primarily six types of physical
topology. They are as follows:

Bus Topology,Ring Topology,Star Topology,Mesh Topology,Tree Topology,Hybrid Topology

1. Bus Topology: The simplest type of topology is called a bus topology, in which network
communication takes place over a single bus or channel. There are numerous taps and drop
lines connected to the bus. Drop Lines are cables that connect the bus to the computer, and taps

are connectors. In other words, each node is connected to a single transmission line.
The following are the benefits of Bus topology:
 Easy to install and use.

 Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

 Less wiring is needed.

 Economical to implement.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 4

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

The following are Bus topology drawbacks:

 Efficiency decreases as nodes increase (strength of signal decreases).

 A bus failure will result in network failure.

 The bus's limited length means that only a certain number of nodes can connect to it.

 As messages are broadcast to all nodes, there are more security concerns and risks.

2.Ring Topology: When two computers are connected to form a ring, the topology is known as a ring
topology. The message passing is circular and unidirectional. A fixed amount of time is allotted for
each computer to access the network for transmission in this deterministic network topology. Each
node is a part of a closed loop.

Ring topology has the advantages listed below:

 Simple installation.
 Fewer Cables are needed.
 Minimizes the possibility of data collision.
 An easy problem to solve.
 The access time is the same for every node.
The following are some drawbacks to ring topology:
 The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails.
 Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path.
 Getting more difficult to reconfigure.

3.Star Topology: A computer network topology known as a star topology connects each node to a
central hub. The hub or switch acts as a bridge between the nodes. Any node making a service request or
offering a service must first get in touch with the hub. The other connected devices function as clients in
a star topology, while the hub and switch serve as a server.

The benefits of the star topology are as follows:

 Less costly.

 Centralized management.

 Simple to scale.

 Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 5

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 Easy to upgrade and reconfigure.

The following are some drawbacks of the star topology:

 The network will collapse if the primary device faults occur.

 There are a limited number of devices in the network.

4.Mesh Topology: Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are linked to one
another by numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods for transferring from one
computer to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central computer that acts as a communication
hub.
Mesh topology has the benefits listed below:
 Direct communication is facilitated by dedicated links.

 There are no channel traffic issues.

 Due to each node having its own dedicated path, fault tolerance is good.

 Quick communication.

 Maintains security and privacy thanks to a separate communication channel.

 There are backup options in the network in case a node fails.

Mesh topology has the following drawbacks:

 Extremely high cabling is required.

 Implementation is expensive.

 The network is difficult to install and takes up a lot of space.

 Installation and regular maintenance are extremely difficult.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 6

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

5.Tree Topology: A computer network topology known as a "tree topology" is one in which all nodes
are either directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Bus and Star topologies are combined
to create tree topology. With a tree topology, the network is split up into manageable segments that can
be easily maintained.

The following are the benefits of Tree topology:

 Network coverage over a long distance.

 Checking each hierarchy makes fault finding simple.

 There should be little or no data loss.

 A large number of nodes can be directly or indirectly connected.

 If one of the hierarchical networks fails, the others are unaffected.

The following are the drawbacks of Tree topology:

 The cost of cabling and hardware is high.

 Implementation is difficult.

 Hub cabling is also necessary.

 A large network with a tree topology is difficult to manage.

 It necessitates a lot of maintenance.

 The network will fail if the main bus fails.

6.Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a computer topology made up of two or more topologies. All
topologies in this topology are interconnected based on their needs to form a hybrid.

The following are the benefits of hybrid topology:

 It can support a large number of nodes.

 It allows us to modify the network to meet our specific requirements.

 Very Dependable.

The following are the drawbacks of hybrid topology:

 The design is complicated.

 Implementation is costly.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 7

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

NETWORK TYPES
 The criteria of distinguishing one type of network from another are difficult and
sometimes confusing. We use a few criteria such as size, geographical coverage, and
ownership to make this distinction.

1. Local Area Network

 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a
single office, building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a
printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include
audio and video devices.
 Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address that uniquely defines the host in the
LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and the
destination host’s addresses.

Figure 1.8 LAN

 In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable, which meant
that a packet sent from one host to another was received by all hosts. The intended
recipient kept the packet; the others dropped the packet.
 Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the
destination address of the packet and guide the packet to its destination without sending it
to all other hosts.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 8

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

2. Wide Area Network

 A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of
communication. However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN.
 A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus; a WAN
has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world.
 A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches,
routers, or modems.
 A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it; a WAN is normally
created and run by communication companies and leased by an organization that uses it.
 We see two distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and switched
WANs.

Point-to-Point WAN
 A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air). Figure 1.9 shows an example of a point-to-point WAN. 

Figure 1.9 Point to Point to WAN

Switched WAN
 A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. We can say that a switched
WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches.
Figure 1.10 shows an example of a switched WAN.

Figure 1.10 Switched WAN

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 9

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Internetwork
 Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to one
another. When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or
internet.
 As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the
other on the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to
communicate with each other.
 To make the communication between employees at different offices possible, the
management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service provider, such as a
telephone company, and connects the two LANs.
 Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet (with lowercase i).
Communication between offices is now possible. Figure 1.11 shows this internet.

Figure 1.11 Internet

 When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same office,

 the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the destination. On
the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the east coast,
router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches the destination.
PROTOCOL LAYERING
 In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender
and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
effectively.
 When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in
which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

Scenarios
 Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.

First Scenario
 In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication
between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language, as

shown in Figure 1.11.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 10

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Figure 1.12 Single layer protocol

Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be followed.
 First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
 Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their
friendship.
 Third, each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when the other party is
speaking.
 Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a monolog: both
should have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
 Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.

Second Scenario
 In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her
company, but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria.
 They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail through the post office.
However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are
intercepted.
 They agree on an encryption/decryption technique. The sender of the letter encrypts it to
make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original
letter.
 Now we can say that the communication between Maria and Ann takes place in three
layers, as shown in Figure 1.13. We assume that Ann and Maria each have three machines
(or robots) that can perform the task at each layer.


Figure 1.13 Three layer Protocol

 Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to Ann.
 Maria talks to the machine at the third layer as though the machine is Ann and is listening
to her. The third layer machine listens to what Maria says and creates the plaintext (a
letter in English), which is passed to the second layer machine.
 The second layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it, and creates the ciphertext,
which is passed to the first layer machine.
 The first layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the ciphertext, puts it in an envelope,
adds the sender and receiver addresses, and mails it.

 At Ann’s side, the first layer machine picks up the letter from Ann’s mail box,
recognizing the letter from Maria by the sender address. The machine takes out the
ciphertext from the envelope and delivers it to the second layer machine.
 The second layer machine decrypts the message, creates the plaintext, and passes the
plaintext to the third-layer machine.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 11

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 The third layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it as though Maria is speaking.

Advantages of Protocol Layering

 Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks.
 One of the advantages of protocol layering is that it allows us to separate the services
from the implementation. A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the
lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer
is implemented.
 If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make each intermediate system as
complex as the end systems, which makes the whole system more expensive.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today. It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality. The term hierarchical means that each upper level
protocol is supported by the services provided by one or more lower level protocols.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model. Figure 1.14 shows
both configurations.

Figure 1.14 Layers in TCP/IP protocol Suite

Figure 1.15 Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 12

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

1. Physical Layer
 We can say that the physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame
across the link.We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it
carries electrical or optical signals. So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer
are transformed and sent through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical
unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit.

2. Data-link Layer
 We have seen that an internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected
by routers.
 The routers are responsible for choosing the best links. However, when the next link to
travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is responsible for taking the
datagram and moving it across the link.
 The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or
a wireless WAN.
 In each case, the data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link.
 The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.

3. Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source computer
and the destination computer.
 The communication at the network layer is host-to-host. However, since there can be
several routers from the source to the destination, the routers in the path are responsible
for choosing the best route for each packet.
 We can say that the network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and
routing the packet through possible routes.
 The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP) that
defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer. IP also defines
the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer. IP is also responsible for
routing a packet from its source to its destination, which is achieved by each router
forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path. IP is a connectionless protocol that
provides no flow control, no error control, and no congestion control services. This means
that if any of these services is required for an application, the application should rely only
on the transport-layer protocol.
 The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols such as Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) these help IP in its delivery and
routing tasks.

4. Transport Layer
 The logical connection at the transport layer is end-to-end. The transport layer at the
source host gets the message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a transport
layer packet (called a segment or a user datagram) and sends it, through the logical
(imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.
 In other words, the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application
layer: to get a message from an application program running on the source host and
deliver it to the corresponding application program on the destination host.
 The transport layer should be independent of the application layer.
Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 13
 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 In addition, we will see that we have more than one protocol in the transport layer, which
means that each application program can use the protocol that best matches its
requirement.
 The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented
protocol that first establishes a logical connection between transport layers at two hosts
before transferring data. It creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a
stream of bytes. TCP provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of the source
host with the receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the
destination), error control (to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination without
error and resending the corrupted ones), and congestion control to reduce the loss of
segments due to congestion in the network.
 The other common protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a connectionless protocol
that transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical connection. In UDP, each
user datagram is an independent entity without being related to the previous or the next
one. UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.

5. Application Layer
 The two application layers exchange messages between each other as though there were a
bridge between the two layers. However, we should know that the communication is done
through all the layers. Communication at the application layer is between two processes
(two programs running at this layer). To communicate, a process sends a request to the
other process and receives a response. Process-to-process communication is the duty of
the application layer.
 The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW). The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in
electronic mail (e-mail) service. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring
files from one host to another.

Encapsulation and Decapsulation

One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is encapsulation / decapsulation.
Figure 1.16 shows this concept for the small internet in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.16 Encapsulation/Decapsulation

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 14

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Encapsulation at the Source Host

At the source, we have only encapsulation.
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message. A message
normally does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does, we refer to the whole as the
message. The message is passed to the transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the transport layer
should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which contains the
identifiers of the source and destination application programs that want to communicate
plus some more information that is needed for the end-to-end delivery of the message,
such as information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the source and destination
hosts and some more information used for error checking of the header, fragmentation
information, and so on. The result is the network-layer packet, called a datagram. The
network layer then passes the packet to the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header, which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router).
The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed to the
physical layer for transmission.

Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is connected to two or more
links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram
header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to
be delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed by the network layer in
the router unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed
through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and passes it to
the physical layer for transmission.

Decapsulation at the Destination Host

1. At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, removes the
payload, and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the message
reaches the application layer. It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host involves
error checking.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 15

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Addressing
 It is worth mentioning another concept related to protocol layering in the Internet,
addressing. As we discussed before, we have logical communication between pairs of
layers in this model.
 Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address and
destination address. Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per
layer, we normally have only four because the physical layer does not need addresses; the
unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an
address. Figure 1.17 shows the addressing at each layer.

Figure 1.17 Addressing in TCP/IP protocol suite

THE OSI MODEL

 Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP protocol suite,
this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined.
 Established in 1947, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost
three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in the ISO.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system
is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
 The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in the OSI
stack.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 16

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems.
 It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process
of moving information across a network (see Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.18 OSI Model

Lack of OSI Model’s Success

 The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts were at first
excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by the OSI model.
 This did not happen for several reasons, but we describe only three, which are agreed
upon by all experts in the field.
 First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money
had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
 Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For example, although
the services provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed in the
document, actual protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were they
fully described, and the corresponding software was not fully developed.
 Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did
not show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet authority to switch
from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 17

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

DATA AND SIGNALS

Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states.
 For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information
in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a
digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to
8:06.
 Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.
When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a
microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital
signal.
 Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in
the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an
analog signal for transmission across a medium.

Analog and Digital Signals

 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the
wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number
of values along its path.
 A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values.
Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0. The simplest
way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axes.
 The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents time.
 Figure 1.21 illustrates an analog signal and a digital signal. The curve representing the
analog signal passes through an infinite number of points. The vertical lines of the digital
signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal makes from value to value.

Figure 1.21 Comparison of analog and digital signals

Periodic and Nonperiodic

 Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or Nonperiodic.
 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period,
and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one full
pattern is called a cycle.
 A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over
time.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 18

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

DIGITAL SIGNALS
 Digital data can be represented as digital signal.
 For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
 A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.
 Figure 1.22 shows two signals, one with two levels and the other with four.
 We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the figure.

Figure 1.22 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels

Example 1
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of
bits from the following formula. Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
Solution:
Number of bits per level = log28 = 3

Example 2
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
Solution:
Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The number of
bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 19

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Bit Rate
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Example 3
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one character
requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
100 * 24 * 80 * 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps
Example 4
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need
to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
2 * 4000 * 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

Bit Length
The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.
Bit length = propagation speed * bit duration

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
 Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
 The imperfection causes signal impairment.
 This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at
the end of the medium.
 What is sent is not what is received.
 Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise (figure 1.23).

Figure 1.23 Causes of impairment

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 20

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

1. Attenuation
 Attenuation means a loss of energy.
 When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy
in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
 That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of
the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.
 To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
 Figure 1.24 shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Figure 1.24 Attenuation

Decibel
 The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points.
 Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified.

 Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

 Note that some engineering books define the decibel in terms of voltage instead of power.
 In this case, because power is proportional to the square of the voltage, the formula is dB
= 20 * log10 (V2/V1). In this text, we express dB in terms of power.

Example 5
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-half.
Calculate the attenuation?
Solution:

A loss of 3 dB (-3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

Example 5
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means that P2
=10P1. Calculate attenuation?
Solution:

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 21

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Example 6
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the
beginning of a cable with -0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5
km?
Solution:
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 * (-0.3) = -1.5 dB. We can calculate the power as

2. Distortion
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
 Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
 Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore,
its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
 Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same
as the period duration.

Figure 1.25 Distortion

3. Noise
 Noise is another cause of impairment.
 Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise,
may corrupt the signal.
 Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal
not originally sent by the transmitter.
 Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.
 Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and
the other as the receiving antenna.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 22

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from
power lines, lightning, and so on.

Figure 1.26 Noise

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
 As we will see later, to find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the
signal power to the noise power.
 The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

 Figure 1.27 shows the idea of SNR.

Figure 1.27 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

 Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units, SNRdB,
defined as

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

Example 7
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 23

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

and SNRdB?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

Example 8
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

Example 9
A signal with 200 milliwatts power passes through 10 devices, each with an average noise of 2
microwatts. What is the SNR? What is the SNRdB?
Solution
Total noise in the chnnel is 2 W * 10 = 20 W
SNR = (200 * 10-3)/(20 * 10 -6)
SNR = 10000

SNRdB = 10 * log1010000 = 10 * 4 = 40 dB

Example 10
If the peak voltage value of a signal is 20 times the peak voltage value of the noise, what is the
SNR? What is the SNRdB?
Solution

If noise is V voltage then signal voltage is 20*V.

SNR = (20V)/(V)
SNR = 20

SNRdB = 10 * log1020 = 10 * 1.3 = 13 dB

DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless
channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit
rate

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 24

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

BitRate = 2 * bandwidth 3 log2L

 Where bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used
to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Example 11
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal
levels. What is maximum bit rate?
Solution:
BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log22 = 6000 bps

Example 12
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level,
we send 2 bits). What is maximum bit rate?
Solution:
BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log24 = 12,000 bps

2. Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

 We cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. Shannon capacity is
used, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR)

 Where bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.

Example 12
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
Calculate Channel Capacity.
Solution:

Example 13
A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data
communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. What is the channel capacity?
Solution:

Example 14
Assume that SNRdB 5 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. What is the theoretical channel
capacity?
Solution:

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 25

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Example 13.
What is the theoretical capacity of a channel in each of the following cases?
a. Bandwidth: 20 KHz SNRdB = 40
b. Bandwidth: 200 KHz SNRdB = 4
c. Bandwidth: 1 MHz SNRdB = 20
Solution:
(Practice Question)

PERFORMANCE
One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good is it? Following
metrics are used to know the performance of the network.
1. Bandwidth
 One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the term
can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth in
hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
 Higher the bandwidth betters the performance of the network.
2. Throughput
 The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
 A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with
T always less than B.
 For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected
to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more
than 200 kbps through this link.

Example 14
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute
with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Throughput = (12,000 * 10,000) / 60 = 2000000 = 2 Mbps

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 26

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

3. Latency (Delay)
 The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive
at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
 We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission time,
queuing time and processing delay.

Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay

Propagation Time
 Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the
propagation speed.

Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)

Example 15
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
Propagation time = (12,000 * 10,000) / (2.4 * 28) = 50 ms

Transmission Time
 In data communications we don’t send just 1 bit, we send a message.
 The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last
bit also may take the same amount of time.
 However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at
the receiver.
 The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later.
 The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.

Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth

Example 16
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-KB (kilobyte) message (an
email) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as
Propagation time = (12,000 * 1000) / (2.4 * 108) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (2500 * 8) / 109 = 0.020 ms
Queuing Time
 The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed.
 The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the network.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 27

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

4. Bandwidth-Delay Product
 Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.

Figure 1.28 Filling the link with bits for case 1

 Let us assume that we have a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps.

 We also assume that the delay of the link is 5 s.
 We want to see what the bandwidth-delay product means in this case.
 Looking at the figure, we can say that this product 1 × 5 is the maximum number of bits
that can fill the link.
 There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.

Example 17
How many bits can fit on a link with a 2 ms delay if the bandwidth of the link is
a. 1 Mbps? b. 10 Mbps? c. 100 Mbps?
Solution:
a. Number of Bits = delay * bandwidth = 2 * 10-3 * 1 * 106 = 2 * 103 = 2000 bits
b. and c. (Practice questions)

5. Jitter

 Jitter is the variation in the packet arrival rate.

 We can roughly say that jitter s a problem if different packets of data encounter different
delays and the application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and
video data, for example).
 If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40
ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets endures jitter.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 28

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
 Digital data to digital signals conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block
coding, and scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.

1. Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are
encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the
digital signal.
 Figure 1.29 shows the process.

Figure 1.29 Line coding and decoding

Line Coding Schemes

 We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories, as shown in Figure
1.30. There are several schemes in each category.

Figure 1.30 Line coding schemes

UNIPOLAR SCHME - NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)

 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or
below.
 In non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero
voltage defines bit 0.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 29

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Figure 1.31 Unipolar NRZ scheme

Advantages
The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −
 It is simple. 
 A lesser bandwidth is required, B=N/2, where N is data rate.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −
 No error correction done. 
 Suffers from DC components.
 No clock is present, leads to no self synchronization (Especially for long strings of 1s and
0s).

POLAR SCHMES
 In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time axis. For example, the
voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.

NRZ-L (NRZ-Level) and NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)

 In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two
versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I, as shown in Figure 1.32.
 In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value
of the bit.
 In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of
the voltage determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a
change, the bit is 1.

Figure 1.32 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 30

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

Advantages
The advantages of Polar NRZ are −
 It is simple. 
 A lesser bandwidth is required, B=N/2, where N is data rate.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −
 No error correction. 
 No clock is present leads to no self synchronization.
 Suffers from DC components.

Polar RZ scheme
 The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are
not synchronized.
 The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting. One
solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative,
and zero.
 In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
 In Figure 1.33 we see that the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit. It remains there
until the beginning of the next bit.

Figure 1.33 Polar RZ scheme

Advantages
The advantages of Polar RZ are −
 It is simple. 

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −
 High bandwidth is required, B=N, where N is data rate.
 No error correction.
 No clock is present leads to no self synchronization.
 Suffers from DC components.

Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

 In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage
remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half.
The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 31

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I.
There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at
the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is
none.
 Figure 1.34 shows both Manchester and differential Manchester encoding.

Figure 1.34 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

Advantages
The advantages of Biphase are −
 It is simple.
 Self synchronization. 
 No DC components.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −
 High bandwidth is required, B=N, where N is data rate.
 No error correction.

BIPOLAR SCHMES
 In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the
voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.

AMI and Pseudoternary

 Figure 1.35 shows two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary. A
common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI).

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 32

 Computer Networks and Security 18CS52

 AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1s
are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
 A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a
zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.

Figure 1.35 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Advantages
Following are the advantages −
 It is simple. 
 Occupies low bandwidth, B=N, where N is data rate.
 A single error detection capability is present in this. 

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages −
 High bandwidth is required, B=N, where N is data rate.
 No clock is present leads to no self synchronization.
 Suffers from DC components.

Mrs. Shalet Benvin, Asst. Prof, Dept. of CSE, BGSIT Page 33