INTRODUCTION TO QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

“Forensic document examination is the study of physical evidence, and physical evidence
cannot lie. Only interpretation can err. Only failure to fit it or to hear its true testimony can
deprive it of its value.’’…. Richard Huber…

DOCUMENT
The term document came from the Latin word ‘’documentum’’, which means ‘’lesson’’, or
‘’example’’ (in Medieval Latin ‘’instruction or official paper’’). It may have been derived also
from the French word ‘’docere’’, means to teach.
Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, or partially visible that
may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink
writing, or typewriting, or printing on paper.
In its plural form, ‘documents’’ may mean: deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and
other written instruments used to prove a fact.

Microsoft Encarta Reference Library gives the following definition of document as a

noun:
1. Formal piece of writing: one that provides information or that acts as a record of events.
2. Object containing information: an object such as a movie, photograph, or audio recording
that contains information and can be used as evidence.
3. Computer file: a file created using an application program, for example, a data base,
spreadsheets, illustration, or text file.
As a verb Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:
1. Record information in or on media: to make a record of something by writing about it or
by filming or photographing it.
2. Support a claim with evidence: to provide evidence for a statement or claim by
supporting information.

DOCUMENT AS DEFINED BY LAWS/SUPREME COURT

A document is any written document by which a right is established or an obligation is
extinguished (People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119).
A document is every deed or instrument executed by person by which some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth (People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453).
The term document is said to apply to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or
photographed; to seals, plates, or stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved; to
photographs and pictures; to maps and plants (Frial v. Fradrigo, December 26, 1974).
In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule, document is any physical
embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, contract, a receipt, a book of account, a
blueprint, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).

Writings Which DO NOT Constitute Document-based from some Supreme Court

Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People
vs. Camacho, 44 Phil.484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs.
Santiago, CA,48 O.G 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not
document but are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

QUESTIONED
Any material which some issue has been raised or which in under scrutiny

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT/DISPUTED DOCUMENT

One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are contested either in
whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identify, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will,
election ballots, marri-age contract, check, visas, application form, check writer, certificates,
etc.
A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document,
“Disputed document’’ and “questioned document’’ are used interchangeably to signify a
document that is under special scrutiny.
Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or the circumstance and story
regarding its production arouse suspicion as to its genuineness or may adversely scrutinize
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
simply because it displeases someone. Further, it is said to be questioned when it is disputed or
attacked, either in whole or in part as to its date or age, as to its source or origin. As to the
material used in their production, and as to its relation in some other documents.

STANDARD/STANDARD DOCUMENT
Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper,
should contain a cross section of the material from a known source. They are used by the
document examiner as the basis for his identification or non-identification of the questioned
document, as for example, the known hand writing which serves to establish who wrote the
disputed letter.
“Standard’’ in questioned documents investigation means those things whose origins are
known and can be proven and which can be legally used as example to compare with other
matters in question. Usually a standard consists of the known handwriting of the person in such
case, “standard ‘’ has the same meaning as is understood by the word “specimen” of
handwriting.

KINDS OF DOCUMENT

PUBLIC DOCUMENT
A document created. Executed or issued by a public official in response in to the
exigencies of the public service. Or in the execution of which a public official intervened. (U.S v.
Asensi, 34 Phil. 765)
Any instruments authorized by a notary public or competent public official with
solemnities required by law (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742).

OFFICIAL DOCUMENT
A document which is issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions of his
office. An official document is also a public document. It falls within the larger class called
public document (US vs. Asensi)
A document required by a bureau to filed by its officers for the purpose of its record and
information. (People v. Uy, 101 Phil.159)
Any instrument issued by the government or by its agents or its officers having the
authority to do so and the officers, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized
to issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.

PRIVATE DOCUMENT
Every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention of a
notary public or of any person legally authorized, by which the documents some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth (US v. Orera, 11 Phil. 596)

COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT
Any instrument defined and regulated by the Code of Commerce (People v. Co Beng,
1913) or any other commercial law.

**HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT
Any document completely written and signed by one person; also known as holograph. In
a number of jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated without any one having witnessed
its execution.

REFERENCE COLLECTION
Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist him in answering
special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing specimens, inks, pens,
pencils, and papers are frequently maintained.

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Documents containing questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic will.
a. Holographic Will—will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator.
b. Notarial Will—signed by the testator acknowledged before a notary public in the
presence of at least three witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting
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 a. Anonymous and disputed letters,
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings
c. With a view of ascertaining their resources
d. With a view of ascertaining their dates
e. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or
substituted pages
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date
6. Questioned documents on issues if materials used in their production
7. A or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting

DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ADDITION/INSERTION/INTERLINEATION—a part of document after its original

preparation may be referred to as addition.
The term “insertion” and “interlineation” includes the addition of writing and other
material between lines or paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a document.

CONCLUSION—a scientific conclusion results from observed facts by logical, common-sense,

reasoning in accordance with established rules of laws. The document examiner’s conclusion, in
legal term is referred to as “opinion”.

DOCUMENT EXAMINER/HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION EXPERT—one who studies

scientifically the details and elements of the documents in order o identify their source or to
discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting
identification experts, but todays the works has outgrown this latter title and involves other
problems than merely examination of handwriting.

ERASURE—the removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an erasure. It

may be accomplished by either of two means. A chemical agent (e.g. liquid ink, eradicator); and
an abrasive erasure is where rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching out with knife or other
sharp tools with implement effaces the writing.

EXAMINATION—it is the act of making a close and critical study of any material, and with
questioned documents, it is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various
types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultraviolet and
infrared examination.

EXPERT WITNESS—a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain
aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical
information in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering justice. The
document examiner testifies in court as expert witness.

IDENTIFICATION (IDENTIFY)—as used in this text it is the being identical or absolutely in

the same as in similarity of source or authorship of the questioned document or the standard
document.

NON-IDENTIFICATION (NON-IDENTIFY)—as used in this text, it means that the source or

authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens are different.

OBLITERATION—refers to the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original
invisible as in addition.

OPINION—in legal language, it refers to the document examiner’s conclusion. Actually, in

court, he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion.
Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
QUALIFICATION—refers to the professional experience, education, and ability of a document
examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is
qualified in his field.

RATIONALE

Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “scientific comparison”

which means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification or forgery lies on the
availability of known standards for comparison. After thorough comparison, the following
PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFICATION is applied:
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically
oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their
occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted differences, it may be concluded
that they are the same in characteristics attributed to the same cause.”

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

CRIMINALISTICS EXAMINATION—this involves the detection of forgery, erasure,

alterations, or obliteration of documents. The criminalistics examination of documents similar to
other kinds of laboratory works.

DR. WILSON HARRISON—a noted British Examiner of questioned documents said that an
intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of forgeries by careful inspection of
documents with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.

HANDWRITING INVESTIGATION/ANALYSIS—this is more focused in determining the

author or writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study or experience.

FORMS/ASPECTS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
1. Examination of signatures and initials
2. Examination of anonymous letters
3. Hand printing examination
B. Examination of Typewriting and type prints
C. Examination of inks
D. Examination of erasures, alterations or obliterations etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writing
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and another authenticating device

HANWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

HANDWRITING (Brainwriting)
It is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being used as a whole, and
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued
painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech”.
According to Huber, Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly one that is complex
perceptual motor task, sometimes referred to as the neuro-muscular task. That our hand
contains of 27 bones controlled by 40 muscles.
In Wigmore’s principles of judicial proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of
bodily movement which is almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reaching
from fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.

EARLY FORMS OF WRITING/FORERUNNERS OF WRITING

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PALEOGRAPHY
From the Greek word palaios. “old” and graphein, “to write” the atudy of early writing, it
embraces ancient and medieval scripts, primarily in Greek and Latin and the languages, that
derived from them. BERNARD de MONTFAUCON laid a foundation for Greek studies with
Paleographica Graeca (1708). The oldest surviving Greek literary papyri date to 300 BC or
earlier.

CALLIGRAPHY
The art of beautiful handwriting

JEAN MABILLON
A French monk, originated Latin paleography in 1861, when he published De re
Diplomatica, a study of forms of official document.

PETROGRAMS
If drawn or printed on the surface of rocks and “petroglyphs” if cut into the rock,
primitive drawings like those on the ceiling of the cave at Altamira, Spain, or on the walls of
barrier Canyon, Utah.

GRAFFITI
From the Italian “graffito” meaning “a scratch” refers to handwriting or images on the
walls or surfaces of a public area, such as buildings, parks, toilets and trains, etc.
-The word was originally used by archaeologist to describe drawings and inscriptions
scratched on walls and other surfaces in ancient Pompei and Rome.
Neolithic man began written communication as long as 20,000 years ago when he
graphically represented objects and ides in drawings on cave walls known as Iconographs.
Later made their pictures simpler and simpler. The pictures gradually became signs called
Pictographs. And each stood for a word or idea. This kind of picture writing probably reached
its highest point about 3000 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians used a kind of picture writing called
Hieroglyphics.
At about the same time, the Sumerians invented a system of writing that used wedge-
shaped symbol called “cuneiform”.
About 1500 BC, Semitic people in the Middle East invented the alphabet. In the alphabet,
a written sign stands for a sound in the spoken language.
Phoenicians developed the alphabet further. The Greek took it over from the Phoenicians,
and the Romans borrowed if from the Greeks.
In ancient times, few people knew how to write. Most of the people who wanted to send
letters dictated them to people called Scribes, who made their living writing for the public.
Printers use term Italic, for letter that slant to the right, similar to those used in cursive
writing. Printing in Italic began in Venice Italy, during 1500’s. Several of cursive writing
developed at this time.

DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING

The following are the different steps in the development of person’s handwriting:
1. When a person first begins to learn the art of handwriting, penmanship copybook forms a
blackboard illustration of the different letters is placed before him. His first step is one of
imitation only or a process of drawing; painstaking, laborious and slow copying of the
letter forms. The forms of each letter, at first, occupy the focus of his attention.
2. As person progresses, the matter of form recedes, and the focus of attention is centered
on the execution of various letters, that is, they are actually writing instead of drawing.
3. The manual operation in the execution of letters, after more progress, is likewise soon
relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more or less
automatic. As the person attains maturity in writing by many repetitions, writing
becomes an unconscious coordinated movement that produces a record. Attention is no
longer given to the process of writing itself because the subject matter to be written now
occupies the focus of attention.

KINDS OF WRITINGS
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 A. Cursive—means running, connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next
B. Script—separated or printed writings
C. Block—all capital letters

BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of

these muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost automatic
succession of acts stimulated by these habits. Thus, a person’s style of writing in most
details becomes as fixed as the habit and serves as a continuous inseparable mark of that
one person.
B. The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself, that is, the appearance of the
writing strokes will indicate where attention was focused in the writing process. Where
the writing is more or less automatic or unconscious, as attention was focused on the
subject matter and not on the writing process itself, the careless in the writing process
will be shown by free, coordinated strokes. On the other hand, a forgery of stimulated or
copied class is produced by a method similar to that employed by a person learning to
write (a pupil in following a copy).
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the
other person cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular
combination rom the habit of the first writer.
Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”? in the hand of a qualified
examiner operating under proper conditions, identifications by means of handwriting/signature
is certain. Proper conditions include:
1. Sufficient questioned writing
2. Sufficient known writing
3. Sufficient time uses of scientific instrument

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

The impulse to form a letter begins in the brain’s writing center in the cortex. This
center is skin to brain areas control visions, hearing and walking, and guides the muscle as they
weave the complex movements that make the words. Since writing in the mind, emotion and
attitude both path of the mind influence how we write just as they influence how we walk and
talk.
In writing, the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the
paper, the directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the nature
of the writer’s nervous organization occurs during the act or writing.
Hence, as each writer has his own way of holding his hand, manipulating the pen and
exerting pressure, the same pen in different hands will produce entirely different strokes.
This center in the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finger movement
involved in handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased as in
graphic, one loses the ability to write although could still grasp a fountain pen, ballpen or
pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen of pencil to form a symbol and words
can be said to emanate from its cortical center.
The hands contain two kinds of muscle, which function in the act of writing. A group of
extensor muscles push up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the tension produced
as a result by a group of muscle called the flexor muscles that push the pen to form the
downward stroke. This flexor and extensor muscle combined with numerical muscle,
lumbrical, to form lateral strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing—those that operate
the joints of the finger, wrist, elbow and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various
muscles used in writing work together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

No two writers write exactly alike

This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field who
pioneered in the scientific identification of handwriting assumed that “no two writers write
exactly alike.” This assumption has stood the test of time. When the numerous problems have
been submitted to document examiners throughout the years, there has never been found an
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
example of two identical handwritings. Even a single writer cannot perfectly duplicate his own
handwriting. As no two persons write exactly alike, one cannot perfectly produce a
geometrically perfect handwriting.
Each writer has a handwriting which is personal and peculiar to him alone. Each writer
has his own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the mental capability of the person,
including the process of transmitting through the nerves the impulse to produce a writing,
constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer.
The characteristic of a person’s handwriting is acquired through a long process by many
repetitions. This constitutes a habit in the handwriting process. Habits are those elements of
handwriting that repeatedly appear. The mental and physical condition of a person as well as
his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting. However, it does not fully destroy
temporarily the habit which is identical to a single writer.
Modifications and changes come into individuals’ handwriting during different periods of
his life but in most instances. They are very gradual and may not be discernible except by
studying specimens written at widely separate dates. There are certain periods in which this
modification appears more rapidly than others. Early maturity usually is one such period. Now
this should be put into use in everyday affairs. With some, the changes represent personal
innovation; with others, a gradual decline due to carelessness and hasty writing and with still
another group, increased vigor, freedom and sureness. The long span of middle life as a rule is
only a slight modification.

The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing
instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not confine all its
identifying elements.
Deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the highly complicated
interrelated factors which go into writing process. Thus, one would not expect only one or two
identifying characteristics to be altered while the others will continue to be reproduced exactly
as before.
Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not every serious illness,
however, causes a lessening in writing ability. Rather, those that weaken the person so that he
is unable to perform skillful operation are most likely to affect his handwriting. Diseases such as
heart ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally, are nor accompanied by
deterioration in handwriting, although, a layman may attempt to explain away a poorly forged
signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the patient is confined to bed
probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse writing conditions than the illness itself.
What applies to physical conditions brought about by severe illness also applies to old
age. There are many individuals well advanced in years who’s handwriting hardly betray their
age. But those older writers who have suffered general physical deterioration are very apt to
write with less vigor and skill. It is that the converse to the corollary does not hold.
A transitory change maybe injected into handwriting by temporary physical and mental
conditions such as, fatigue, nervous tension and intoxication or severe illness, from which the
writer ultimately recovers. In these cases, handwriting reverts to its normal qualities after the
causes of deterioration are removed.
Transitory changes are those changes, which continue only while the basic cause is
affecting the writer. Ultimately, his handwriting recovers or assumes its normal qualities and
some mental state can affect a writer’s penmanship. Thus, fatigue or intoxication may produce
much lower than the normal quality of handwriting. At the same time, a person who is
extremely nervous or has been subjected to sudden shock likewise procures abnormal
handwriting. There are many illnesses which weaken the writer and make him incapable of
producing his normal handwriting. In due course, the writer completely recovers and his
handwriting again assumes its normal qualities and habits.
Likewise, the writing position may also affect the qualities of handwriting. It is also given
a consideration that not all deterioration in handwriting are due to physical illness or old age.
The manner of operation in the handwriting process is affecting the handwriting when the
person is in a different writing position. Thus, it produces changes in the handwriting
characteristics which are different in the usual writing process. However, these changes are
purely temporary and do not affect all the identifying elements of the person’s handwriting.
Most of the identifying elements of the characteristics will continue to be produced. There are
some people that in any situation and condition will continue to produce a handwriting not
affected bay any condition.

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and
training applied over period of time.
The preceding principle says that no writer can spontaneously exceed his best
handwriting. Disguise, for the most part, is completely unpracticed and even if it has been
practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person’s writing ability and habit are bound
to bring about a less fluent and less skillful mode of writing. Even if practiced, disguise hardly
enables the writer to achieve his best writing.
Disguise is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its execution, the
writer must concentrate his attention on eliminating personal identifying details and at the
same time devise and execute a new style of writing. This task cannot be accomplished on the
spur of the moment. The end result is that the page of disguise contains inconsistencies and
irregularities. In contrast, uniformity throughout and extended specimen of writing is the mark
of an undisguised skillfully executed writing.
Our handwriting was developed not by a couple of years but through the years of our
maturity. A writing habit ingrained in our personality cannot be eliminated in just a short time.
When we try to disguise our personality, we cannot fully change our personal characteristics.
The real us will always prevail. This is also the same in the handwriting of a person. Only those
identified characteristics are being changed leaving those other details which are focal to
identification.

The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form and
writing
movements are essential elements of identification.
Handwriting characteristics serve as parts of the ultimate identification and a sound
scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer which cannot be based only on
one or two points of agreement. Of course, the wrong properties which are most personal and
group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate conclusion.
The elements of movements such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis and
shading location and quality of starts and stops. pen lifts and the like, are reflected in the
finished specimen. The combination of these and other elements describes the fundamental
writing movement.
The various elements that make up the writing movements are not always reflected in the
specimen prepared with the same classes of writing instrument. For example, variation in pen
emphasis appears as shading with a flexible writing movement but most of this is lost when the
writing is performed with a stiff pen. By the same token, pencil and ball pen position is clearly
disclosed when the writer uses a relatively flexible nib pen. If one specimen of writings failed to
show certain writing qualities because of the instrument used and another does disclose these
qualities. This does not mean that we are dealing with significance between the two writing and
that we are dealing with two different writers. The examiner must carefully determine the kind
of writing instrument used in each specimen and with this knowledge evaluates apparent
differences of this nature.

Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative examination

with the standard written or prepared under comparable conditions.
Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual's normal writing habit and to
show the degree of variation common to his writing. This principle actually defines adequate
and proper standards. Unless they completely fulfill these conditions, their usefulness in any
examination is limited. In fact, standards which do not comply with these requirements, may
lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the elimination of a writer who actually prepared the
specimen in question.
The best standard includes writing that was prepared for a comparable purpose and
under similar writing conditions to the matter under investigation. With standard consisting of
a relatively small sample of a person's total writing, it is well to select them carefully. Statistical
studies have shown that a small sample properly selected and controlled may give a more
accurate picture of the whole than the substantially larger but uncontrolled sample. The
problem is one of selection and control; thus, in writing, standards and all influencing factors
should be kept as much as those of the questioning material. This means that writing with
similar instrument prepared under comparable condition at or about the same time should be
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
sought. It does not mean, however, that writing a very different purpose may not permit an
accurate identification. If the two writings contain the same identifying elements, then certainly
the identification is valid. It does mean, however, that the best procedure is to seek writing
prepared for a similar purpose as reference has shown that writing generally leads to the best
identification and requires far less interpretation by the experts.

Similarity does not mean identity

Many people resemble one another, some in greater detail, others in less. But even
persons, who are said to be "doubles", are not the same in appearance in every detail. There are
always differences. Some of those differences are gross and easily discernible; while others may
be subtle and discernible only upon close examination.
Just as there are people who "look alike" but are not the "same" so are many
handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance, especially in common formation of
letters, but no identical in individual writing characteristics, especially with regard to
subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing habits.
It is for this reason that a person may come to a handwriting expert with a preconceived
notion as to the identity of the writer of a questioned document. Such a person wants
confirmation of this opinion.
Two similar handwritings may appear to be the same, but when the two specimens are
placed under close scrutiny, what appeared to be the same or identical handwriting, proves to
be similar but not identical.
Unfortunately, too frequently in courtrooms so-called non-expert "experts" testify as to
similarities. The ability to evaluate and distinguish between similarity and identity is a basic and
imperative requirement for every handwriting expert. Comparison based upon similarity can be
fatal to any conclusion. "Just as no two persons* fingerprints are identical, so no two persons
handwriting is identical.
Since forgery is imitation, the forger sets out to imitate handwriting or a signature with
all the skill he possesses. He will do this either by practicing the signature, or by tracing, or by
carefully coping it. His aim is a perfect likeness of the signature or writing.
Expert examination can reveal when writing is seemingly identical but different in
characteristics. There are the so-called primary controlling characteristics. being the result of
subconscious habits, unrealized by the writer which make it possible to establish the identity of
the writer or to determine whether the two writings or signature of the same name, were
written by one person or two.

Complete identity means definite forgery.

If a signature is geometrically identical with another, it points almost inevitably to a
tracing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such a
perfect copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. The
precise imitation, like a rubber stamp of a signature, is quickly detected as forgery.
If a signature, for example, looks, on first impression, different from other authentic
signature, that fact alone may indicate genuineness. A forger cannot afford to present an
obviously different signature. Only the owner of the name can safely permit himself that leeway.

A) A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical
writing
habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and addition, the absence of
divergent
characteristics.
B) A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of
divergent writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary controlling
characteristics.
The conclusion of identity or difference depends upon the combination of identical or
different writing characteristics. The weight of such characteristics against each other, as facts
and evidence for or against identity or for or against difference, are the determining factors.
A specimen writing is written by a particular person if all its identifying elements are a
part of his handwriting and furthermore, the variation within the specimen falls within range of
writing variation. And in reverses a specimen of writing was not written by a particular person
if there is a significant difference between its identifying elements and those of the suspected
writer.
In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain all the
identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These elements include personal
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
writing habits, the manner of execution and quality and extent of variation. The known writing
may contain elements not found in the unknown. In the process of identification, the examiner
should look for the individuality and not for the difference. Therefore, if both specimens of
handwriting are having characteristics which are individual and identical to a single person,
then it is the handwriting of one person.
Differences between the known and the unknown writing become significant due to their
clear fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrences to the same unconscious element. It is
the converse rule that governs, and the writing is by different writers. Fundamental differences
must be clearly distinguished from variables, which are a part of every writer's handwriting.

ILLNESSES THAT MAY AFFECT HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Agraphia- refers to the inability to write in an orderly fashion, but can still be able to
manipulate writing materials. This may be due to brain lesions such as tumors, brain
infections, injuries or head injuries.
2. Aphasia- refers to the impairment of the power to use and understand words in
communicating.
3. Dyslexia- Refers to the disability to read and miss-spell words. (example, from Read to
Red.)
4. Paragraphia- The inability to write the correct words when dictated, but ability to copy
text is retained.
5. Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease- Alzheimer is due to old age a person
who is above 60 years of age, due to senility he reverts to childhood and loses memory
and ability to read and write. Parkinson's is due to old age as well but uncontrolled
tremor is present.
6. ALS (Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis) - or LOU GEHRIG DISEASE, which includes
weakening of muscles.
7. Arthritis- affects the CNS which includes muscles, ligaments and joints or writing hand.
8. Cerebral Palsy- an abnormal alteration of movement or motor function arising from
defect, injury or disease of the nerve tissues in the cranial cavity.
9. Graphomania (from writing, insanity), also known as scribomania, refers to an obsessive
impulse to write.
10.Graphorrhea - used in a specifically psychiatric context, it labels a morbid mental
condition which results in writing rambling and confused statements, often degenerating
in a meaningless succession words or even nonsense.
11.Typomania - obsession with seeing one's name in publication or with writing for being
published, excessive symbolism or typology
12.Dysgraphia – difficulty of writing
13.Dyscalcula – difficulty in computation
14.Dyspraxia – poor coordination of brain and body parts that function during writing.

Hypnosis- a trance-like condition or an induced state that resembles sleep in which the
subject experiences diminished will power and very responsive to the suggestions of the
hypnotizer was lost.

VARIATION IN HANDWRITING
A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the
hand does not always produce a stereo type of the pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an
instrument of precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be
absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there
will be in the form of individualized letters as well as in the writing as a whole.

A. CAUSES OF VARIATIONS
1. Function of some external factors i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriations, emotion and
deception.
3. Position of letter- all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact
of the different position, especially in combination with another and particular letter, may
modify any of them in some way or another.

B. IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly
important element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its
nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact
quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be
exactly duplicated in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically
impossible and this multitude of possible variations when combined is what constitutes
individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size.
Lateral spacing and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine
writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of the care given
to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness' and direction of the
stroke.

SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (SCHOOL MODEL)

The standard of handwriting instruction taught in particular school. Classes of copybook
depend on the standard copy adopted by a writer.

EARLY FORMS OF COPYBOOK FORM

Spencerian Script is a script style that flourished in the United States from 1850 to
1895.

Platt Rogers Spencer, whose name the style bears, was impressed with the idea that
America needed a penmanship style that could be written quickly, legibly, and elegantly to aid
in matters of business correspondence as well as personal letter-writing.

The Spencerian Script was gradually replaced with the simpler and less elegant method
developed by Austin Norman Palmer.

1. Palmer Copybook- commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.

2. D'Nealian Copybook- commonly used in the United States since 1980.
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook

IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (SYSTEM OF WRITING)

May point:
1. to the nationality of the writer
2. the system learned
3. the date when the writing was acquired
4. to some of the influences that have surrounded the writer

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

AND EXAMINATIONS

1. Alignment- is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of individual letters in
words to the baseline. It is the alignment of words. The relative alignment of letters.

2. Angular Forms- sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and changing
direction before continuing

3. Arcade Forms- forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the bottom.

4. (verify) Collation - side by side comparison; the critical comparison side by side
examination.
5. Comparison- the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the element of one
item are related to the counterparts of the other.

6. Dextral-handedness (left/right); Ambidextral-left and right

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 7. Disguised Writing- A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits of
hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised
writing.

8. Down Strokes- the movement of the pen toward the writer.

9. Form- the writer's chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is
copybook. elaborated simplified or printed. This refers to the shape or design of the
individual letters.

10.Garland Forms- A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the
bottom.

11.Gestalt- A German word that means "complete" or "whole". A good gestalt needs nothing
added or taken away to make it "look right". Also, a school of handwriting analysis that
looks at handwriting as a whole picture.

12.Graphoanalysis- the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental strokes, the
curve and the straight strokes.

13.Graphometry- analysis by comparison and measurement.

14.Graphology- the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person from
the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of handwriting,
especially with reference to the forgeries and questioned documents.

15.Hand Lettering- any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately: also called hand printing.

16.Left-Handed Writing- also known as the wrong hand writing (Sinistral - from sinister -
left).

17.Letter Space- the amount of space left between letters.

18.Line Direction- moverent of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight across the
page.

19.Line Quality- the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending
strokes.
There are two classes: a. Good line quality b. Poor line quality

20.Line Space- the amount of space left between lines.

21.Manuscript Writing- a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of

writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to
write.

22.Margins- the amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
23.Movement- it is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors which
are related to the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed freedom, hesitation,
rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is
moved that is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.

24.Natural Writing- any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or later its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.

25.Natural Variation- these are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimen of any individual handwriting.

26.Pen Emphasis- the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surfaces.
When the pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more rigid

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 writing points heavy point emphasis can occur in writing without any evidence of
shading; the act intermittently forcing the pen against the paper with increase pressure.

27.Pen Hold- the place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which
he holds it.

28.Pen Position- relationship between the pen point and the paper. The orientation of the
writing instrument.

29.Pen Pressure- the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen pressure as
opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual or average force involved in the writing
rather than the period which increases.

30.Print Script- a creative combination of printing and cursive writing

31.Proportion- individual characteristics in relative proportion of letters or proportion of a

part of a letter or relative height of one letter to another letter.

32.Ratio- the relation between the tall and short letter is referred to as the ratio of the
writing

33.Quality- a distinct or peculiar character. Also, ‘quality’ is used in describing hand writing
to refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.

34.Rhythm- the element of writing movement, which is marked by regular or periodic

recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the
flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity
alteration of movement.

35.Shading- is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible pen
point or the use of the stub pen

36.Significant Writing Habit- any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently

uncommon and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in identification.

37.Simplification- eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model

38.Size- may refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones
39.Skill- in any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of
handwriting usually contain evidences of writer’s proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a
writer’s proficiency

40.Slope or Slant- the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline
There are three classes
a. Slant to the left
b. Slant to the right and;
c. Vertical slant

41.Speed of Writing- the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper

42.Speed (speedy) Writing- not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of
the speed of writing may be significant identifying element. Writing speed can be
measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms
of slow, moderate or rapid

43.Thread Form- an indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy

44.Variation- the act or process of changing

45.Word Space- the amount of space left between words

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 46.Writing Conditions- both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and
the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It includes the
writer’s position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the
writing instrument; writing ability may be modified by the conditions of the writer’s
health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication

47.Wrong-Handed Writing- any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally
used; a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand”. It is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of
a right-handed person, which has been executed with his left hand, accounts for the
common terminology for this class of disguise as “left-handed writing”.

48. Reprographic Examination- refers to examination of documents which includes

photocopies, facsimile, photographs and the like

49.Rubric or Embellishment- refers to the additional unnecessary strokes to legibility of

letterforms or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental
purposes. Embellishment is usually added to signatures to enhance, what is to the writer,
their “pleasing appearance”. This serves as security to make a signature more difficult to
imitate or forge.

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
1. Finger Movement- the thumb, the first, the second and slightly the third finger are in
actual motion. Most usually employed by children and illiterates.

2. Hand Movement- produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist
as the center of attraction

3. Forearm Movement- the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of
the table
4. Whole arm Movement- action of the entire arm without resting i.e., blackboard writing

RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING
Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes, working in full coordination. This
manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes which increase and decrease in which like perfect
cones. Pressure is always in a state of changes moving form light to heavy or from heavy to
light.

A. Lack of Rhythm- characterized by a succession of awkward, independent poorly

directed and disconnected motions
B. Importance of Rhythm- by studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can
determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with hesitation as if he is
attempting to for another signature
C. Letter of Connections- determine the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a
mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by connection of letters
to one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and the downward
strokes. These types of connections are:

1. Arcade- a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of connection

resulting from controlled movements.

2. Garland- links the downward strokes to the upward strokes with a flowing curve
swinging from left to right

3. Angular connective form- when the download strokes and upward strokes meet
directly, angular connection is formed. This type of connection imposes a check on the
continuity of movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each
turning point

4. The threadlike connective form- the joining of downward and upward strokes is
slurred to a threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom a
double curve. These forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the word
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
SROKE
any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches

TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Arc- a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h”, “m”, “n” & “p”
2. Arch- any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches
3. Ascender- is the top portion of a letter or upper loop
4. Baseline- maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing; it
is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests
5. Beaded- preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters
6. Beard- it is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter
7. Blunt- the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation)
8. Body- the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes, terminal strokes and the
diacritic, of any. Example: the oval of the letter “O” is the body minus the downward
stroke of the loop
9. Bowl- a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “O”
10.Buckle/ Buckle knot- a loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in
small letter “k” & “b”, or in capital letters “A”, “K”, “P”; the horizontal end loop stroke
that are often used to complete a letter
11.Cacography- a bad writing
12.Calligraphy- the art of beautiful writing
13.Descender- opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter
14.Diacritic- “t” crossing and dots of the letter “I” and “j”. the matters of Indian script are
also known as diacritic sign; an element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross
bar or a dot
15.Ending/ Terminate Stroke of toe- the end stroke of a letter
16.Eye/ Eyelet/ Eyeloop- a small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur
inside the oval of the letters “a, d, o”; the small loop form by the stroke that extend in
divergent direction as in small letters
17.Foot- lower part which rest on the baseline. The small latter “m” has three feet and the
small letter “n” has two feet
18.Habits- any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing
19.Hesitation- the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when
writing slows down or stop while the pen takes a stock of the position
20.Hiatus/ pen jump- a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen.
Such as occurrence usually occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form
of pen lift distinguished in a ball gaps and appear in the writing
21.Hook- it is a minute curve or ankle which often occurs at the end of the terminal stroke.
It is also sometimes occurred at the beginning of an initial stoke. The terminal curve of
letters “a, d n, m, p, u” is the hook. In small letter “w” the initial curve is hook; the
minute involuntary talon like formation found at the commencement of an initial up
stroke or the end terminal stroke.
22.Hump- upper portion of its letters “m, n, h, k” the rounded outside of the top of the bend
stroke or curve in a small letter
23.Knob- the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow
withdrawal of the pen from the paper (usually applicable to the fountain pen.
24.Ligature/ connection- the stroke which connects two strokes of the letter;
characterized by connected stroke between letters
25.Long letter- those letters with both upper and lower loops
26.Loop- an oblong curve such as found on the small letter “f, g, l” and letter stroke “f” has
two. A loop may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled
the open space
27.Majuscule- a capital letter
28.Miniscule- a small letter
29.Movement impulses- this refers to the continuity of stroke, forged writing is usually
produced by disconnected and broken movements and more motion or movement
impulses than in genuine writing
30.Patching- an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from
the paper (repair, fix or connect)
31.Pen lift- an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the
paper
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 32.Retrace/ Retracing- any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon the original
stroke. Ex.: vertical stroke of the letters “d, t” while coming downward to the top to
bottom will have a retracing stroke; any stroke which goes back over another writing
stroke. Natural handwriting there may be instances in which the pen doubled back over
the course
33.Shoulders- outside portion of the top curve, small letter “m” has three shoulders and the
small letter “n” has one shoulder
34.Spur- a short initial or terminal stroke
35.Staff- any major long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in capital
letters
36.Stem or shank- the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally
seen in capital letters
37.Tick/ Hitch- any short stroke, which usually occurs at the top of the letters
38.Tremor- a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is described as writing
tremor
39.Whirl- the upstroke of looping ascender
40.Linear Letters- lower case letters having no ascending loops or stems, or descending
loops or stems sometimes called miniscule. No capital letters
41.Supralinear- letters that extend a distance vertically above the linear letters (b, d, h, k, l
and t)
42.Infralinear- letters are those that extend a distance vertically below the baseline of the
writing or of the linear letters (g, j, p, q, y, z)
43.Double-length letters- are those few letters that extend a distance vertically both above
and below the linear letters (f, y, z, p)

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES CONNECTING STROKES

1. Airstroke- the movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the
same direction
2. Covering stroke- a stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing
action
3. Final- the ending stroke of a letter when it is at the end of a word
4. Upstroke- movement of the pen away from the letter
5. Sequence of strokes- the order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is
referred to as their sequence
6. Supported strokes- upstroke partially covering the previous down strokes. Originally
taught in European schools
7. Trait Stroke- a school of handwriting analysis that assign personality trait manners to
individual writing strokes

GENERAL (CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS

These characteristics refer to those habits are part of basic writing system or which are
modification of the system of writing found among so large of writers that have only slight
identification value.

National Characteristics- this refers to the extent that writing system within a country share
common features and induce class characteristics in the writing of its people, different from
other countries.

Accidental Characteristics- these are isolated, brief or temporary digression from normal
writing practices observed in writing standards

Individual Characteristics
They are characteristics which are the result of the writer’s muscular control,
coordination, age, health, nervous, temperament, frequency, personality and character. They
are found in the following:
1. Writing movement
2. Form and design of letters
3. Muscular control or motor control
a. Loose Writing- this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of
regulation. This is noticed most especially in tall letters forms

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 b. Restrained Writing- there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you
the impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to eligibility
4. Motor coordination
5. Shading
6. Alignment
7. Pen pressure
8. Connection
9. Pen hold
10.Skill
11.Rhythm
12.Disconnections or pen lifts between letters
13.Speed
14.Slant as a writing habit
15.Proportion of letters as an individual characteristics or habit
16.Quality of stroke or line quality
17.Variation

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING

Extended writings- are any writing by an individual other than their own signature or
initial. Signatures are just that, the name of a person or something representing his/her name
(anonymous, threat, poison letters)
Signatures of an individual may become stylized over time because the person tends to
write his/her name over and over. Therefore, often it is not possible to use the extended writing
of a person to identify a signature of that individual.
To identify questioned signatures, it is best to have contemporaneous signature of the
subject for comparison.
1. Uniformity- does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free flowing
appearance?

2. Irregularities- does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn

3. Size & proportion- determine the height of the over-all writing as well as the height of
the individual strokes in proportion to each other

4. Alignment- are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill

5. Spacing- determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between words. Width
of the left and right margins, paragraph indentations

6. Degree of slant- determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between
words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph indentations.

7. Degree of slant-are they uniform or not

8. Formation and design of the letter- “t”, (-) bars, “I” dots, loops, circle formation

9. Initial, connecting and final strokes

STANDARDS

1. STANDARD- they are known writings which indicate how a person writes. A writer
manifests fixed habits in his writing that identify him. This fact provides the basis for an
opinion of conclusion regarding any writing identification problem
2. EXEMPLAR- specimen of the writing of the suspect (already used for comparison)
The term standard is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the
suspects while exemplars refers more especially to specimens of standard writing
offered in evidence or obtained or request for comparison with the questioned
writing

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
TYPES OF HANDWRITING STANDARDS

1. Collected Standards- are known (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as

signature and endorsement on concealed checks, legal papers / letters, commercial,
official, public and private document and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda,
etc., written in the course of daily life, both business and socials.

2. Requested Standards- are signatures or other handwritings (or hand printings) written
by an individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or
for specimen purposes. From Latin term “POST LITEM MOTAN” meaning previously
written

SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1. Cancelled checks
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes
3. Signed receipts for telegrams, special delivery or registered letters, express and store
packages, etc.
4. Business and personal letters
5. Credit application and cards
6. Signature on sales slip, on job order slips, requisition slips and purchase slips
7. Lease, mortgages, agreement, bill of sale, contract, deeds, notes stock certificates and
transfers and other legal or business and documents
8. Court records and affidavit, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings,
divorce papers. Probated wills and state files, powers of attorney etc.
9. Passport, marriage applications, license and affidavits
10.Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of license applications
11.Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services
12.Loan application and receipts
13.Tax return and affidavits
14.Insurances and license applications
15.Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop
16.Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
17.Barangay registration, petitions
18.Relief, unemployment and old compensation records
19.Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registration
20.Church, club and professional records
21.Veteran records
22.Fingerprint records
23.School or university class records and cards
24.Application for clearance like in the office of the municipal and city courts, city fiscal’s
office, police departments, office of the NBI and other government and private offices
25.Application for firearm licenses
26.Application for commission and enlistment in the AFP and foreign armed forces offices
27.Application for export and import of dollar allocations
28.ID cards
29.Application for rights like water rights, copyrights, patients, franchises, etc.

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE SELECTION OF STABDARDS

A. The Amount of Standard Written- good writing standards should be sufficient to
define accurately both the identifying habits- as well as the kind and extent of variation
typical of the writer’s handwriting under any specific writing condition (Hilton)
1. At least ten to twenty-five signatures
2. Writing- usually four or five pages of natural writing (long hand/ extended writing)
B. Similarity of Subject Matter. The style of writing contained in the standard or
exemplars should be similar to the style of the questioned writings. If the questioned
writings are hand printed, then get hand printed standard or exemplar
1. Compare conventional copy book from conventional to the copy-book form of
standard; and compare highly individualized questioned signature with highly
individualized standard signatures
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 2. Extended writing- determined whether the questioned writing is purely cursive or
script or block or combination of three or two styles of writing
C. Relative Dates of the questioned and the standards- writing standard signatures or
writing must be those written five years before or five years after the date of the
questioned signature or writing. The ideal standards are those before, on and after the
date of the questioned writing
D. Standards should not exceed more than five years

IMPORTANCE OF CONTEMPORANEOUS STANDARDS (five years before and after the

questioned writing was collected)

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s handwriting or signature

2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
A. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE
PREPARED. If the questioned handwriting is executed under abnormal conditions, it
is necessary to look for standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as;
paper rested on the knee; standing; sitting; lying down; and/or while in moving vehicle
B. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of
the questioned document must be obtained in the standards. If the signature was
written by ballpen in ruled paper and above a type written name, standard prepared
under similar conditions should be selected. If the questioned handwriting was
written by pencil, then standard written should be contemporaneous with the
standard exemplars.

HANDWRITING/ SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE- some problems are

complicated and harder to solve. This includes the following:
1. Signature of the careless and highly erratic writer----collected standard
2. Receipt signatures-------------------------------other receipt signatures
3. Near-illiterate writer-----------------------requested standard if writer is still living
4. Signatures of physically impaired writer---if written during the time he is physically
impaired, the requested standard should be used
5. Signature of intoxicated person---------collect standards written in the same situation
6. Old age deterioration---------------collect two or three times more standards
7. Signature of bedridden person----------similar to old age deterioration
8. Disguised signature or writer---------specimen written in normal condition could not be
used, therefore, consider collected or requested standards

DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING

A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing
2. Abnormally small writing
3. Alteration in slant (usually in backhand)
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (within a single signature)
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant- from right to left or vice versa
2. Change letter, either from cursive to block style or vice versa
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block style or vice versa
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa
5. Deteriorating one’s handwriting
6. Using the wrong hand or the person maybe an AMBIDEXTROUS

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS- intoxication affects the physiological being of an
individual; the manner of handwriting is also affected
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING
1. Bizarre letter forms
2. Greatly enlarged writings
3. Illegible forms and writing generally
NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 4. Uneven baseline
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters

LEGAL ASPECTS OF STANDARD WRITING

ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS

If the standard used by the document examiner in an identification writing on which the
document examiner bases his conclusion cannot be introduced, then the document examiner
may not be able to provide convincing demonstration or his testimony may be weakened.

THE FOLLOWING ARE STANDARD WRITING WHICH ARE ADMISSIBLE FOR

COMPARISON PURPOSES
1. Standard writing witness
a. The court accepts as sufficient proof that evidence in the form of uncontradicted
testimony of a competent eyewitness to the execution of writing is sufficient to permit
the use of such writings as standard to test other writing
b. It was not necessary for the witness actually to have watched the pen of the writer as
it passed over the paper where it appeared that there was no other person present at
the time but the writer and the witnesses that the writing was done in the witnesses’
presence and that writer then gave them the paper
c. Included in this class of admissible standards are writings voluntarily prepared by a
party in the presence of an investigator
2. Standard writings admitted- if the party whom a handwriting standard is to be
admitted, the genuineness of the standards the court could hold that further proof of
genuineness is unnecessary
3. Record maintained in regular course of business as standard writings. Generally, the
contexts of records maintained in the regular course of business are admissible as an
example to the hearsay rule, as proof of their contents.
4. Government document as standard writings – signatures of government officials on
document treated as authentic and produced from official archives maybe admitted in
evidence as standard of comparison.
5. Ancient writings – the courts have admitted writings on ancient document as standard for
comparison.
6. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings – testimony to the genuineness of a
collection of standard of writings by witnesses who are familiar with a person’s
handwriting.

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

Signature defined
It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgment.
Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of the document to attest that he is its
author or that he ratified its contents.
Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. letters become
simplified or condensed, complex movement appears. This is now a signature.
It is mark but this mark is personal. It is a personal combination of strokes in which it is
possible to recognize the writer.
Signatures should be considered not just from the point of view of whether there is any
difference whatever. The problem is to form a judgment first about the normal range of
variation in the standard and then to consider whether the questioned signature has significant
similarity and whether any difference you observe is within the range of normal variation
established by the standards or whether variations known by several signatures.

Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about signature:

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT
 1. Signed name: somebody’s name signed by hi or her or by somebody authorized by him
or her to sign
2. Signing of name: a signing of somebody’s name
3. Distinctive characteristics: a distinctive mark, characteristic, or thing that identified
somebody (often used before a noun) such as a signature song.
4. Medicine directions or prescription: the part of the doctor’s prescription the contains
the direction for use
5. Printing mark indicating page order: a letter or mark printed on what will become
the first page of a section of a book, indicating its order in binding.
6. Printing sheet printed with multiple pages: a sheet of paper printed with several
pages that, when folded, will become a section of a book.
7. Printing section of book: section of a book consisting of a folded sheet with several
pages printed on it.

A. Guided Signature. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied
in any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such as a signature authenticates a legal
document provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures
are most commonly written during serious illness or on a deathbed.

Types:
a. Inert hand – refers to completely involuntary; incapability of motor activity and
signatory may be conscious of unconscious. (illiterate persons).
b. Guided-hand – situation *is one in which the person providing the guidance usually
dominates the writing process and provides greater portion of control. (partial
incapacitation).
c. Forced hand – signatory is forced to write against his will, by threats, constraints and
the like.
d. Assisted-hand – one in which the person assisting (co-adjutant) provided help to a lesser
degree, perhaps only the point of steadying a tremulous arm or hand, without actually
directing the movement of the writing instrument.

B. Imitated Signature. Synonymous with freehand forgery

C. Model Signature. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery.

THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNAATURE IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
A. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
B. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
C. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
D. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically.
E. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.

TYPES OF SIGNATURES

A. Formal (a.k.a Conventional or Copybook Form) – complete correct signature for an

important document such as will.
B. Informal (Cursory) – usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. x
2. semi-personalized
C. Careless Scribble – for the mail carrier, delivery of the autograph collector

The events immediately preceding the execution of a signature may have a bearing o its
execution or otherwise as when writers are affected by illness, old age, emotion, unusual
writing position, intoxication and deception. The writing variations that appears as a result of
these different conditions might mislead the document examiner.

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION PREPARED BY: MS. ERMA NOTARIO, RCRIM, CCS, LPT