QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

I. Introduction:

Plenty of crucial information can be collected from documents related to a criminal or

civil case. The suicide note found next to the decease, was it written by a killer trying to
cover up his crime? The bank robber’s hold-up note, does it contain invisible
impressions that indicate the address of the hideout? The will of a wealthy person, was
it altered so a relative could receive a windfall?
“Questioned documents,” the discipline of forensic document examination is
frequently associated with white-collar crimes such as check fraud; however, in practice,
this area of forensic science can be used in a wide array of cases from medical
malpractice to art forgeries to homicides.
Armed with sophisticated technology, forensic document examiners can peer into
the visible and invisible marks on a document to extract an abundance of details that
may verify the authenticity or provide additional information crucial to the investigation.
The digital age has made the work of forensic document examiners even more
important. With the availability of powerful software programs such as
Adobe®Photoshop®, Acrobat®, and others, it has become significantly easier for
criminals to create and manipulate all manner of fraudulent documents from contracts to
currency.

GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible,

partially visible that may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone,
maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or
photographed; to maps or plans; to seals, plates, or even stones on which
inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its plural form, “documents” may mean;
deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and other written instruments used to
prove a fact.
 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example (in Medieval Latin
“instruction, or official paper”), OR
 French word “docere”, means to teach.

According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):

1. formal piece of writing
2. object containing information
3. computer file

As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:

1. record information in or on media
2. support a claim with evidence

Importance of Documents
 Documents record man’s life. Officially, his birth certificate signal’s his existence
on earth. Corollary thereto, his death certificate writes finish to his stay on earth.
However, it is not uncommon to note documents other than these two indicating man’s
birth and death.
Man’s life does not center alone on his birth or his death. The period between
opens for us more documents, reams of them. Take for example the doctor’s notes on
the mother’s postnatal visits with the child, the first inoculation, and subsequent visits.
Consider too, the notebooks, books, report cards, followed by an array of diplomas from
kindergarten, primary, elementary, high school, college, and perhaps post-graduate
courses.
Again, life is not all schooling nor marriage. Man must find work to feed his
family. Thus, we find him filling up employment applications. He is accepted by a
company, swears him in, and receives his appointment papers. At the end of every
week or every fifteenth and thirtieth of the month, the man signs a payroll and receives
his paychecks. He goes up the ladder of success and the more papers and documents
he encounters. His membership in the lions or the Jaycees or the Kiwanis or the Knights
of Columbus or the Freemasonry must be accomplished. He must sign this and that
communication paper. As he grows older, he comes across his retirement papers and
receives his pension checks. As the shadows of life finally set upon man, the final
documents testifying to his demises is the death certificate. These, in a nutshell, amplify
the importance of documents in man’s life.

HOW A DOCUMENT BECOMES A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT?

A document becomes a questioned document when it is being questioned as to

its originality, authenticity, authorship, source, and genuineness and when it is
placed under scrutiny to determine whether or not it is disputed.

B. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. Any material which some issue has been raised or
which is under scrutiny. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be
true and are contested either in whole or part with respect to its authen-
ticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will, election ballots, marriage
contract, check, visas, application form, check writer, certificates, etc.
C. DISPUTED DOCUMENT. suggests that there is an argument or controversy
over the document. A disputed document is, therefore, always a questioned
document, while a questioned document is not always a disputed document.
However, “disputed Document” and “Questioned Document” may be used
interchangeably for the questioned document.
D. STANDARD a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT - Are condensed and compact set
of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper, should contain a cross
section of the material from a known source.
"Standard" in questioned documents investigation, we mean those things
whose origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as
examples to compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consist
 of the known handwriting of a person such case, "standard" has the same
meaning as is understood by the word "specimen" of handwriting.
E. EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to
characterize known material. Standard is the older term. Are legally admissible,
authentic samples of handwriting used for comparison with questioned writing to
determine the authenticity of genuineness of the questioned writing.
F. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely written and signed by
one person; also known as a holograph. In a number of jurisdictions a
holographic will can be probated without anyone having witnessed its execution.
G. REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and organized by the document
examiner to assist him in answering special questions. Reference collections of
typewriting, check writing specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are
frequently maintained.

LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS

A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:

1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by
which a right is established or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument
executed by person by which some disposition or agreement is proved,
evidenced or setforth.
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical
embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of
account, a blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).

B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or competent public official
with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
- Written official acts of the government
- Those documents acknowledge before the notary public (private in nature it
become public when notarized by a notary public official.)
- Private documents kept in a public record
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents or its officers
having the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their
creation, they are authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their
duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private person without the intervention of
a notary public or of any person legally authorized, by which documents, some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth (US vs Orera, 11 Phil.
596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed in accordance with the Code of
Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or
obligations. (invoices, transport papers, shipping documents, used by merchants
or businesses)
 5. ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT/ E-DOCUMENT – Documents that stored in
computer devices, or any electronic devices.

Take Note:

A private document may become a public or official document when it partakes

the nature of a public or official record. So, if the falsifications committed on such
document that is, when it is already a part of the public record, falsification of public or
official document is committed. However, if such private document is intended to
become a part of the public record, even though falsified prior thereto, falsification of a
public document is committed.

WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CON STITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on some Supreme

Court Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority
(People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up
(People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not
documents but are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Documents with questioned signatures.
These are the most common disputed documents. example- commercial or legal
paper, such as check, note, receipt, draft, order, contract, agreements,
assignments, will, deed or similar documents, the signature of which is under
suspicion. Under this class are found the traced, and produced by simulating or
copying process
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent
alterations.
All documents in which it is alleged that some alteration was made by erasure,
addition, interlineations (insertion new language), or substitution. Questions may
arise as to the order or sequence of writing as shown by crossed lines, age, and
continuity of writing, erasures, and changes, the identity of ink, pen and
condition, fraudulent interlineations in contracts, deeds, wills, and other legal
papers.

Alteration is defined as any change to a document that gives it a different effect

from that it originally possessed. Changes or alterations, which usually affect the
original meaning of a document, are made either at the stage of preparation and
are already part of the document when it is “signed, sealed and witnessed”, or
fraudulently after its execution. A change that appears on a document should not
be readily considered fraudulent; the alterations should be considered thoroughly
and carefully to determine what the reasonable inference is from all the facts. It is
necessary to distinguish the fraudulent from the genuine alteration. “ An obvious,
necessary change in a document often is evidence not of fraud, but of
 genuineness”,“A delicate and partly conceal change may be very suspicious”.
Fraudulent alterations naturally are made in a hidden manner and they may
never be discovered if special attention is not directed to this subject.
What is restoration? It is the process of the development of erased writing or
bringing it out again.
What is decipher? -to decode or decrypt a code or cipher to plain text
– to make out the meaning of (poor or partially obliterated writing,
etc.)
-to read text/writing that is almost illegible or obscure

ALTERATIONS IN THE DOCUMENT MADE BY:

a. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original
preparation may be referred to as addition.
The insertion of any word, digit, etc which changes the meaning or
value of the document is known as an addition. These insertions are made
in such spaces as may have been left blank in the regular entries either in
the middle or at the bottom of the page. If the additional matter is written in
a small space the size of letters will be smaller and writing will appear
cramped or if the space is large enough then letters are in large size to
cover up the remaining space.
Besides alteration, the examination can be done to identify the
characteristic features of handwriting:
a. size of letter,
b. spacing and pen-strokes
c. Colour ink should be made

b. ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a

document is an erasure. It maybe accomplished by either of two means.
 Common types of erasure:

Mechanical erasures

Mechanical erasures are alterations that produce an abrasion on

the paper. The abrasion makes the paper porous by disturbing the fiber
arrangement and by removing the coating and sizing from the surface of
the paper. If an ink creases the erase area though an effort was made to
repair the damage, the following condition will show plainly that an erase
was made.
1. The ink line is wider.
2. The ink line tends to run or to fade out sideways.
3. The ink shows through the backside of the paper.

Chemical erasures

When skillfully done, chemical erasures are difficult to detect by

ordinary observation, but such erasures leave their mark. Chemical
erasures are used for removing/bleaching the ink from a document. It is
just a process of bleaching the color of ink by converting colored
compounds into colorless compounds. The ink itself remains on the paper
in invisible form. It leaves a color spot after erasing on the paper which
results from the reaction of chemicals with the ink or paper. Chemically
erase writing may be reproduced by the use of ultraviolet light or use of
infra-red photography.

Ballpoint pen inks can be partially or completely removed from the

paper by application of polar solvents such as tetrahydrofurane or acetone
etc.

Commonly used chemicals for erasure purposes:

1. Sodium hypochlorite
2. Potassium permanganate
3. Oxalic acid
4. Stannous chloride solution
5. Sodium tungstate
6. Acetone
7. Toluene

Restoration of erased writing

1. Iodine Fuming
 2. Ammonium
3. Thiocyanic acid
4. Ammoniumpoly sulpide

c. INTERLINEATION/ INTERCALATIONS - According to J. Newton Baker,

interlineation is the writing between the lines of an instrument to add a part
to it or to correct what has been written.

d. CANCELLATION AND OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing

over the writing to make the original invisible to as an addition.
Obliteration (concealed writing) is blotting out or smearing over of
writing to make the original invisible or undecipherable.

e. SHEET INSERTION AND SUBSTITUTION - It is another kind of

fraudulent alteration that is committed when an entire page has been
added and/ or removed from an instrument and has been replaced by
another piece containing matters from those of the removed page.

3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

This class of suspected papers comprises those in which the writing of an entire
written document is questioned. These complete documents, if fraudulent, are
usually vulnerable in many possible particulars and should be subjected to the
 most searching scrutiny of the paper, watermarks, ink, pens style or system of
writing; natural variation or a variety of form in writing, continuity of writing, slant,
spacing, and shading of writing, wording, subject matter, seals, folding, and
ruling.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public
with 3 witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations
or substituted pages.
prints are investigated or examined for purposes of determining their source and
date, whether or not it contains fraudulent alterations or substituted pages.
Papers containing typewriting may be examined to ascertain the typewriter used
in writing the document. This case also involves determining the number of
typewriters used and the possible fraudulent changes.

5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.

This class of questioned documents includes those in which the age of an
instrument or the age of some of its parts are investigated. It also refers to
documents in which the comparative age of parts may have some bearing on the
question of its genuineness. For instance, interesting papers have been
introduced to have been written sometime in the past but were proven only a few
days or a few hours old.
6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
Any analysis of documents may show that pieces of paper used were
manufactured many years after the date written on it. The materials used in the
production of the paper used are subjected to analysis to prove whether or not
the date written on the papers matches the materials used in producing the
paper.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify
some persons through handwriting.
a. anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

Questioned Document Examination

Is a branch of instrumentation that deals with the study of documents that are
questionable or disputable.

FORENSIC Questioned Document Examination

A branch of forensic science that deals with the application of questioned

document examination in the administration of justice or law enforcement.
CASES INVOLVING QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

• Forgery • Counterfeiting
• Mail fraud • Kidnapping
• Con games • Embezzlement
• Gambling • Organized crime
• White collar crime • Art crimes
• Theft • Robbery
• Arson • Burglary
• Homicide • Serial murder
• Psychological profiling • Deviant sex crimes

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, erasure,

alteration or obliteration of documents.

Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents said that
an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful
inspection of a document with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.

B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in determining the

author of writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and
experience.

FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

1. examination of signatures and initials
2. examination of anonymous letters
3. hand printing examination
B. Examination of Typewritings and typeprints.
C. Examination of Inks
D. Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

A. VALUE -
1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one
or more documents in furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against government, documents often play an
important part in proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual
may show that:
a. He committed the crime.
b. He had knowledge of the crime.
c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

B. PURPOSE - A document may be examined to know the following:

a. Identity of the author.
b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Developed an understanding of the history of handwriting
2. Define writing, handwriting, and other related terms
3. Analyzed handwriting and identify its individual characteristics.
4. Compared and matched individual characteristics of handwriting from pairs
of handwriting
5. Distinguished the different writing conditions and variation in handwriting
characteristics.
6. Illustrate and describe the different c characteristics in handwriting and
stroke structures.
7. Recognized the important guideline for the collection of known writings and
precautions to minimize deception during the collection of exemplars

Introduction:

Handwriting examination and identification is an important aspect of forensic

document examination due to the prevalent and integral role played by
handwriting in everyday communication. It lends itself to a wide range of
analyses, from determining the suspects who could have written ransom notes to
establish the authenticity of documents.
 HISTORY OF HANDWRITING

In the beginning…. Before there was no writing, there was only verbal
communication, with cultural norms, rituals, and stories passed on orally from
one generation to the next. As language and cultures evolved, so did the need
for communication. Simple drawings became pictographs, and pictographs
became standardized within each culture beginning the history of handwriting

What is writing?

Writing is a codified system of standard symbols: the repetition of agreed-upon

simple shapes to represent ideas
Recognizable systems of writing developed in 3 major cultures within 1200 years
of each other. Around 3000 BC Mesopotamian cuneiform (Sumerian, Akkadian,
Elamite, and others) developed, Egyptian hieroglyphs around 2800 BC, and the
precursor to Kanji Chinese around 1800 BC
The development of writing allowed cultures to record events, history, laws;
theories in math, science, medicine; create literature, and more.

Basic Terms in Handwriting

● Writing are letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to represents
the sound or words of a language
-It consist of messages that conveys ideas to others
● Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a
combination of certain forms, which are very visible and muscular habits, acquired by
long, continued painstaking effort.

(as further defined in Wigmore’s Principle of Judicial Proof) is a visible effect of bodily
movements, which is an almost unconscious expression of certain ideas associated
with script form. Handwriting is a skill useful to a person because a person who has
learned to write can put thoughts on paper for others to read.
● Penmanship is the art and practice of writing known as calligraphy
● Calligraphy means the art of beautiful writing. - From Greek kallos “beauty” and
graphe “writing”
● Cacography means bad handwriting or spelling. - From Greek κακός (Kakos "bad")
and γραφή (graphe "writing")
● System of Writing is the combination of the basic design of letters and writing
movements as taught in school.
The importance of the design of the letters;
a. To determine the nationality of the writer
b. To determine the system learned
c. To know the date when the writing was acquired
d. To know some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.
● Natural Writing is any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or alters its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
● Disguised Writing is a way of writing in which the writer deliberately tries to alter his
usual writing habits in the hope of hiding his identity.
● Writing Habit is any repeated or detail that may serve to individualize writing.
● Significant Writing Habit is a term applied to any characteristic of handwriting that is
sufficiently unique and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification of
the writer.

Individual style or Form of Writing

Every individual write in some form or style which is distinct from others despite its close
resemblance.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

The Different Principles and Rules in the Individuality and Identification of Handwriting.

I. No two writers write exactly alike.

II. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing
instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not confine all its
identifying elements.
III. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and
training applied over a period of time.
IV. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form
and writing movements are essential elements of identification.
V. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative examination
with the standard written or prepared under comparable conditions.
VI. Similarity does not mean identity.
VII. Complete identity means definite forgery.
VIII. Sufficiency of Specimen

WRITING CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics are any property or mark which distinguishes and, in questioned
document examination, commonly refers to identifying details.

Two Kinds of Characteristics

1. Common / Class Characteristics

2. Individual or Personal Characteristics

1. Common / Class Characteristics They are those which conform to the

general style acquired when one was learning to write and which is fashionable
at a particular time and place. It is the style taught to the child in school or by
parents. Not all characteristics encountered in document examination are
peculiar to a single person but rather common to a group.
Example of common characteristics or qualities;
a. Ordinary copybook form (an exercise book containing models of penmanship,
used in teaching handwriting)
b. Usual systematic slant
c. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
d. Conventional spacing

2. Individual or Personal Characteristics They are those introduced into the

handwriting, consciously or unconsciously by the writer. They are highly personal
or peculiar and are unlikely to occur in other instances.
How individual characteristics are acquired?
The following are considered processes on how individual characteristics are
acquired:
1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3.Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by
education, by the environment, and by occupation

COMMON TERMS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF LETTERS

1.ARC/ARCH/GARLAND – Any arcade form in the body of the letter

2. BEARD – a rudimentary (simple/not very developed) curved strokes

3. TERMINAL STROKE- The last element of a letter. An upward horizontal or downward

final stroke usually seen in small letters.

4.INITIAL STROKE – The first element of a letter.

5. BUCKLE KNOT – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete
such letters. A loop made as a flourish which is added to the letters as in small letters
“k”, “f” or in capital letters “A”,”K” AND “H”
6. BODY – the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that usually lies on the
line of writing. The main portion of the letter which remain when the upper and lower
projection, upstrokes and terminal strokes and diacritics are removed.

7. EYE LOOP/ EYELET – the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent
directions.

8. FOOT OF THE LETTER OR OVAL – the lower portion of any downstroke which
terminates on the baseline.

9. DIACRITICS – an element added to complete certain letters.

10. HOOK/ TROUGH – the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or
curve of small letters. the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or
curve of small letters. In small letter “w” , the initial curve is the hook; or a hook is a
minute involuntary talon-like formation often found at the commencement of the initial
stroke or a terminal stroke. (furrows in PI)

11. HUMP – the rounded outside of the bend, crook, or curve in small letters.

12. OVAL - The portion of a letter which is oval is shape. The small letter “a”, “d”, “g”,
and “q” contain oval; portion of the letter which form an oval design
13. HIATUS OR PEN JUMP - A failure to complete a junction of a connecting stroke
without lifting the pen; a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the
pen such occurrences was due to speed. The hiatus may also be stated as pen jump

14. PEN LIFT. - An interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument
from the paper. Those who write with clumsiness or with difficulty, the pen is raised
frequently to get a new adjustment. Many writers lift the pen before a,c,t,d, and g.

15. RETRACE or RETRACING – a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.
16. RETOUCHING or PATCHING – a stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion
of writing.

17. STAFF or STEM – backspace of a letter. Any major long downward stroke of a letter
that is the long downward stroke of the letter “b”, “g”

18. LOOP – an oblong curve formed at the upper or lower part of the letter. It can be an
open or blind loop. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open
space.

19. BASELINE - rules of the imaginary line where the writing rest
 Recognition of Writing Characteristics / Bases of Handwriting Identification

Before one could make a comparison and proper evaluation of the characteristics
of handwriting, he must know first how to observe or recognize these writing
characteristics.
Following are the writing characteristics commonly involved in the examination of
handwriting:

1. Form

This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters.

Every letter is distinguishable because it has a different form made up of different
constituents. In connection with the factor of form, the following points should not be
taken into consideration:
a. Mere similarities in the form are not a sufficient indication of identity.
b. Basic differences in form of letters are indications of two writings being made
by different writers.
Individual concept of letterform is introduced in handwriting for the following reasons:
a. the endeavor to attain highly individualized handwriting;
b.an effort to make writing simpler and easier;
c.to acquire greater speed.

2. Slope or Slant

It is the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.

Each individual has different slopes in writing. Most people slope their writing forward;
others distinctly backward inclination, while the rest have upright or vertical sloping.
Deliberate alteration of the slope will affect rhythm and fluency in writing. A slight but
persistent difference in slant or slopes in two writings are by two different writers, while
a pronounced difference might be the result of intended disguise.
It is improbable that one would attempt to disguise writing by a change in slant of not
more than 10 degrees and it is exceedingly difficult to make a uniform divergence of this
small amount.
3. Size

It is the relative size of the letters and the length of ascending strokes in relation to the
size of another letter.
Size is a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent under varying condition and may
have but little significance when applied to only one example, or to a small quantity of
writing like a signature unless the divergence is very pronounced.
But if a number of signatures which are claimed to have been pronounced at different
times are in question (or even two or three are under scrutiny)and they are like each
other in the matter of size, divergence becomes significant in proportion to its extent, the
number of divergent examples and the number standards.

4. Proportion

Individual characteristics in the relative proportion of letters or proportion of a part of a

letter or relative height of one letter to another letter can be found in different writings.
The proportion of letters is one of the hidden features of writing. It is unknown even to
the writer. A person not cognizant (aware) of such proportion peculiarities cannot be
expected to discard them completely in an attempt to disguise his writing, or to assume
or imitate successfully those possessed by writing being simulated.
The average height of a letter remains constant relative to that of others even if the size
of writing is changed.
To change deliberately the size of writing may be a simple matter. For this reason,
proportion characteristics become significant as a factor of identification.

5. Ratio

For the purposes of comparison, letters of the alphabet are divided into two groups
namely

a. letters written entirely between the lines are referred to as short.

Ex. a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, and x.

b. letters which upper-lower loops or other projected portions will be chased as tall.
Ex. b, d, f, g, h, j, l, p, t, y, and z. :
The relation between the tall and short letters is referred to as the ratio of the writing. In
the ordinary form, the length of the upper and the lower loops of the tall letters are twice
the length of the short letters.
The ratio that approximates to that prescribed by the ordinary copybook form is termed
as normal.
If the tall letters have loops twice longer than the height of the short letters, the ratio is
described as” high”; if opposite, the ratio is “low”.
When the ratio of writings conforms to the ordinary copy-book-form, it is considered as
common or style characteristics. Therefore when the specimen signatures have a
similar ratio, this fact alone cannot be considered to have one authorship.
On the other hand, when two specimen signatures have a widely different ratio, they are
unlikely to have been written by the same person. The ratio in handwriting, once fixed,
is very seldom altered for experience has shown that it is extremely difficult to
deliberately change the ratio without losing the fluency in handwriting.

6. Connecting Strokes

This refers to the strokes of links that connect a letter with the one following. In
signatures, it is a common practice among many writers to write their signatures with
the initials and connected without lifting the pen.
In writing, many writers habitually drop the connection before certain letters (particularly
small letters within words).
When such dropping of connections occurs habitually, it would be difficult for a writer to
break such writing habit.
This particular peculiarity in disconnections may occur in connection with any letter and
when this shows consistency in certain writing, it assumes an importance of high
significance in writing identification.

7. Terminal Strokes and Initial Strokes

Initial stokes refer to the initiation or start of a stroke structure. Terminal strokes
refer to how individual letters and words end.

When a letter, word, or name (signature) is completed in a free, natural writing, the pen
is usually raised from the paper while in motion with a “fling-finish” (or what is also
referred to as “varnishing”, “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and with many
writers, the motion of the pen is also slightly preceded the putting of the pen on the
paper at the beginning with the “flying start” so that the strokes at the beginning and end
of words gradually diminish or taper to a “vanishing point”.

8. Pen-Lift

It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the pen from the paper.

Pen-lift or disconnections between letters and letter combinations are maybe due to lack
of movement control.
In cases of those who write clumsily or with difficulty, the pen is raised frequently to a
new adjustment to make a fresh start.
Words may be broken after almost any letter regardless of where it is in the word.

9. Hiatus

Is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing and defective writing instruments.
Most people have no fixed writing habit regarding the inclusion of hiatus. It is common
to find slowly written specimen handwriting of a particular writer with several gaps, while
another specimen written shortly afterward is practically devoid of hiatuses. Therefore,
hiatuses are included or omitted in the handwriting according to the whim of the writer.
10. Lateral Spacing

Lateral spacing is considered a common characteristic when it conforms to the ordinary

copy-book form
In defining spacing, it should be observed from three points of view:
a. The s-p-a-c-e between the letters
b. The –space – between – words and words
c. The space between lines and lines

11. Shading

It is the widening of the ink strokes with increase pressure on the paper surface. It is
due to the spitting of the pen-nib resulting in the widening of the ink lines as controlled
by the variation in pen pressure. The consistent variation in width to the variation in
pressure of fine and delicate lines is more specifically referred to as “unconscious
emphasis”.
A forger, who is unfamiliar with the manner and manipulation of the pen by another
person, will have difficulty in imitating his handwriting as to the exact location of the
shading, most often resort to retouching of inclines.
With the adoption of a ballpoint pen wherein the width of the inclines is not affected by a
change in pressure, shading in handwriting is becoming rare

12. Line Quality

Refers to the visible record in the written stroke of the basic movement and manner of
holding the writing instrument. This quality of the visible record is derived from a
combination of factors including writing skills speed, rhythm, shading, pen pressure, pen
position, and freedom of movement. It is the overall character of the written strokes from
the initial to the terminal.
A signature will either have good or poor line quality depending upon the reflex
movement of the hand and arm of the writer.
Natural handwriting done by a skillful writer will be found that practically all the curved
strokes are smoothly written. They exhibit none or but few abrupt changes in the
curvatures. Good line quality is produced when the writer concentrates his attention on
what he is writing rather than on how the pen point is being moved. When a writer
concentrates his attention on the movement of his pen point, reflex movement is
retarded, lines are irregular and there will be no smoothness.

13.Alignment

Is the relation of the part of the whole line of the writing of individual letters in words or
signature to the baseline.
The following are the classes of alignment:
a. Ascending
b. arched
 c. Descending
d. irregular
e. Even/level/uniform

14. Rhythm

It is the balanced quality of movements of the harmonious recurrence (reappearance) of

stress or impulse.
It is the following succession of motion that is recorded in a written record. Habitual
rhythm in writing is the harmonious recurrence of stress, impulse, or motion.
It produced a natural and not a constrained or artificial result. A flowing hand (a term
used to describe a skillful, artistic writing ability) is a coordinated succession of
movement impulses that guide into each other with a rhythm.
A signature executed with fluency and done by the reflex movement will have a good
rhythm. A disguised or copied signature will possess poor rhythm.
The essentials of rhythm are:
a. Regularity in slope
b. Regularity of size
c. Regularity of curvature(bending/curving)

15.Writing Skill

The relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency.

Writing skills are dependent upon many factors, manual dexterity (handiness/agility)
being the most important of them. Manual dexterity is either inherent or acquired.

16. Pen pressure

It is the average force in which the pen makes contact with the paper or the usual force
involved in writing.
Pen pressure is one of the most personal but somewhat hidden characteristics in
writing.
Pen pressure more accurately describes the proportion of strokes to each other in width
as affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis. Also maybe defined as the
weight of the hand or muscles on the pen during the act of writing.
The following are its classification:
a. Light
b. Even
c. Heavy

17. Pen Emphasis

is the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen against the surface
with increase pressure

18. Tremor
Means “deviations from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly apparent
even without magnification.”
Tremor is also defined as a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes.
Lack of muscular skill with the pen is usually described as tremor and is shown by:
a. lack of uniformity of speed in making pen strokes;
b. pen stops;
c. Involuntary horizontal and vertical movements (uncontrolled sidewise produce
a line with abrupt changes of direction or zigzag character).

19. Natural Variation

This may refer to deviations or changes found between a repeated specimen of any
individual handwriting.
The nature and extent of the variation of the letter design depend on the location: initial,
medial, or terminal. The master pattern for any letter design that closely resembles the
copybook form must be regarded more as a class rather than individual characteristics.
No two individuals will exhibit a similar master pattern of the same combination of letter
design. The range of variation of letter design is not the same for all letters; small letters
such as “i, e, and o” have limited variation because any appreciable modification of the
design will render the letters illegible.

20. Rubric or Embellishment

This refers to additional unnecessary strokes not necessary to the legibility of

letterforms or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
Embellishment is usually added to signatures to enhance, what is to the writer, their
“pleasing appearance”. This serves as “security” to make a signature more difficult to
imitate or forge.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS

Line quality -irregular, laborious, shaky, lack of rhythm

Size/proportion -larger, wider, higher, inconsistent, different spacing after
gaps
Pen lifts -frequent lifts off paper
angle/slant -greater than 5-degree change, other hand slanting
Pen pressure -heavier than usual
Circle formation -more teardrops or egg shaped, frequent counter clockwise
formations
Re-touching -formal signature used, often re-tracing strokes, foreign
marks present
Loop formation -wider spacing between, more squared or wedge-shaped
stroke
Stroke formation -wider M’s and W’s, more squared or wedge-shaped stroke
 Alignment -change in baseline habits, more downward slants from
baseline.
Diacritics -Heavier (t) crossing, an (i) dots, position placement changes
Initial/ terminal strokes -heavier pressure, vertical position change or slanting

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING

MOVEMENT or manner of execution is related to the handling position of the

writing instruments that create a certain type of motion affecting the quality of writing
done specifically, - the skill, speed, freedom, hesitations, tremors, line quality, and
alignment. The different types of movement in writing are caused by the manner in
which the writing instruments are moved whether by finger, wrist, forearm, or whole arm
movement, the outcome of which identifies the individuality in writing of a particular
person.

KINDS OF HANDWRITING MOVEMENT

1 Finger Movement The thumb, the first and second, and slightly the third
fingers are in actual motion. Most are usually employed by children and
illiterates.
2 Hand Movement Produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with
the wrist as the center of attraction.
3 Forearm Movement Movement of the shoulder, hand, and arm with the
support of the table.
4 Whole Forearm Movement The action of the entire arm without resting. i.e.,
blackboard writing.