QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

Introduction
Questioned Document Examination (QDE) is a forensic science discipline that analyzes documents to determine
their authenticity, origin, or any alterations. It involves handwriting analysis, ink and paper examination, forgery
detection, and digital document verification. QDE plays a vital role in legal investigations, helping identify fraud,
forgery, and document tampering to ensure the integrity of evidence in court proceedings.

WEEKS 2-3
Introduction
II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
a. Document
b. Document as Defined by Laws / Supreme Court
c. Writings That DO NOT
Constitute Documents
d. Questioned Document/Disputed Document
e. Standard / Standard Document
f. kinds of document
j. Classes of questioned document
h. forms/aspects of questioned document examination

A. Document
✓ A document is any material that contains marks, signs, or symbols—whether visible, partially visible, or
invisible—that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.

Etymology of the Word "Document"

• Derived from the Latin word documentum, meaning "lesson" or "example" (in Medieval Latin, it also
meant "instruction" or "official paper").

• Related to the French word docere, which means "to teach."

Note: Once a document is introduced as evidence, it becomes known as documentary evidence.

Document as Evidence

A document used as evidence consists of writings or any material containing letters, words, numbers, figures,
symbols, or other written expressions offered as proof of their contents. This is defined under Criminal Evidence,
Rule 130, Section 2.

B. Document as Defined by Laws / Supreme Court/Legal Basis of Documents

1. Definition in Jurisprudence

• People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119

A document refers to any written material by which a right is established or an obligation is extinguished.

• People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453

A document includes every deed or instrument executed by a person by which some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced, or set forth.

2. Relation to Criminal Jurisprudence

• Under the Best Evidence Rule, a document is any physical embodiment of information or ideas. Examples
include:

o A letter
 o A contract

o A receipt

o A book of accounts

o A blueprint

o An X-ray plate

(Source: Black's Law Dictionary)

C. What May Not Constitute a Document?

The following are examples of materials that may not be considered documents:

• A draft of a municipal payroll that has not yet been approved by the proper authority. (People vs.
Camacho, 44Phil. 484)

• Mere blank forms of official documents. (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558)

• Pamphlets or books that do not evidence any disposition or agreement—these are considered mere
merchandise rather than documents. (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945)

D. Questioned Document/Disputed Document

Questioned – Any material about which an issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

Questioned Document – A document in which the facts appearing may not be true and are contested, either in
whole or in part, concerning its authenticity, identity, or origin. This may include deeds, contracts, wills, election
ballots, marriage contracts, checks, visas, application forms, check writers, certificates, and other similar
documents.

Questioned document examination is a branch of forensics that focuses on the analysis of disputed documents.
A questioned document examiner analyzes the document using a variety of techniques to determine its
authenticity, origin, or any signs of alteration. Depending on the outcome of the examination, the examiner may
also be called as a witness in a legal case.

Disputed Document – A term indicating that there is an argument or controversy over a document. Although
strictly speaking, this is its true meaning, the terms disputed document and questioned document are often used
interchangeably to refer to a document under special scrutiny.

E. Standard Document

Standard (Standard Document) – A condensed and compact set of authentic specimens from a known source.
In questioned document examination, a standard refers to materials whose origins are known and can be legally
used for comparison. In handwriting analysis, a standard is synonymous with a specimen of handwriting.

Types of Standard Document:

a. Collected or Procured Standard- Specimens that are obtained from a file of document executed
in the regular course of man’s activity or a person’s day to day business, official, social, or personal
activities.
• 15-20 genuine signatures
• 4-5 pages of handwriting
b. Requested or dictated- Made upon request for purposes of making a comparative examination
with the request writing.
 • 25-30 genuine signatures
• 5-6 pages handwriting

Exemplar – A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to refer to known material. The term
standard is the older and more commonly used term.

Terminologies:

Contemporary Document- Documents which are not more than 5 years before or after.

Holographic Document – Any document completely written and signed by a single person, also known as a
holograph. In some jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated even without witnesses.

Reference Collection – A compilation of materials organized by a document examiner to assist in answering

specific questions. Common reference collections include specimens of typewriting, check writing, inks, pens,
pencils, and papers.

F. Kinds of Documents

1. Public Document – A document notarized by a notary public or a competent public official with the
solemnities required by law.

o Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742

2. Official Document – A document issued by the government, its agents, or officers who have the authority
to do so, in accordance with their official duties.

3. Private Document – A document executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public
or any legally authorized person. It serves as proof or evidence of a disposition or agreement.

o U.S. vs. Orera, 11 Phil. 596

4. Commercial Document – A document executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any
Mercantile Law, containing dispositions of commercial rights or obligations.

Note: If a private document is intended to become a part of the public record and falsified prior thereto,
the crime committed is falsification of a public document. If someone falsifies a private document before
it officially becomes part of public record, the act is considered falsification of public documents.

5. Electronic Document (E-Document) – A document that exists only in electronic form, such as data stored
on a computer, network, backup, archive, or other storage media. Examples include emails, instant
messages, e-calendars, audio files, data on handheld devices, animations, metadata, graphics,
photographs, spreadsheets, websites, drawings, and other types of digital data.

o Governed by RA 8792 (E-Commerce Act of 2000)

G. Classes of Questioned Documents

1. Documents with questioned signatures.

2. Questioned documents alleged to have contained fraudulent alterations.

3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

a. Holographic Will – A will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator.
b. Notarial Will – A will signed by the testator, acknowledged before a notary public with three
witnesses.

4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.

a. With a view of ascertaining their source.
 b. With a view of ascertaining their date.
c. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted pages.

5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.

6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.

7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters.
b. Superscriptions, registrations, and miscellaneous writings.

H. forms/aspects of questioned document examination

Addition

Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation may be referred to as addition.

Conclusion

A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by logical, common-sense reasoning in accordance
with established rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in legal terms, is referred to as "opinion."

Document Examiner

One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover
other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts,
but today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of
handwriting.

Erasure

The removal / effaced of writings, typewriting, or printing from a document is an erasure. It may be accomplished
by either of two means:

• Chemical eradication – in which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g., liquid ink
eradicator).

• Abrasive erasure/ mechanical erasure – where the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or
scratching out with a knife or other sharp implement.

Examination

It is the act of making a close and critical study of material, and with questioned documents, it is the process
necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual,
photographic, chemical, ultraviolet, and infrared examination.

Expert Witness

A legal term used to describe a witness who, by reason of his special training or experience, is permitted to
express an opinion in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information in his particular specialty in
order to assist the court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.

Insertion or Interlineation

The term "insertion" and "interlineations" include the addition of writing and other material between lines or
paragraphs or the addition of a whole page to a document.

Non-Identification (Non-Identity)
As used in this text, it means that the source or authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens
is different.

Obliteration/SUPERIMPOSITION OF WRITING

The blotting out or smearing over the writing to make the original invisible is considered an obliteration.

Opinion

In legal language, it refers to the document examiner's conclusion. Actually, in court, he not only expresses an
opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are
used synonymously.

Qualification

The professional experience, education, and ability of a document examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as
an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

Divisions of Questioned Document Examination

A. Criminalistics Examination – This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration, or obliteration of
documents.

Note: Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents, said that an intelligent police
investigator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a document with simple
magnifiers and measuring tools.

B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis- This is more focused on determining the author of writing. It is a more
difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.

H. 4RFORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

1. Examination of signatures and initials

2. Examination of anonymous letters
3. Hand printing examination

B. Examination of Typewritings and Typeprints

C. Examination of Inks

D. Examination of Erasures, Alterations, or Obliterations

1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings

E. Counterfeiting

1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like

2. Examination of fake documents

F. Miscellaneous Aspects

1. Determination of age of documents

2. Identification of stamps
3. Examination of seals and other authenticating devices
DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (IN GENERAL)

A. VALUE

1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one or more documents in
furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against the government, documents often play an important part in
proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual may show that:
o a. He committed the crime.
o b. He had knowledge of the crime.
o c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

B. PURPOSE

A document may be examined to determine the following:

a. Identity of the author.

b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.

THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS

To select "QUESTIONED," "DENIED," "ADMITTED," "AUTHENTIC," and "DOUBTFUL" documents.

1. Concerning the Document in Question

• a. Is only one signature questioned?

• b. Is any part of the document questioned?
• c. Is the date of the document questioned?
• d. Is the paper or typewriter used in the document questioned?

2. Regarding the Standards

• a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for comparison submitted. If
there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
• b. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can be built for
admitting them in evidence.

B. SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS

Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances, conditions, technical problems, and the like.

1. The examiner, after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the circumstances of
the questioned document, the condition of an alleged writer, or any condition that may have affected
the writing or typewriting.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such as:
o Was the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed?
o Was it signed in a moving automobile or while having a drink at the bar?
C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE

1. How much time is needed for the examination?

2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make special photo-
enlargements for proper examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it advisable to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion is based,
especially in court.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Analysis (Recognition) - Properties or characteristics observed or measured.

B. Comparison- Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined through analysis are now compared
with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.

C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain value for
identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of each must therefore be
considered.

D. Verification- if an identification is made, the conclusion must be verified by another fingerprint examiner.

CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

A. Accuracy- Correspondence between results obtained and the truth.

B. Precision- Measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or experimentation.

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

It is the initial examination conducted on a document to determine whether it is genuine or not. It is not a
misnomer, for in reality, it consists of painstaking analysis more than looking at a document and expressing an
off-hand opinion.

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

1. Ensures preparedness.
2. Avoidance of delay.
3. Ensures success of the case.

B. PRINCIPAL POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION IN THE PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

(Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.)

1. Is the signature genuine?

2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine, and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the signature or other
writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Was the writing done before the paper was folded?
8. Was the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness, and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned, or mutilated in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
 12. Is the paper unnecessarily soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and alterations/substitutions of any
kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure, or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or pages written on a different
typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in size, position, and arrangement of matters with the
original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does the postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing, and opening of the
envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed above the paper
examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression, if any appears, made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal, and is it made in
proper sequence?

C. WHO CONDUCTS THE PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION?

It should be conducted by a QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT.

D. WHO IS A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT?

A Questioned Document Expert is one who has:

1. Attained the appropriate education and training.

2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document examinations.
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.

E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. Assurance of preparedness.
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently, they do not
possess the knowledge of the document expert's ability or the various methods that exist for determining
forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an "OFF-HAND" OPINION.

F. WHAT IS AN "OFF-HAND OPINION"?

Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not based on thorough scientific examination.

G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS

It has happened in some cases that an off-hand opinion has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer
was given a chance to escape.
 WEEK 4

III. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

a. Handwriting
b. Early forms of writing/ forerunners of writing
c. Development of Handwriting
d. Kinds of Writings
e. Basis of Handwriting Identification
f. Physiological Basis of Handwriting
g. Principles Involved In Handwriting Identification

A. HANDWRITING

Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a whole, a combination of certain
forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued, painstaking effort. Some define
handwriting as "visible speech."

I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:

A. Cursive- Connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

B. Script- Separated or printed writing.

C. BLOCK- All CAPITAL LETTERS.

B. EARLY FORMS OF WRITING/ FORERUNNERS OF WRITING

HISTORY OF WRITING

➢ Writing consists of letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to represent the sounds or
words of a language. It conveys messages to others and evolved from man's desire to communicate his
thoughts
➢ Cave Drawings: The earliest form of writing, called petroglyphs or petrograms, developed between 20,000
BC and 10,000 BC. These paintings evolved into words or pictures or ideographs used by the Sumerians,
Chinese, Aztecs, Mayas, and Egyptians. Egyptian word pictures are called hieroglyphs.
➢ These word pictures developed into symbols which were used to represent sounds or syllables called
Phonographs- symbols representing sounds and syllables. This then developed into simplifies phonetic
symbols called the Phonetic Alphabet: an alphabet of characters intended to represent specific sound
of speech. The Sumerians are credited with developing the first alphabet.
 ➢ Phoenician Alphabet (1700-1500 BC): Consisted of 22 letters
written from right to left.

Greek Alphabet (8th century BC): Derived from the Phoenician

Alphabet, consisting of 24 letters and including vowels. The term
"alphabet" originates from "Alpha" and "Beta."

➢ The Greek Alphabet evolved into the Roman alphabet or Latin

alphabet: which consisted disconnected capital letter for
centuries. Roman scribes invented lowercase letters that were
patterned from the capital letters. These letters simplifies the
forms and made it easier to copy manuscripts.

HISTORY OF PAPER

Origin

• Papyrus: Discovered by Egyptians over 4,000 years ago, made from grasses called reeds.
• First Paper was made in China 2000 years ago: Made from the bark of the mulberry tree.

Development

• Middle 8th Century: Arabs began making paper; Moors introduced it to Europe.
• 1150: First papermaking mill was established in Spain.
• 1496: First paper mill was established in England.
• 1690: Paper introduced in the U.S.
• 1798: Nicolas Louis Robert (France) invented the first practical paper molding machine.
PAPYRUS

➢ Came into use around 3,500 B.C. in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and
Southern Europe. It was made from the pith of the sedge (grass-like
herb) Cyperus papyrus.

PARCHMENT

➢ Writing material made from the skin of animals, primarily sheep,

calves, or goats. Probably developed in the Middle East around the same
time as papyrus. It became widely used in the 2nd century B.C. in the city
of Pergamum in Anatolia.

VELLUM

• Writing material made from fine skins of young calves or kids. The
term was often used for all kinds of parchment manuscripts. Vellum
became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while
parchment continued to be used for special manuscripts.
• Almost every portable surface that could retain the marks of a brush
or pen was used as a writing material during the early period.

PEN

A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink. It came from the Latin word PENNA, meaning
feather.

Types of Pens
A. Reed Pens / Swamp Reed

• Made from water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia, and along the
Persian Gulf.
• Prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
• The first writing tool with a slightly frayed end like a brush.
• First used in Near East around 2000 B.C. on papyrus and later on
parchment.

B. Quill Pen

• Made from the outer wing feathers of birds like goose, swan, crow, or
turkey.
• First referenced in the 6th century AD by Spanish theologian St. Isidore
of Seville.
 • Used as the principal writing tool for nearly 1300 years.
• To make a quill pen, the feather was hardened by heating or gradual drying, then cut to a broad edge
using a special pen knife.
• Required frequent re-cutting to maintain the writing edge.

C. Steel Point Pens (Brazen Pens)

• The earliest mention of “brazen pens” was in 1465.

• 16th-century Spanish calligrapher Juan de Yciar mentioned brass pens
in his 1548 writing manual.
• Became widespread only in the 19th century.
• First patented steel pen point made by English engineer Bryan Donkin
in 1803.
• Leading 19th-century English pen manufacturers: William Joseph
Gillot, William Mitchell, and James Stephen Perry.

D. Fountain Pens

• Lewis Waterman, a New York insurance agent, patented the first

practical fountain pen in 1884.
• Contained its own ink reservoir and used capillary action for even ink
flow
• By the 1920s, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the
West. Replaced by the ballpoint pen after World War II.

E. Ballpoint Pens

• John Loud patented the first ballpoint pen in 1888.

• Hungarian brothers Ladislao and Georg Biro (1938) invented a viscous,
oil-based ink, making the ballpoint pen practical.
• Early ballpoint pens had issues with skipping and smudging but were
improved over time.

Advantages over fountain pens:

1. Waterproof and almost un-erasable ink.

2. Could write on various surfaces and in different positions.
3. Ideal for making carbon copies.

F. Fiber Tip Pens

• Invented in 1962 by Yukio Horie of Japan.

• Uses dye instead of ink, allowing for a wider range of colors.
• Tip made from fine nylon or synthetic fibers.
G. Felt-Tip Markers

• Made from dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with dye.

• Introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

INK

A viscous fluid or paste used for marking or writing. Derived from the Latin encaustum (pigment for coloring baked
tiles), it entered English through the Old French word enque.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INK

• Indian Ink: Carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water with glue or vegetable gum.
• Logwood Inks: Used in the past but now obsolete.
• Iron Gallotanate Inks: Used for over 1000 years, made from gall nut infusion and iron salts.
• Fountain Pen Inks: Modified iron gallotanate inks with added dye.
• Dyestuff Inks: Made with synthetic dyes and preservatives.
• Water-Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks: Pigment-based with shellac solution.
• Alkaline Writing Inks: Quick-drying inks with pH 9–11.
• Ballpoint Pen Inks: Developed during World War II for high-altitude use.
• Stamp Pad Inks: Made with substances like glycerol and dyes.
• Hectograph Inks: Made with basic dyes and glycerol.
• Typewriter Ribbon Inks: Contain aniline dyes, carbon black, and oils.
• Printing Inks: Mix of pigments, carbon black, and resins.

C. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.

B. After acquiring some degree of skill, children no longer follow the school model.

C. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.

D. In the course of trial and error, modifications are made, simplifications and elaborations occur, and additions
and omissions take place.

1. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviations from the standard
letter forms or school model and becomes his personal habit.
2. Although thousands learn the same system and the natural result is identity, facts show that those who
were taught the same system or school copy a class of writers, but such an impulse does not necessarily
produce a slavish uniformity.
3. Variation begins as soon as writing starts and continues until each writer develops in a way that seems
best and easiest to him.
D. KINDS OF WRITINGS:

A. Cursive- Connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

B. Script- Separated or printed writing.

C. BLOCK- All CAPITAL LETTERS.

E. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. In Wignore's Principles of Judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily movement which is
an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from a fixed mental impression of certain
ideas associated with script form.

B. Environment, education, and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of these muscular
habits that finally, the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts stimulated by these habits.

C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other person cannot, by
mere willpower, reproduce in himself all the muscular combinations from the habit of the first writer.

F. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

• In writing, the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper the directive
impulse and the variation in muscular tension that, according to the nature of the writer's nervous
organization, occur during the act of writing.
• This center, near the motor area of the cortex, is responsible for the finger movements involved in
handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased, as in agraphia, one loses
the ability to write, although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen, or pencil. Thus, the ability or
power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from its
cortical center.

Two Groups of Muscles Involved in Handwriting:

1. Extensor muscles - Push up the pen to form the upward strokes.

2. Flexor muscles - Push the pen to form the downward strokes.

• Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing: those which operate the joints of the
fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

G. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. No two writers write exactly alike- this is the basis of all handwriting identification. Even a single writer cannot
perfectly duplicate his own handwriting. Each writer has their own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the
mental capability of the person including the process of transmitting through the nerves, the impulse to produce
a writing, constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer. The mental and physical condition of a person
as well as his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting.

2. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing instrument may affect the
handwriting characteristics, but they do not confine all its identifying elements - Both illness and old age may be
reflected in handwriting. A transitory change may be injected into handwriting by temporary physical and
mental conditions such as fatigue, nervous tension, and intoxication or severe illness from which the writer
ultimately recovers. The writing position may also affect the qualities of handwriting.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and training applied over a
period of time- No writer can spontaneously exceed his best handwriting. Disguise for the most part is completely
unpracticed and even if it has been practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person's writing ability
and habit are bound to bring about a less fluent and less skilful mode of writing. Even if practiced, disguise hardly
enables the writer to achieve his best writing.

4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form and writing movements are
essential elements of identification- The elements of movements such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis
and shading, location and quality of starts and stops, pen lifts and the like, are reflected in the finished
specimen. The combination of these elements describe the fundamental writing movement.

5. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative examination with the standard
written or prepared under comparable conditions- Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual's
normal writing habit and to show the degree of variation common to his writing. Unless they completely fulfill
these conditions, their usefulness in any examination is limited. Standards which do not comply with these
requirements lead to erroneous conclusions.

6. Similarity does not mean identity- There are many handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance
especially in the formation of letters, but no identical individual handwriting characteristics, especially with regard
to subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing habits.

7. Complete identity means definite forgery- If a signature is geometrically identical with one another, it points
inevitably to racing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such a perfect
copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. If a signature looks, on first
impression, different from other authentic signature, that fact may indicate genuineness.

8. A. A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical writing habits and
identical primary controlling characteristics and in addition, the absence of divergent characteristics.
B. A writing was not written by one person when there is sufficient number of divergent writing
characteristics and the absence of identical primary controlling characteristics
 Week 5
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

a. Illnesses That May Affect the Handwriting of an Individual

b. Variation in Handwriting
c. School Copybook Form (School Model)
d. Early Forms of Copybook Form
e. Importance of the Design of the Letters (System of Writing)
f. Terminologies Related to Handwriting Identification and Examination
g. Movement in Handwriting

A. Illnesses That May Affect the Handwriting of an Individual

Dyslexia

• Dyslexia is a learning disability that becomes apparent in children as a difficulty in learning to read and
later as a problem with spelling.

• It is thought to be a maturational defect that lessens as the child grows older and is capable of
improvement or correction, especially with the proper remedial assistance.

Alzheimer's Disease

• Alzheimer's Disease is an inexorable, degenerative neuro disorder for which there is currently no known
medical prevention or cure.

• Between 2 to 3% of the population over the age of 60, and from 7 to 10% of those over 65, are believed
to be affected by this illness.

• Alzheimer's Disease causes a person to lose the complex memory bank that is the human brain.

• Losing memory doesn't simply end intellectual growth; it reverses the learning process. When memory fails,
individuals eventually revert to childhood and ultimately to infancy.

• As memory deteriorates, one's ability to read and write is also diminished.

• Words are forgotten, and the thread of a conversation is lost, leading to a tendency to repeat oneself
endlessly.

• As the disease progresses, individuals find it difficult to concentrate on and finish tasks, even simple ones
like writing their own name.

• Initially, they may succeed if given a model to follow, but over time, even this becomes too complex.

Arthritis

• One of the most common physical anomalies that tend to accompany age is arthritis and its related
conditions.

• This condition affects writing and may be encountered in wills, deeds, bank documents, and even suicide
notes.

• The primary concern in cases where medical conditions alter writing is whether these effects may be
misinterpreted as signs of forgery.

Parkinson's Disease

• Parkinson's Disease (PD) is considered a disease of middle and older ages.

• The effect of PD on handwriting is often profound, but equally significant is the effect of medications used
to control the uncontrollable tremors characteristic of the advanced stages of the disease.
 • Two other less-common conditions that produce tremors are Progressive Supranuclear Palsy and
Huntington's Disease.

• These, along with Parkinson’s Disease and Essential Tremor, are classified as extrapyramidal disorders,
referring to the part of the neural system within the brain responsible for these conditions.

Agraphia – This condition causes a person to lose the ability to write coherently. While they can still hold and
manipulate writing materials, their writing may become disorganized, with inconsistent letter formation, spacing
issues, and an inability to structure sentences properly. This is due to brain damage from conditions like tumors,
infections, or head injuries.

Aphasia – Since aphasia affects language comprehension and expression, individuals with this condition may
struggle with forming coherent sentences while writing. They may omit words, write nonsensical phrases, or be
unable to understand written instructions, leading to communication difficulties in written form.

Paragraphia – A person with paragraphia may write incorrect words that differ from what they intend to write,
though they can still copy text accurately. This condition affects written expression, often making it difficult for
the individual to communicate ideas effectively in their handwriting.

ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) – Since ALS weakens muscles, individuals may struggle to grip a pen or
maintain control over their hand movements. This leads to shaky, slow, or incomplete handwriting, eventually
making writing impossible as the disease progresses.

Cerebral Palsy – Since cerebral palsy affects motor functions and muscle coordination, individuals may have
difficulty controlling hand movements. Their handwriting may be shaky, uneven, or require excessive effort, often
leading to fatigue and illegibility.

Hypnosis – While under hypnosis, a person’s cognitive and motor functions can be altered, potentially leading to
uncoordinated, sluggish, or inconsistent handwriting. The level of control they have over their writing depends on
the depth of their hypnotic state and the suggestions given by the hypnotist.

Other related conditions:

• Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

o Similar to akinetic Parkinson’s Disease but with additional symptoms affecting the face and eyes.

o Characterized by large jerks of the arm or hand and paralysis of eye movements.

• Huntington’s Disease

o A hereditary disorder that occurs randomly in affected individuals.

B. Variations in Handwriting

A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind, but the hand does not always
produce a stereotyped duplicate of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of precision, and
therefore, we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform. The greater the skill in
the art of penmanship, the fewer the variations there will be in the form of individualized letters as well as in the
writing as a whole.

Natural differences to the writings of an individual.

A. CAUSES OF VARIATION

1. Function of some external condition (e.g., influence of the available space).

2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation, emotion, and deception.
 3. Position of the letter – all letters can be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of a different position,
especially in combination with another and particular letter, may modify any of them in some way or
another.

B. IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is a highly important element of
identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and extent. It becomes necessary
to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.

2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly duplicated in
two individuals. Such a coincidence becomes practically impossible, and this multitude of possible
variations, when combined, is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.

3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergences in size, lateral spacing, and
proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and
in size, proportions, degree of care given to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness,
and direction of stroke.

C. School Copybook Form (School Model)

The school copybook form refers to the standard of handwriting instruction taught in a particular school. Classes
of copybooks depend on the standard school copy adopted by a writer.

D. Early Forms of Copybook

Spencerian Script is a script style that flourished in the United States from 1850 to 1895. Platt Rogers Spencer,
whose name the style bears, believed that America needed a penmanship style that could be written quickly,
legibly, and elegantly to aid in both business correspondence and personal letter writing.

Spencerian Script was developed in 1840 and was soon after taught in a school that Spencer established
specifically for that purpose. He quickly produced graduates who left his school to establish similar institutions,
spreading Spencerian Script to common schools. Unfortunately, Spencer never witnessed the great success of
his penmanship style, as he passed away in 1864. However, his sons took on the mission of fulfilling their late father's
dream.

In 1866, they published and distributed Spencer’s unpublished book, Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship,
which helped establish Spencerian Script as the standard across the United States. It remained widely used until
the 1920s, when the growing popularity of the typewriter led to its decline. Over time, it was gradually replaced
by the simpler and less elegant Palmer Method, developed by Austin Norman Palmer.

SYSTEMS OF EARLY AMERICAN HANDWRITING

1. Old English Round Hand – An Italian hand popular in 1840.

2. Modified Round Hand – Early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and Scribners copybook
(1840-1860).

3. Spencerian – A simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. There was a general tendency
toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were very ornate (1850-1895).

4. Modern Vertical Writing (1890-1900)- A handwriting style that was used between 1890 and 1900,
emphasizing upright letter formation.

5. The Arm Movement Writing – A handwriting method that focused more on the technique of writing using
the arm rather than just the shape of the letters.

Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems developed. This is
characterized by free movement, with forms best suited to easy, rapid writing. These include the Zaner and Blozer
system of arm movement writing and the Palmer system of American arm movement. The last great revolution in
American handwriting was the adoption of vertical writing, which was, in fact, a reversion to the old system of
slow but legible writing.

B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

1. Palmer Copybook – Commonly used in the United States prior to 1980. The Palmer Method was a system
of handwriting instruction developed by Austin Norman Palmer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
It focused on simple, rhythmic movements to create a more practical and less ornate style than
Spencerian Script.

2. D’Nealian Copybook – Commonly used in the United States since 1980. The D’Nealian Method, introduced
in 1976 by Donald Neal Thurber, is a handwriting system that serves as a bridge between print and cursive
writing. It features slanted manuscript letters with small tails, making the transition to cursive writing easier
for young learners.

3. British Copybook- The British Copybook refers to the traditional handwriting instruction method used in the
United Kingdom, often emphasizing Italic Script or Copperplate-style handwriting in earlier times.

4. French Copybook - The French Copybook is a handwriting guide used in France, commonly based on
Cursive Française, a flowing and elegant script designed for both clarity and aesthetic appeal.

5. German Copybook- The German Copybook traditionally featured Kurrent or Sütterlin script, which were
old forms of cursive handwriting used in Germany before being replaced by modern Latin-based scripts.

C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS OR SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AS A BASIS FOR HANDWRITING

IDENTIFICATION

1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual forms or deviations from the
normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings, but if such similarities exist only in letters that
are normal in form, the fact bears no significance.

2. All differences in form indicate non-identity.

3. The likeness in form may be general and simply indicate the class or genus, while the difference that does
not differentiate may be nearly superficial.

4. The date and influences of a system of writing have an important bearing on the question of genuineness
or forgery. The presence of European characteristics in handwriting can also be a vital and controlling
fact.

E. Importance of The Design of the Letters (System of Writing)

May point to:

1. The nationality of the writer.

2. The system learned.

3. The date when the writing was acquired.

4. Some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.

F. Terminologies Related to Handwriting Identification and Examination

A. ALIGNMENT – The relation of parts of the whole writing or the line of individual letters in words to the baseline.
It refers to the alignment of words and the relative alignment of letters.

B. ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes made by stopping the pen and changing direction before
continuing.
C. ARCADE FORMS – Forms that resemble arches, rounded on the top and open at the bottom.

D. CHARACTERISTICS – Any property or mark that distinguishes handwriting. In document examination, commonly
referred to as identifying details.

E. COLLATION – A side-by-side comparison; in this context, it means the critical comparison in a side-by-side
examination.

F. COMPARISON – The act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying qualities; it includes
both a visual and mental act, where the elements of one item are related to those of another.

G. DISGUISED WRITING – When a writer deliberately alters their usual writing habits in an attempt to hide their
identity.

H. DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.

I. FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. It refers to how the writing appears, whether it is copybook, elaborated,
simplified, or printed.

J. GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form, open at the top and rounded at the bottom.

K. GESTALT – A German word meaning “complete” or “whole.” In handwriting analysis, it refers to the overall
impression of the writing.

L. GRAPHOANALYSIS – The study of handwriting based on two fundamental strokes: the curve and the straight
stroke.

M. GRAPHOMETRY – Analysis through comparison and measurement.

N. GRAPHOLOGY – The art of determining character, disposition, and aptitude from handwriting analysis. It also
refers to the scientific study of handwriting, especially in the context of forgeries and questioned documents.

O. HANDLETTERING – Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately; also known as
handprinting.

P. LEFT-HANDED WRITING – See “wrong-hand writing.”

Q. LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.

R. LINE DIRECTION – The movement of the baseline, which may slant upward, downward, or remain straight across
the page.

S. LINE QUALITY – The overall character of ink lines from the beginning to the ending strokes. It includes factors
such as writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, shading, and pen position. Line quality can be
classified as good or poor.

T. LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.

U. MANUSCRIPT WRITING – A disconnected form of script or semi-script writing, typically taught to young children
in elementary school.

V. MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.

W. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – Any study or examination conducted with a microscope to discover minute
details.

X. MOVEMENT – An essential element of handwriting that encompasses all factors related to the motion of the
writing instrument, including skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, and tremors.

Y. NATURAL WRITING – Any specimen of writing executed normally, without attempts to control or alter usual
writing habits.
Z. NATURAL VARIATION – Normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of an individual’s
handwriting.

AA. PEN EMPHASIS – The act of intermittently pressing the pen against the paper surface. When using a flexible
pen, this produces shading; with rigid writing instruments, it results in heavy point emphasis without shading.

BB. PEN HOLD – The manner in which a writer grasps the pen barrel and the angle at which it is held.

CC. PEN POSITION – The relationship between the pen point and the paper.

DD. PEN PRESSURE – The average force applied when the pen contacts the paper, as opposed to pen emphasis,
which refers to intermittent increases in pressure.

EE. PRINTSCRIPT – A creative combination of printing and cursive writing.

FF. PROPORTION (RATIO) – The relationship between tall and short letters in handwriting.

GG. QUALITY – A distinct or peculiar characteristic. In handwriting analysis, "quality" refers to any identifying factor
related to writing movement.

HH. RHYTHM – The element of writing movement marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classified
as smooth, intermittent, or jerky.

II. SHADING – The widening of ink strokes due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or the use of a stub pen.

JJ. SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABIT – Any characteristic of handwriting that is uncommon and well-established
enough to serve as a fundamental point of identification.

KK. SIMPLIFICATION – The elimination of extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.

LL. SIZE – May refer to the overall size of writing or the proportion between different zones.

MM. SKILL – The degree of ability or proficiency in writing, which is usually evident in a handwriting specimen.

NN. SLOPE/SLANT – The angle or inclination of letter axes relative to the baseline. It can be categorized as:

1. Slanting to the left

2. Slanting to the right

3. Vertical slant

OO. SPEED OF WRITING – The personal pace at which a writer moves their pen across the paper.

PP. SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING – Not everyone writes at the same rate, making writing speed a potentially significant
identifying element. While it cannot be measured precisely from finished handwriting, it can generally be
classified as slow, moderate, or rapid.

QQ. SYSTEM (OF WRITING) – A combination of the basic design of letters and the writing movements taught in
school. Over time, individual writing diverges from the system but often retains elements of basic training. See
also "copybook."

RR. TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen relative to the degree of relaxation.

SS. THREADY FORM – An indefinite connective form that appears flat and wavy.

TT. VARIABILITY – The degree to which writing deviates from the copybook model.

UU. VARIATION – The act or process of change in handwriting.

VV. WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.

WW. WRITING CONDITION – The circumstances under which writing was produced and the factors influencing
the writer’s ability at the time of execution. It includes factors such as posture, paper support, writing instrument,
and the writer’s physical or mental state.

XX. WRONG-HANDED WRITING – Writing executed with the hand opposite to the writer’s usual hand; also known
as “awkward hand” writing. It is a common method of disguise, e.g., a right-handed person writing with their left
hand.

YY. WRITING IMPULSE – The movement of the pen from the point of contact with the paper until it is lifted.

G. Movement in Handwriting

A. Kinds of Movement

1. Finger Movement – The thumb, first, second, and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion. Most
commonly used by children and illiterates.

2. Hand Movement – Produced by the movement or action of the whole hand, with the wrist as the center
of attraction.

3. Forearm Movement – The movement of the shoulder, hand, and arm with the support of the table.

4. Whole Forearm Movement – The action of the entire arm without resting, e.g., blackboard writing.

B. Quality of Movement

1. Clumsy, illiterate, and halting

2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness

3. Strong, heavy, and forceful

4. Nervous and irregular

5. Smooth, flowing, and rapid

C. Speed

• Slow and drawn

• Deliberate

• Average

• Rapid

D. Different Movements Employed Affect Writing in:

• Smoothness

• Directness

• Uniformity

• Continuity of strokes

• Connecting or curves between letters

E. Motor Coordination

The special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to produce written forms.
A. Characteristics of Motor Coordination:

1. Free, smoothly rounded curves

2. Gradual changes of direction

3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light

4. Speed

5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line, whereas in writing produced
with a slow motion (such as in finger movement), shading often has a "bunchy" appearance where the
maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.

B. Faulty Coordination is Characterized by the Following:

1. Wavering and Very Irregular Line or Strokes – Uncertain and unsteady progress. There is no freedom of
movement along the strokes of the letter-forms. The writing is very slow and is typical of a young child or
someone painstakingly drawing a picture of an unfamiliar form.

2. Angular Line – A very common fault of coordination. Curves, both large and small, are not smoothly
rounded, and there is no gradual change of direction. Instead, an angle marks almost every change in
direction within the line. Investigations have shown that angles are accompanied by a decrease in
writing speed.

Week 6
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

a. Rhythm in Handwriting
b. Terminologies Concerning Stroke Characteristics
c. Other Terminologies Concerning Strokes
d. General (Class) Characteristics
e. Accidental Characteristics
f. Individual Characteristics
g. Points to Be Considered in Examining Extended Writing

A. Rhythm in Handwriting
Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in full coordination. This is manifested by clear-
cut, accentuated strokes that increase and decrease in width like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state of
change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.

Lack of Rhythm

Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly directed, and disconnected motions.

Importance of Rhythm

By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneously
writes or if they write with hesitation, as if attempting to forge another signature.

Letter Connections

Determines the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a key indicator of neuromuscular function. Words
are formed by connecting letters to one another. Even individual letters are formed by the joining of upward
and downward strokes. These types of connections are:

1. Arcade – A rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of connection resulting from
controlled movements.

2. Garland – Links the downward stroke to the upstroke with a flowing curve swinging from left to right. It is
an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.

3. Angular Connective Form – When the downward strokes and upward strokes meet directly, an angular
connection is formed. This type of connection imposes a check on the continuity of movement,
characterized by an abrupt stop and start at each turning point.

4. Threadlike Connective Form – The joining of downward and upward strokes is slurred into a threadlike
tracing, or where rounded turns used at both the top and bottom produce a double curve. These forms
appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.

B. Terminologies Concerning Stroke Characteristics (The Written Stroke)

Stroke Defined

A stroke is a series of lines or curves written in a single letter; it refers to one of the lines of an alphabet or a series
of lines or curves within a single letter. It is the path traced by the pen on the paper.

1. Arc – A curve formed inside the top curve of a loop, as seen in small letters “h,” “m,” “n,” and “p.”

2. Arch – Any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters that contain arches.

3. Ascender – The top portion of a letter or upper loop.

4. Baseline – May be an actual ruled line on paper or an imaginary alignment of writing. It is the ruled or
imaginary line upon which the writing rests.

5. Beaded – A preliminary embellished initial stroke, usually occurring in capital letters.

6. Beard – The rudimentary initial upstroke of a letter.

7. Blunt – The beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation).

8. Body – The main portion of the letter, minus the initial strokes, terminal strokes, and diacritics, if any.
Example: The oval of the letter "O" is the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.

9. Bowl – A fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter, as in the letter "O."
10. Buckle/Buckleknot – A loop made as a flourish, added to letters such as small "k" and "b" or capital
letters "A," "K," and "P"; also refers to the horizontal end loop stroke used to complete a letter.

11. Cacography – Bad handwriting.

12. Calligraphy – The art of beautiful handwriting.

13. Descender – The lower portion of a letter, opposite of an ascender.

14. Diacritic – The crossbars on the letter "t" and the dots on "i" and "j." In some scripts, diacritic signs are
additional elements added to complete a certain letter.

15. Ending/Terminate Stroke or Toe – The end stroke of a letter.

16. Eye/Eyelet/Eyeloop – A small loop or curve formed inside letters such as "a," "d," and "o."

17. Foot – The lower part of a letter that rests on the baseline. Example: The small letter "m" has three feet,
while "n" has two feet.

18. Habits – Any repeated elements or details that help individualize writing.

19. Hesitation – Irregular thickening of ink found when writing slows down or stops while the pen takes stock
of its position.

20. Hiatus/Pen Jump – A gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen. This often
results from speed and may be regarded as a special form of a pen lift.

21. Hook – A minute curve or angle often occurring at the end of terminal strokes or the beginning of initial
strokes. Example: The terminal curves in the letters "a," "d," "n," "m," "p," and "u." In "w," the initial curve is
the hook.

22. Hump – The upper portion of letters such as "m," "n," "h," and "k."

23. Knob – An extra deposit of ink in the initial or terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from
the paper (commonly seen with fountain pens).

24. Ligature/Connection – The stroke that connects two strokes of a letter, characterized by a continuous
connection between letters.

25. Long Letter – Letters with both upper and lower loops.

26. Loop – An oblong curve found in small letters such as "f," "g," and "l." A loop may be blind (filled with ink)
or open.

27. Majuscule – A capital letter.

28. Minuscule – A small letter.

29. Movement Impulses – Refers to the continuity of strokes. Forged writing is usually produced with
disconnected and broken movements, resulting in more movement impulses than in genuine writing.

30. Patching – Retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. Careful patching is a
common defect in forgeries.

31. Pen Lift – An interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.

32. Retrace/Retracing – Any part of a stroke that is superimposed on the original stroke. Example: The
vertical stroke of the letters "d" and "t" when the pen doubles back over the same path.

33. Shoulder – The outer portion of the top curve. Example: The letter "m" has three shoulders, "n" has two,
and "h" has one.

34. Spur – A short initial or terminal stroke.

 35. Staff – Any major long downward stroke of a letter, such as in "b" and "g."

36. Stem or Shank – The upright long downward stroke, serving as the trunk or stalk, often seen in capital
letters.

37. Tick/Hitch – A short stroke that usually occurs at the top of letters.

38. Tremor – Writing weakness characterized by irregular, shaky strokes.

39. Whirl – The upstroke of a looping ascender.

C. Other Terminologies Concerning Strokes:

1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the same direction
in the air.

2. COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing action.

3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.

4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.

5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES – The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper.

6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially covering the previous downstrokes. Originally taught in
European schools.

7. TRAIT STROKE – A school of handwriting analysis that assigns personality traits to individual writing strokes.

QUALITIES OF THE STROKES:

1. Expansion – Whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both vertical and
horizontal dimensions.

2. Co-ordination – Whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky, continuous or
interrupted.

3. Speed – Whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been steady.

4. Pressure – The pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and downward reach.

5. Direction – Leftward and rightward trend of the movement and its upward and downward reach.

6. Rhythm – The sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, where certain similar phases recur
at more or less regular intervals.

HANDWRITING PROBLEMS:
A. A signature/handwriting contested by its author, which in reality is genuine and corresponds perfectly to the
ordinary and habitual signatures of that person.
B. A signature/handwriting contested by its author, which in reality was written by them but in a way different
from their ordinary manner, making it more or less different from their common genuine signatures.
C. A signature/handwriting contested by its author, which in reality was written by a third person and is a
forgery attempted in imitation of a model.
D. A spurious signature/handwriting written by someone who did not attempt to imitate the signature of a
person and instead used a fictitious name to give their work the appearance of a signature.
E. An uncontested signature/handwriting that is genuine but written by an unknown person, whose name must
be deciphered by the document examiner.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING:
A. Forged or simulated writings – An attempt is made to discard one’s own writing and assume the exact writing
personality of another person.
B. Disguised writings – The writer seeks to hide their own personality without adapting that of another.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES:

Writing habits – Writing, with its thousands of peculiarities in combination, is the most personal and individual
thing a person does, leaving a record that can be studied. This is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.

D. General (Class) Characteristics

These characteristics refer to habits that are part of a basic writing system or modifications of the system found
among a large group of writers, offering only slight identification value.

E.

F. Individual Characteristics

These result from the writer's muscular control, coordination, age, health, nervous temperament, frequency of
writing, personality, and character. These characteristics include:

1. Writing movement

2. Form and design of letters

3. Muscular control or motor control

o Loose writing – Characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of regulation,
especially in tall letter forms.

o Restrained writing – Lacks freedom and has inhibited movements, giving the impression that
every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small and may distort letter forms,
leading to illegibility.

4. Motor coordination

5. Shading

6. Skill

7. Alignment

8. Pen pressure

9. Connection

10. Pen hold

11. Rhythm

12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters

13. Speed

14. Slant as a writing habit

15. Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit

Indications of speed (fast writing):

• Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.

 • Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.

• Marked uncertainty regarding the location of dots on small letters "i" and "j" and the crosses of small
letter "t".

• Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected with the following words.

• Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.

• Wide writing – The width of letters is greater than the connecting spaces adjoining them.

• Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and downstrokes.

• Marked simplification of letters, especially capital letters.

• Rising line.

• Increased pen pressure.

• Increase in the margin to the left at the beginning of the line.

Indications of slow writing:

• Wavering forms and broken strokes.

• Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.

• Conspicuous certainty in the location of dots on small letters "i," "j," and "t" crosses, with scarcely
perceptible deviation from the intended direction.

• Frequent pauses, resulting in meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters, and retouches.

• Careful execution of letter details, especially towards the end of words or names.

• Narrow writing.

• No difference in emphasis between upstrokes and downstrokes.

• Ornamental or flourishing connections.

• Sinking lines.

EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Ordinary copy-book form

2. Usual systematic slant

3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio

4. Conventional spacing

D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Permanent characteristics – Found always in the writer's handwriting.

2. Common or usual – Found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing.

3. Occasional – Found occasionally in the writer's handwriting.

4. Rare – Special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one hundred
individuals.
HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED:

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching

2. Result of imitation

3. Accidental condition or circumstances

4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by education, environment, and
occupation.

EXAMPLES OF SOME INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left

2. Shape, position, size, and angle of "i" dots and "t" crossing

3. Idiosyncrasies

4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure

5. Embellishment, added strokes, and free movement endings

6. Abbreviation of letters

7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings

8. Labored movement producing ragged lines

9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings

10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of Greek "e"

PRINCIPLE IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. When any two specimens of handwriting contain a combination of corresponding or similar and
specifically oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their
occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are no unaccounted-for differences, it may be concluded
that they are similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one and the same person.
B. Handwriting is a fixed habit.
C. These writing habits, like speech habits, become so automatic and unconscious that even with the most
strenuous effort, it is almost impossible to change them. Handwriting is one of the most permanent human
habits.
D. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals.

CORRECT CONCLUSION:

1. To conclude that two writings are by the same hand, characteristics or "dents and scratches" should be
in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence. To conclude that writings are by
different hands, there may be numerous similarities in class characteristics but divergences in individual
characteristics. Alternatively, divergences may be found in both, but they must be more than mere
superficial differences.

2. If an identification conclusion is reached, there must not remain significant differences that cannot
reasonably be explained. Ignoring these differences or failing to account for them properly is a
common cause of errors in handwriting identification.

3. Although there is no specific approach, the document examiner always observes: Analysis,
Comparison, and Evaluation.
G. Points To Consider In Examining Extended Writing (Anonymous, Threat, Poison Letters):
A. Uniformity – Does the questioned writing have a smooth, rhythmic, and free-flowing appearance?
B. Irregularities – Does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-formed, or slowly drawn?
C. Size & Proportion – Determine the height of the overall writing as well as the height of individual strokes in
proportion to each other.
D. Alignment – Are the writings horizontally aligned, curving, uphill, or downhill?
E. Spacing – Determine the general spacing between letters and words, as well as the width of the left and
right margins and paragraph indentations.
F. Degree of Slant – Are they uniform or not?
G. Formation and Design – Analyze the formation of letters, "t" bars, "i" dots, loops, and circle formations.
H. Initial, Connecting, and Final Strokes – Examine the characteristics of the initial, connecting, and final
strokes of letters.

HANDPRINTING:
A. The procedure and principle involved are similar to those of cursive handwriting.
B. In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individuality rests principally in design, selection,
individual letter construction, size ratios, and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting examination
is to determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were accomplished with:

1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a measure of skill
in handwriting.

2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or disguise in
the subject’s handwriting.
 Week 7
STANDARDS

a. Types of Handwriting Standards

b. Sources of Signatures Written in the Course of Daily Affairs
c. How to Prepare and Collect Handwriting Standards
d. Importance of Contemporaneous Standards
e. Handwriting/Signatures That Are Difficult to Solve
f. Disguises in Handwriting
g. Effects of Alcohol in Handwriting
h. Legal Aspects of Standard Writing
i. Standard Writing That Is Admissible for Comparison Purposes

I. DEFINITION

A. STANDARD. They are known writings which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests fixed habits in
his writings that identify him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding any writing
identification problem.
B. EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term standards is
a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refers more especially
to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or request for comparison with the
questioned writing.
C. SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text, the term "sample"
follows closely the statistical usage.

II. USEFUL SUGGESTION REGARDING HANDWRITING STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON

A. TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"

1.Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature and
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and private
document and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life,
both business and socials.

2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an individual upon
request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.

3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have come into
dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.

B. TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED
DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS.
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual cases.

2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in questioned:

a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both victim and suspect's (as much
standards writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) - at least 3 writings by the
suspect/s and in some instanced by the victim.

C. SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL TYPES OF QUESTIONED-
DOCUMENT PROBLEMS:
1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having smooth writing surface.

2.Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned writings, lie; paper
should be same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned document is in
written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
 3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.

4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no assistance in
spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed which will produce the subject natural
writing habits.

5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in consequence, date, time and identify
by initiating each, and request subjects to sign each specimen.

6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and whether subjects appear
to be normally right or left-handed, etc.

D. SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE CHECKS FORGERY IS
CHANGED OR SUSPECTED.

1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned check/s.

2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a.Date - Same as shown on questioned check

b.Payee - - do -

c.Amount- - do -

d.Signature- - do -

e.Any other handwriting shown on questioned check

3. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.

E. MISCELLANEOUS
1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and physical condition of the time
standards are written.

2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handle questioned documents with care.

3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature of writer as well as witness of the
handwriting.

F. SOME SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1 .Canceled Checks

2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.

3 .Credit applications and cards

4. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and purchase slips.

5. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings, and divorce
papers.

Probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, etc.

6. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.

7. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications

8. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services

9 .Loan application and receipts

10. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop

11. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
12. Barangay registration, petitions
13. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
 14. Church, club and professional society record
15. Veteran records
16. Fingerprint records
17. School or University class records and cards
18. Application for firearm and licenses
19. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
20. ID cards

III. HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS? – Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards

A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN

B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed standard
or exemplar.

C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the standards writing standard signatures or writing must be those
written five (5) years before or five (5) after the date of the questioned signature or writing.

D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE PREPARED. look for standards
prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on the knee; standing; sitting; lying
down; and/or while on moving vehicle.

E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned document
must be obtained in the standards

Importance of Contemporaneous Standards are:

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s hand writing or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation

V. HANDWRITINGS/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems are complicated and harder to
solve that includes:

Type of Signature Remedy (Required Standards)

1. Signature of the careless or highly erratic writer. Collected standards

2. Receipt Signature. Other receipt signatures

3. Near - Illiterate Writer. Requested standards if writer is still living

4. Signatures of Physical Impaired Writer a. Collect standards written in the same situation
a. The intoxicated signature b. collect 2 or 3 times more standards
b. Old age deterioration c. similar to old age deterioration
c. The sick bed signature.
5. Disguised signature or writing Specimen written in normal condition could not be
used therefore consider collected and requested
standards.
.

VI. DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING

A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing.
2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in a single signature).
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
 6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.

B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice-versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one's handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).

VII. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS. Intoxication affects the physiological being of an individual hence, the
manner of handwriting is also affected.

B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING

1. Bizarre letter forms.
2. Greatly enlarged writing.
3. Illegible forms and writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline.
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing.
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.

VIII.ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS

A. THE FOLLOWING ARE STANDARD WRITINGS WHICH ARE ADMISSIBLE FOR COMPARISON PURPOSES:
1. Standard writings witnessed
2. Standards writings admitted
3. Record Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard Writings
4. Government Document as standard Writings
5. Ancient writings
6. Other Writings Standards - Among writings admissible as standard are signature on spelling motion or
other instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may without further proof of genuineness be
used as a standard.
7. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings.

Opinion Evidence - The court seem to be in general agreement that proof of the genuineness of a
standard cannot be established by the opinion of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing
sought to be used as standard with another writing.
Genuineness of standard decided by court - The sufficiency of the proof of the genuineness of a
standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.
 Week 8
INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

a. Signature Defined
b. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library on Signatures
c. Guided Signature
d. The Examination of Signatures as a Specialized Branch of Handwriting Identification
e. Types of Signatures

a. SIGNATURE

It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a
mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he is its author or that he ratifies its contents.

b. MICROSOFT ENCARTA REFERENCE LIBRARY HAS THESE TO SAY ABOUT SIGNATURE:

a signature is defined as a signed name or a distinctive mark placed by an individual at the end of a document.

OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS:

A. ASSISTED SIGNATURE. See Guided Signature.

B. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X. This
authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a
signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of the common practice of marking
with an X.
C. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a particular time and place,
under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and mental
condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
D. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a signature by someone
other than the person himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
E. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather than by
tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
F. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any way.
Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document provided it is shown
that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly written during a serious
illness or on a deathbed.
G. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
H. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced forgery.
I. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature in an inverted position to weigh their
identifying significance, the reason being that those we fail to see under normal comparison may readily
be seen under this theory.

c. GUIDED SIGNATURE
A guided signature is one where the writer's hand or arm is steadied in some way during signing. Legally, such a
signature can authenticate a document if it is shown that the writer requested assistance. Guided signatures are
often used during serious illness or on a deathbed.

d. THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION,

FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:

A. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
B. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
C. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
D. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production and is
written automatically.
E. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.
e. TYPES OF SIGNATURES

A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete correct signature for an important
document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized

C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.

f. SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

A. STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or slide-by-side for
simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
B. STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of execution (slow,
deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and an almost
perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
C. STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth, fluent or
hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.
D. STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether the
appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
E. STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity and
direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
F. STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
G. STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
H. STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are the often
changed according to the whim of the writer.

g. PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMS

A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine. Generally, presence of tremors, remnants
of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the probability of genuineness
B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this kind of signature is confidently discovered
that the modification is only on the prominent features of the letter designs that are pointed out by the
disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are unnatural tremors and retouching. The minute
details in genuine signatures are present.
 Week 10
FORGERY OF SIGNATURE

a. Classes of Forged Signatures

b. Characteristic Principles That Supply Most Cases
c. Indication of Genuineness
d. Indications of Simulated (Direct & Indirect Techniques) And Traced Forgeries
e. Indications of Forgery Using Stamped Facsimile of a Genuine Signature
f. Acts of Falsification (Art. 171 & 172)
g. Documents may be simulated or fabricated
h. The Forged and The Genuine Signatures or Handwritings Must Bear Some Resemblance To Each Other.
i. When Any of the Requisites of Counterfeiting Is Not Present
j. Reason for Punishing Forgery

a. CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES

Forgery
Forgery is the act of falsifying or counterfeiting any valuable document, such as banknotes, treasury notes, or
documents payable to the bearer. It also refers to the act of simulating or tracing someone's signature without
their consent for personal gain.

Classes of Forged Signatures (Categories of Forgery of Signatures)

A. Freehand Imitation (Simulated Forgery)
Simulated forgery, also known as freehand imitation forgery, is executed purely by simulation, without tracing
the outline of a genuine signature. It involves freehand drawing in imitation of a model signature.
1. Simulated with the Model Before the Forger
o Direct Technique: The forger works directly with ink, copying the model signature.
o Indirect Technique: The forger first traces the signature with pencil and then covers the pencil
strokes with ink.
2. Simulated Freehand Forgery (Technique)
o This technique is used by forgers with a certain level of writing skill. After practice, the forger
attempts to quickly copy the model signature, often producing a forgery with a more natural
flow.
B. Traced Forgery (Traced Signature)
In traced forgery, the forger directly traces a model signature.
1. Direct Tracing: The forger traces the signature using transmitted light (e.g., holding the document up to
a light source to see the model signature underneath).
2. Indirect Tracing: The forger places the document with the model signature beneath a sheet of paper
and uses carbon paper to trace the signature onto the document.
Types of Traced Signatures:
• Carbon Process: Tracing done using carbon paper.
• Indentation Process: The model signature is traced onto the document by pressing with a stylus or similar
tool, creating indentations on the paper.
• Transmitted Light Process: The forger traces the signature using a bright light source to see the model
underneath.
• Laser Method: Employs holograms for advanced document analysis.
C. Spurious (Simple Signature Forgery)
A spurious signature involves the forger not attempting to replicate a model but instead writing something that
resembles a signature. Typically, the forger uses a false name and employs rapid strokes or a disguised style to
camouflage the forgery.
D. Forgery by Means of a Stamped Facsimile of a Genuine or Model Signature
This type of forgery uses a stamped facsimile of a genuine signature, often produced by a rubber stamp or
other similar device, to replicate the signature on a document.
E. Forgery by Computer Scanning
In this modern type of forgery, the forger uses computer scanning to replicate and manipulate a genuine
signature. Digital tools are used to create a facsimile or to modify an existing signature for fraudulent purposes.

b. CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES

1. Pen Pressure: The variation in the pressure exerted on the writing instrument.
2. Movement: The flow and direction of strokes in the signature.
3. Proportion: The relative size and shape of the letters or elements in the signature.
4. Unusual Distortion of the Forms of Letters: Abnormalities or unusual shapes in the letters.
5. Inconspicuous Characteristics: Subtle features that may be overlooked but contribute to the signature's
authenticity.
6. Repeated Characteristics: Features that appear consistently in each iteration of the signature.
7. Characteristics Written with Speed: Signatures that reflect fast, natural writing movements.

c. INDICATIONS OF GENUINENESS

1. Carelessness: Minor inconsistencies in the writing, indicating spontaneity.

2. Spontaneity: Natural and flowing writing without overthinking or overcorrecting.
3. Alternation of Thick and Thin Strokes: Variation in stroke thickness as the pen moves, reflecting genuine
writing dynamics.
4. Speed: The signature is written quickly, which is typical for genuine signatures.
5. Simplification: The writer may simplify certain elements or letters over time.
6. Upright Letters Interspersed with Slanting Letters: A mix of vertical and slanted strokes is common in
genuine signatures.
7. Upward Strokes to a Threadlike Tracing: Fine, thin strokes often mark the end of upward movements.
8. Rhythm: The signature has a smooth, rhythmic flow.
9. Good Line Quality: Consistent, clean strokes without excessive wavering or irregularities.
10. Variation: Subtle changes or differences from one signature to another, indicating authenticity.

d. INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (DIRECT & INDIRECT TECHNIQUES) AND TRACED FORGERIES

1. Tremulous and Broken Connecting Strokes: Indications of hesitation, where the forger has paused or
started over.
2. No Rhythm: The writing lacks a smooth, natural flow, appearing mechanical or stiff.
3. Carefulness or Unusual Care and Deliberation: The forger writes with excessive caution, unlike the
spontaneous nature of genuine signatures.
4. No Contrast Between Upward and Downward Strokes: The forger's strokes may lack the natural variation
between thick and thin lines.
5. Slow Writing - Angular Writing: The signature may appear slow, angular, or rigid, with unnatural sharp
corners or angles.
6. Blunt Beginning and Endings: The starting and ending strokes of letters are often abrupt or poorly
formed.
7. Placement of Diacritical Marks Just Over the Stem of Letters: Accidental or incorrect positioning of marks
like dots or accents over letters.
8. Absence of Spontaneity and Lack of Smoothness in Letters: The signature may lack fluid motion, resulting
in a rigid or hesitant appearance.
9. Restrained Writing: The writing shows signs of inhibition, where every stroke appears forced or made with
difficulty, often producing a smaller writing style.
10. No Variation: The signature lacks the subtle changes or variations seen in genuine signatures.

e. INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY

1. Writing Habits of the Writer (Forger): The forger's usual writing characteristics are evident, resulting in a
signature that lacks natural variation or authenticity.

f. INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE SIGNATURE

 1. Flat Strokes: Stamped signatures often lack the natural variation in pen pressure and result in uniform,
flat strokes.
2. No Contrast Between Upstrokes and Downstrokes: The strokes appear evenly weighted without the
natural contrast seen in genuine signatures.
3. Deposit of Ink at the Junction of Two Strokes: Ink may accumulate at the points where strokes meet or
cross over, as the stamp creates continuous marks.
4. No Variation: All stamped signatures lack the natural diversity of a genuine handwritten signature.

Forgery, Counterfeiting, and Falsification

A. Counterfeiting
Counterfeiting refers to the crime of producing, circulating, or using false items such as coins and banknotes.
Essentially, it involves creating a spurious imitation of a legitimate item with the intent to deceive or defraud.
Counterfeiting typically targets items of monetary or collectible value, aiming to replicate the real object for
unlawful gain.

B. Falsification
Falsification is the act of altering or forging the contents of a document in a way that misrepresents the original
intent or meaning. This may include fabricating, modifying, or corrupting the original information in the
document.

C. Forgery
Forgery is the act of falsely creating or materially altering any written document, with the intent to defraud. This
can involve signatures, letters, contracts, or other written materials that, if genuine, would carry legal weight or
obligations. Forgery is a criminal offense with serious legal consequences, as it undermines trust in legal
processes and agreements.

Characteristics in Writing
Characteristics refer to any distinct features or marks that differentiate a writer's style. These identifying details
can help analyze and determine the authenticity of handwriting.

Types of Characteristics:

1. Class Characteristics
These are common features found in the handwriting of multiple individuals. They represent gross
characteristics that can be seen in the handwriting of many people.
2. Individual Characteristics
These are unique, personal traits in handwriting that are unlikely to appear in others' writing. They are
highly peculiar to the individual writer.

Technical Terms in Handwriting Analysis

1. Line Quality
Refers to the visible records of the written strokes, showing the basic movements and manner of holding
the writing instrument. It encompasses factors like writing skill, speed, and rhythm.
2. Initial Stroke
The first stroke of any letter, often used as the starting point for analysis.
3. Ending/Terminal Stroke
The final stroke of any letter, completing the character's form.
4. Body
The main portion of the letter, excluding the diacritic, initial, and terminal strokes. Utilized for ornamental
or large writing, where the entire arm is engaged in the writing process.
Factors That Affect Writing Characteristics

1. Natural Variations
Normal deviations found in a repeated specimen of an individual's handwriting, or in the product of any
typewriter.
2. Transitory Change
Temporary changes in writing, which exist as long as the basic cause of deterioration is affecting the
writer. Once the cause is removed, the writing reverts to its normal form.
3. Tremor
A weakening of the strokes, characterized by wavering or shaky writing.

• Genuine Tremor
Caused by factors like weakness, sickness, old age, or illiteracy.
• Tremor of Fraud
Deliberate shaky or irregular writing possibly used in fraudulent activities.

4. Writing Conditions
Refers to external factors affecting the overall quality of writing, such as the writer's condition or
environment during writing.
5. Writing Instrument

• Ballpoint Pen (John Loud): Features a ball bearing at the pen's point.
• Fountain Pen (Lewis Watterman): Features a nib that directs the ink to the paper.
• Fiber Pen (Originally designed by Hong Kong): Uses a synthetic fiber tip.

Miscellaneous Document Problems

1. Detection of Alteration
Alteration: Refers to any change, whether an addition or deletion, made to the original content of a
document that was not part of its original preparation.
2. Decipherment of Erased Writings
Erasure: The removal of writing from a document through mechanical or chemical processes.

• Mechanical Erasure: Accomplished through abrasive methods, such as rubbing or scraping.

• Chemical Erasure: Achieved with the use of an ink eradicator or bleaching agent.
Examination often involves fuming, transmitted light, oblique light, or ultraviolet light.

3. Decipherment of Obliterated Writing

Obliteration: The process of covering up original writing, often to make it illegible, using superimposing
inks.
Usually examined using infra-red light.
4. Examination of Charred Documents and Water-Soaked Documents

• Charred Document: A document that has been partially burned or is brittle.

Decipherment is typically done with infra-red light.

5. Development of Invisible Writing

Invisible Writing: Writing that appears without visible ink strokes, often created with sympathetic inks
(e.g., acids, juices).
These can be developed using heat, water, chemicals, fuming, or ultraviolet light, depending on the ink
used.
6. Decipherment of Contact Writing
Contact Writing: Partially visible ink strokes caused by sudden contact between a fresh inked sheet and
another piece of paper.
Can be enhanced through fuming or ultraviolet light techniques.
Examination of Typewriting

Typewriter

A typewriter is a machine designed to print or impress type

characters on paper, serving as a speedier and more legible
substitute for handwriting. It is a hand-operated character printer
that produces written messages one character at a time.

Characters are produced when the typist presses a key that strikes a
ribbon to transfer ink or carbon impressions onto the paper. Although
almost entirely replaced by computers, typewriters are still used in
certain circumstances, including instances involving criminal activity.

Definition of Terms:

1. Typeface
Refers to the printing surface of the type blo ck in a conventional typewriter. In
an electric typewriter, it is the printing surface of the rotating head sphere.
2. Typeface Defect
Any peculiarity in the type printing caused by actual damage to the typeface
metal or by an abnormality in its printing condition.
3. Characters
In typewriting, this refers to letters, symbols, numerals, or punctuation marks.
4. Pica Typeface
A typeface with an impression spaced ten (10) characters per
horizontal inch.
5. Elite Typeface
A typeface with an impression spaced twelve (12) characters per
horizontal inch.
6. Proportional Spacing Machine
A typewriter where type letter spacing resembles that of conventional printing, in which all letters are
allotted horizontal space according to their relative widths.
7. Transitory Defects
Identifying characteristics of typewriting that can be eliminated by simply cleaning the machine or
replacing the ribbon.
8. Permanent Defects
Identifying characteristics of typewriting that cannot be corrected simply by cleaning the machine or
replacing the ribbon.
9. Malalignment or Alignment Defects
Refers to defects in the printing condition of type characters, where letters are printed either above or
below, left or right, or are inclined from their proper position.

Principal Techniques Used in Typewriting Identification

1. Measure the Typeface Pitch

Determining the spacing of characters in the typeface to identify the machine and style.
2. Verify the Type Size and Design (W-G-T)
Identifying the specific type size and design used in the typewriting.
3. Look for Individual Typeface Defects
Inspecting for unique defects or peculiarities in the typeface that can aid in identifying the machine or
author.

Typeface Defects

1. Vertical Malalignment
Occurs when a character prints above or below its proper position on the line.
 2. Horizontal Malalignment
An alignment defect where characters print to the left or right of their proper position.
3. Twisted Letters
Letters and characters are designed to print at a certain angle to the baseline. When they lean to the
left or right of their correct position, it is called "twisted letters."
4. Off-Its-Feet
A condition in which the character's outline is unevenly printed, resulting in one side being heavier than
the other.
5. Rebound
A typeface defect where a character prints a double impression, with the lighter one slightly offset to
the right or left of the primary print.
6. Actual Breakage
A defect caused by actual damage to the typeface metal, leading to irregular printing.
7. Clogged Typeface (Dirty)
A defect characterized by dirty prints, often caused by the accumulation of ink or carbon residue due
to the machine not being cleaned, or the use of new carbon paper. This is common in closed letter
outlines such as o, a, p, g, etc.

Instruments and Apparatus Used in Questioned Document Examinations

A. Magnifying Lens
Commonly used by bank personnel and others involved in currency examination. The
typical magnifying lens has a four-inch diameter and a magnifying power of 2x. For
more detailed examinations, lenses with a 5x magnifying power or greater, equipped
with built-in lighting, are more effective.

B. Shadowgraph
A pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, typically of the hands, onto a flat
surface or screen.

C. Stereoscopic Binocular Microscope

A microscope that enables 3D enlargement of the examined document, providing
a detailed view of its surface.

D. Measures and Test Plates (Transparent Glass)

Used for examining signatures and typewriting impressions, providing a clear
comparison surface.

E. Table Lamps with Adjustable Shades (Goose Neck Lamps)

These lamps are crucial for controlled illumination, particularly in sidelight
examinations where light is placed at a low angle to the document surface to reveal
hidden features.

F. Transmitted Light Gadget

A device that illuminates a document from beneath or behind, helping to reveal
hidden writing or alterations.
G. Ultra Violet Lamp
Primarily used to detect counterfeit currency, this lamp can also reveal security
features in legitimate documents that are not visible to the naked eye.

H. Infrared Viewer
This tool is primarily used to decipher writings in charred or damaged documents,
revealing text that may otherwise be unreadable.

I. Comparison Microscope
Similar to a bullet comparison microscope, this is used for comparing two or more
documents side-by-side, allowing for detailed inspection of ink, handwriting, and
typeface.

Techniques in the Examination of Questioned Documents

A. Microscopic Examination
Involves using a microscope to identify minute physical details. Stereoscopic
examination with low and high power objectives is critical for detecting retouching, patching, and unnatural
pen lifts, especially in signature analysis. Proper lighting and angle are essential for detecting erasures,
manipulations, and the sequence of writing.
B. Transmitted Light Examination
A technique where a light source is placed behind the document, allowing light to pass through. This method is
useful for identifying erasures, matching serrations, and detecting alterations.
C. Oblique Light Examination
This technique uses low-angle light that grazes the document's surface. It is effective for deciphering faded
handwriting, tracing forgeries, and identifying embossed impressions or subtle alterations.
D. Photographic Examination
Essential in documenting findings, photographic examination allows for the actual observations to be recorded
visually, ensuring that no details are overlooked.
E. Ultra-Violet Examination
Involves using ultraviolet radiation, which is invisible to the naked eye, to examine documents. The ultraviolet
light causes certain substances to fluoresce, revealing hidden features like ink types or security markings. This
examination is typically conducted in a darkroom, with careful control over exposure time to avoid fading or
damage to the document.
F. Infrared Examination
Uses infrared radiation, which is beyond the visible spectrum, to reveal features on a document. Special
photographic emulsions are used to record the invisible details, such as faint writing or alterations made with
different inks.

Important Terms:

1. Anachronism
When a forger struggles to match the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date a document is
supposed to have been written.
2. Genuine Signature
The original signature, executed as a sign of acknowledgment or authorization.
3. Restrained Writing
A style of writing where the letters are compressed, with little to no space between them.
 4. Loose Writing / Extended Writing
Writing that is deliberately extended to change the style of handwriting.
5. Expert Witness
A witness with specialized technical knowledge or experience, often called to testify in court.
6. Examination
The act of closely and critically studying any material.
7. Counterfeit
An imitation of something genuine, created with the intent to defraud.
8. Pen Failure
An interruption in the stroke caused by the failure of the ink or writing instrument to register on the paper.
9. Ink Eradicator
A chemical solution capable of bleaching ink from a document.
10. Decipherment
The process of making out illegible writing or what has been effaced.
11. Restoration
Any process used to develop erased writing, making it visible again.
12. Altered Document
A document that has been changed, either by addition or deletion of information.
13. Blank Papers
A sheet of paper with no visible or readily visible writing on it.
14. Secret Inks
A material used for writing that is invisible to the naked eye.
15. Writing Impression
Small indentations or impressions left by writing, without any pigment.
16. Writing Offsets
Results from a paper coming into contact with fresh ink impressions.
17. Ball Point Pen
A pen with a small ball at its tip that rolls ink onto the paper.
18. Agraphia
A mental disease in which a person loses the ability to write.
19. Safety Paper
Special paper designed to minimize the chance of forgery.
20. Invisible Writing
Writing that is not readily visible to the eye, often requiring special examination techniques.
21. Contact Printing
Partially visible strokes caused when a sheet of paper makes sudden contact with fresh ink writing.
22. Conclusion
The scientific results obtained from relating observed facts.
23. Exemplars
Specimen standards or disputed documents used for comparison in forensic examination.
24. Exhibit
A document or object presented in court as evidence for analysis.
25. Reference Collection
A compiled collection of materials organized by a document examiner for comparison purposes.
26. Writing
The visible result of a complex series of actions performed to produce text on a surface.

Indications of Forgery

1. Evidence of Forged Signatures or Documents

Forged signatures or documents can often be detected through:

• Tracing
• Microscopic Observation
• Oblique Writing
• Infrared Photography
• Transmitted Light Examination
 2. Pen
The average force with which a pen is held against the paper can indicate if inconsistencies are found
in pressure patterns.
3. Hesitation
Irregular thickening of ink occurs when the writer slows down or stops momentarily.
4. Retouching / Patching
The act of going back over a defective portion of the writing or document, often to correct or hide
mistakes, is a sign of forgery.
5. Retracing
This occurs when strokes are superimposed or highlighted upon the original strokes, indicating an
attempt to correct or alter the writing.
6. Absence of Spontaneity
A lack of smoothness in letter formation or writing flow, often indicating that the writing was made with
excessive caution or deliberate effort.

Making of Paper Money

A. Engraving
Engraving is a process where lines to be printed are cut into metal plates by hand
or machine. Ink is applied to the plate, filling the cuts, and excess ink is wiped off.
The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the cuts to be transferred
onto the paper's surface, where the raised ink lines are tangible. This engraving
process is used for producing all genuine banknotes.

B. Letterpress Printing
Commonly used for printing books, magazines, letterheads, and various other
materials, letterpress printing involves raised metal pieces coated with ink and then
pressed onto the paper, similar to a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of
banknotes are typically added through this process, after the note has been
engraved.

C. Offset Printing
In offset printing, a photograph of the desired material is taken, and a print is
made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with water,
allowing ink to stick only to areas where printing is desired. The plate is then placed
in contact with a rubber roller, which transfers the ink onto paper. While commonly
used in small printing plants, offset printing is a popular method for counterfeiters
due to its photographic process, making it the most common method for
producing false paper money.

Bank Note Paper

Paper banknotes undergo significant handling, and without high-quality paper, they would deteriorate quickly
and need frequent replacement. Even with the best-grade paper, older notes, such as the two-peso bill, often
wear out within thirty days and must be replaced. To ensure longevity, the government purchases the highest-
grade paper available. Special paper also makes it harder for counterfeiters to replicate the notes. The
incorrect use of paper often leads to counterfeit banknotes being detected under ultraviolet light.

Note: In modern printing, chemicals are added to paper to make it appear whiter, which causes it to fluoresce
brightly under ultraviolet light. However, banknote paper does not contain such fillers and does not fluoresce.

SECURITY FEATURES OF PHILIPPINE MONEY

Security Features of the New Generation Currency (NGC)

Designing a currency goes beyond sketches, drawings, and colors. Currency requires more features that are
resistant to counterfeiting.
The designs executed by Filipino artists have to be adjusted by the banknotizer, a highly trained artist
specializing in currency design concepts. This process is called banknotization.

Four Layers of Security Features

Level I: Public Security Features

Easily recognized by the public without the need for special tools. These features use the “look,” “feel,” and
“tilt” methods and include:

• Embossed prints
• Watermark
• See-through mark
• Concealed value
• Security fibers
• Tactile marks
• Optically variable ink (OVI)

Level II: Teller-Level Security Features

Recognizable by professional cash handlers or bank tellers using simple tools like a magnifying glass or
ultraviolet (UV) light. Examples include:

• Fluorescent features (visible under UV light)

• Microprinting (tiny text visible under magnification)

Level III: Covert Security Features

Hidden features known only to and verifiable by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP). These are not disclosed
to the public to preserve their integrity.

Level IV: Forensic Security Features

Require special laboratory equipment and procedures for detection. These are used in court proceedings to
verify the authenticity of a banknote beyond dispute.

Level I Security Features

1. Embossed Prints
• The embossed or raised print nature of the ink deposition combined with the quality of cotton-based
paper gives the traditional banknote a unique tactile effect that makes it the first and the most
important line of defense against counterfeiting. This can be felt over the words “REPUBLIKA NG
PILIPINAS,” denominational value in text, signatures, and value panels particularly, the one located at
the lower right corner of the obverse.
2. Asymmetric Serial Number
• Alphanumeric characters at the lower left and upper right corners of the note bearing one or two
prefix letters and six to seven digits, with font increasing in size and thickness.
3. Security Fibers
• Visible red and blue fibers embedded on the paper and randomly scattered on the face and back of
the note.
4. Watermark
• Shadow image of the portrait with the highlighted denominational value that is particularly seen
against the light from either side of the blank space on the note.
5. See-through Mark
• The pre-Hispanic script (Baybayin) at the lower right corner of the face of the note slightly above the
value panel. This is seen in complete form only when the note is viewed against the light. The script
means “Pilipino.”
6. Concealed Value
• The denominational value superimposed at the smaller version portrait at the upper left portion of the
note. This becomes clearly visible when the note is rotated 45 degrees and slightly tilted.
7. Security Thread
• Embedded thread that runs vertically across the width of 20- and 50- piso notes when viewed against
the light. Also, the stitch-like metallic thread on the 100-, 200-, 500- and 1000- piso notes which changes
color from red to green and bears the cleartext of “BSP” on the reverse both in repeated series.
8. Optical Variable Device Patch
• Found only in 500- and 1000- piso notes, this patch is a reflective foil, bearing the image of the Blue-
naped parrot for 500-piso/clam with South Sea pearl for 1000-piso, changes color from red to green
when the note is rotated 90 degrees.
9. Optically Variable Ink
• Found only in the 1000-piso note, this embossed denominational value at the lower right corner of the
face of the note changes color from green to blue when viewed at different angles.

Other Features of the NGC

• The BSP is proud to be the first to adopt the latest OVD patch security feature in the NGC. The technology
of the OVD patch used in the NGC is anchored on the characteristic color permutation that is different
from the OVD patch seen in euro notes, Japanese yen and other currencies of the world.

• This makes our currency design at par with or even better than the currencies of other central bank
worldwide. The NGC is also the first currency note in ASIA to incorporate the hygienic treatment of the
substrate to make it a hostile environment for E. coli bacteria and Aspergillus niger fungus, which can cause
diarrhea and skin diseases, respectively.

4 Filipino Adjectives for NGC

1. Matibay (strong)
Our currency contains Philippine abaca, which is known for its strength and versatility. This is a reflection
of the resilience of our economy amidst challenges.
2. Makulay (colorful)
The vibrant colors in our banknotes symbolize the colorful history of our nation. They also mirror the
happy and fun-loving Filipino disposition even when faced with adversities.
3. Maganda (beautiful)
Our country is beautiful, epitomized by the feature natural wonders. For all their beauty and bounty, our
county’s natural resources are worth preserving as these are our refuge against hunger, calamity, and
boredom.
4. Malinis (clean)
As mentioned earlier, each NGC note was given hygienic treatment that makes it hostile to the growth
of E. coli bacteria and Aspergillus niger fungus.

Coins

Metallic Disks or Small Ingots

Coins are typically made from metallic disks or small ingots, which are shaped for circulation and use as
money.

Used as a Medium of Exchange

Coins are a common form of currency, facilitating trade and transactions in everyday commerce.

Numismatics

The technical term for the practice of collecting coins. It comes from the Greek word "nomisma," meaning
coin or currency.

Numismatics also includes the study of bank notes, medals, tokens, and primitive forms of money.

General Methods of Making Coins

1. Casting

This is the most common method used for making gold coins. The process involves pouring molten metal
into molds to create coin shapes.

2. Striking/Stamping

In this method, an impression of the coin design is pressed into a metal blank using high pressure, creating
the final shape and design.

Writing Materials

Writing Materials refer to any material used primarily for writing or recording, such as paper or other surfaces
used for inscriptions.

1. Paper

Paper consists of sheets of interlaced fibers, usually derived from plants, and is commonly used as a medium
for written communication.

Legal Aspect of Forgery, Counterfeiting, and Falsification

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code Crimes Against Public Interests)

A. Forgeries

What are the crimes called forgeries?

1. Forging the seal of the government, signature, or stamp of the chief executive (Art. 161)
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163)
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164)
4. Forging treasury or bank notes, or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166)
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167)
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172)
7. Falsification by public officer, employee, notary, or ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171)
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172)
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph, and telephone messages (Art. 173)
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174)

B. Acts Punishable Under Art. 161

• Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines

• Forging the signature of the President
• Forging the stamp of the President

C. Crimes Under Counterfeiting Coins

The following crimes are considered acts of counterfeiting coins:

1. Making, importing, and uttering false coins (Art. 163)

2. Mutilation of coins - Importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164)
3. Selling false or mutilated coins without connivance (Art. 165)

D. Reason for Punishing Forgery

Forgery of currency is penalized to maintain the integrity of the currency, ensuring the credit standing of the
government and preventing the public and government from being imposed upon with worthless notes or
obligations.

E. Acts of Falsification (Art. 171 & 172)

The following acts are considered falsifications:

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric

2. Causing it to appear that individuals have participated in an act or proceeding when they did not in
fact participate
3. Attributing to individuals statements in an act or proceeding that they did not make
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts or altering true dates
5. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document that changes its meaning
6. Issuing a document purporting to be a copy of an original document when no such original exists, or
including a statement in the copy contrary to the original
7. Intercalating any instrument or note in a protocol, registry, or official book relating to the issuance
thereof

Writing Materials in Questioned Documents

A. Anachronism

Refers to something out of place or time, where the forger struggles to match the paper, ink, or writing
materials to the correct date of the document.

B. Paper

Sheets of interlaced fibers, primarily cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other
fibrous materials. The fibers are pulped and formed into a solid surface through a felting or matting process.
 C. Watermark

A translucent design imprinted into certain papers during manufacture. Watermarks can help in verifying
the authenticity or age of a document.

D. Writing Materials

Any material used for writing or recording information, such as papers, cardboard, board papers, Morocco
paper, etc.

• Common Issue: The primary question often revolves around the age of the paper and whether it
aligns with the alleged date of the document's creation.

Week 11
WRITING INSTRUMENTS

A. WRITING INSTRUMENTS
B. THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK
C. THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
D. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

WATERMARKS
1. Definition – It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and
appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of
identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper by
the manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made? The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of cotton
or other fibers) was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain (woof) wires. Fine wires forming
the desired design were tied on top of the grid and impressed into the pulp. This impression made the
paper thinner, and therefore, more transparent, where it appeared.
3. Origin. Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years after
the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in the 19th
century, papermakers began to solder the watermark wires to the grid frame, thus insuring uniformity of
impression and aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first British postage stamps of
1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the United States were not so marked until 1895. When paper
began to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred to the grid cover of the dandy
roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the earliest
known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called “DANDY ROLL” that make the paper, and
these designs are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper. However,
the questioned documents examiner's finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the
paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of the
watermark in question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the manufacturer is
determined, then consideration is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous changes in
their watermark design in order to date their products.
 h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark which was not in existence at the time the
document purports to have been executed.

5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:

a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also known as
caused by WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper
manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll's damaged
surface, will coordinate with the paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on the
dandy roll used.

DISCOLORATION - One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its
physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due
to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case of papers out of wood pulp,
they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before
discoloration starts.

CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION:
1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both in appearance and distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and compare. Consider
the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the thickness,
the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing material used in
the questioned document.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding test, bursting
test, etc.
THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK

A. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination centers
on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is identical with
the ink found in the possession of the suspect.
B. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative examination of
certain properties of these inks. However the examination carries with it certain difficulties as the quantity
of material available for examination is small and the examination can be done only one.
C. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a partial destruction
of writing, an exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.
D. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of a binocular microscope as well
as photographic examination. They should be used first before any chemical examination is resorted to.
E. It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composition and developmental history, method of
manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by
identifying a component of the ink, which was not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the
document.

THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE INK

1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also possible to identify
one or more of the components of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
 3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of the various dyes
used in the manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out by paper chromatography.
5. Procedure:
a. Collection of the ink material
(1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke. Dyestuff inks can as
a rule can be extracted with water. Ball point ink can be extracted with organic solvent
such as ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine is the best solvent for ball point inks.
(2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the chromatographic paper into
which the ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly pressed.
b. The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled with the solvent; then the filtered paper strip containing
the ink material is lowered into the vessel with the ends just touching the surface of the solvent and
let it hang on the side of the vessel for 15-20 minutes.
c. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.

DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

1. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of different writings,
the document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which changes in the course of
time. This selection of properties will be determined by the composition of ink and the
circumstances under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
a. Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the writing in question is bound to date in
all probability from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without exception based on oleic acid. These inks will flow
out when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols, which are resistant to
treatment with benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in question is old for oleic
acid is sometimes also used in modern ballpoint inks.
(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow out with the petroleum ether because
these inks, no water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead pigments and dyestuffs are
used that will not dissolve in petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink produced later than 19541956.
(8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible to
determine the relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if they are of the same kind.
The ink dries rather quickly because the base is absorbed by the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use the copying power
for age determination.

b. Dyestuff Inks

(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but the presence of an
obsolete or modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the document to be dated
prior to 1953.

c. Iron Gallotannate Inks - These inks show a remarkable change of color in maturing. This based on
the chemical change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The following are the methods used
to show the gradual change of inks:

(1)Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink – This method is useful in those cases where
the ink writing received for examination is too recent that the process of maturing can be
observed visually. The kind of ink must be known and one or more writings of known age must
be available for comparison.
 (2)Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The solubility of iron gallotannate ink decreases
considerably as the ink matures. As with the color change, it can only be applied successfully
to a very recent writing. This method can establish a difference in the age of writings on one
and the same document. The solubility is determined by a visual estimate of the quantity of ink
which can be withdrawn with a drop of water from a stroke. It is necessary however that the
drop of water be applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.

(3)Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – In iron gallotannate ink, the iron is mainly
present in the complex bound ferrous form. As the manufacturing process goes on, the ric
gallotannate is formed. A drop of aa1-dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa1-dipyridyl in 0.5N HCL (normal
hydrochloric acid)) is applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left in contact with the ink for 1

minute and then recovered with a piece of filter paper. If ferrous iron is still present in the ink,
the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-dipyridyl around the stain of blue dyestuff. By
repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the ferrous iron in the ink by the
changes in the coloration of this red zone. However, this method is applicable when the
questioned writing is not more than a few days old.

(4)Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes – Iron gallotannate inks contain an organic
dye, (soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes insoluble complete or partially as the
ink ages. It is claimed that the organic dye becomes completely insoluble in four to five years.
However, the application of this method appears to yield results in practice.

Week 12
METHODS OF PRINTING DOCUMENTS

A. IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

B. IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING
C. OTHER FORMS OF PRINTING (MODERN METHODS)

METHODS OF PRINTING

A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)

In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above
the level of the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a raised
surface which in turn is applied to paper. The letterpress process is
the oldest of all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and
sharper letters.

After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing
which is made on one of three principles:

1. The platen or "flatbed press" opens and closes like a

clam shaft; it has raised type on one flat surface and
paper on another flat surface and the two are
pressed together. Small hand presses are generally
platen presses.
2. Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder
and then across the flat surface of inked type.
3. Rotary presses pass the paper between two
cylinders, one of which holds the curved printing
plates.
B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING)
There are four types of printing which employ the Intaglio principle of placing ink in an area which has been cut
out or etched.

1. Gravure – This is a process in which the ink in recessed or sunken letters is drawn out or sucked out under
pressure. The process produces high quality
reproduction of photographs and half-tone
illustrations, but the letters of type reproduced
have slightly fuzzy edges. The printing is done from
large copper plates or copper-covered cylinders
on presses of two kinds: sheet-fed gravure presses
and web-fed rotogravure presses for longer runs.
The copper plates or cylinders are produced by
making film positives of the artwork to be
reproduced.
2. Engraving – The paper here is forced into sunken
areas of a metal plate where the ink is. A special
plate is made by the artist who removes or
scratches areas in the metal itself into which the
ink is placed. The actual printing process is very slow, and after the paper is removed from the plate,
time must be allowed for the drying of the ink to prevent smudging.

C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING)

In planographic printing, the image characters are in the same general plane as
the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a dead level plate which is chemically
treated, such as lithograph and offset.

Lithography is the most well-known printing process which employs the principle of
putting ink on a chemically treated surface. The commercial application of
lithography is known as offset. In this process, the copy is placed in front of a big
camera and photographed so that the film is the exact size that the final result is to
be. The film is in turn placed over a sensitized plate (made of paper, albumen or
chemically treated metal) and exposed to a strong light.

C. STENCIL
It is a process where the letters or image are holes
cut in a sheet, or a sheet is made more porous in the
area of the letters, and ink is applied to paper
through the holes or porous areas, such as
mimeograph. Stencil sheets on which the copy is
typed or drawn are made of a porous lease tissue,
covered with a coating which is impervious to ink.
The typing or drawing pushes
the coating aside and exposes
the porous tissue. This stencil is
wrapped around an inked
cylinder, and the cylinder is
rolled across the paper, forcing the ink through the porous parts of the stencil.

D. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING

This is offset-related and is used for the reproduction of pictures and illustrations in
little covers. To prepare a halftone block, the model is photographed and its image
is transferred to surface by photo-printing.
II. IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

A. LETTERPRESS
Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more sharply defined than offset printing.

1. Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different "runs" of letterpress printing which
have been made from the same set-up. The "y" typeface may exhibit evidence of damage, and the
spacing and alignment may be different due to pressure applied by the frame.

B. OFFSET

1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress.

2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of the same density.
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed letters as is sometimes found in letterpress
printing.

IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING
The identification of printing is based on the general principles which consider the existence of an adequate
combination of class and individual characteristics exceeding the limits of an accidental coincidence.

A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – May be grouped under body size and typeface designs.

1. Body size of a type – Responsible for the width of a line and depth of a column.
2. Unit measurement – Six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – Varies from six points up to seventy points, larger ones being made
mainly in wood.
4. According to the typeface – There are eight main designs.

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – These come into existence as a result of:

1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of typefaces; or

2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.

MODERN METHODS OF PRINTING

1. Digital Printing- Digital printing is a modern way to print that uses a computer to send the image or text
straight to the printer. It does not need any metal plates like old-style printing. This kind of printer is fast and
good for printing in small amounts. It is often used to print things like flyers, posters, business cards, and books.
The prints come out clear and colorful, and you can easily change the design on the computer before printing.

2. Inkjet Printing- Inkjet printing works by spraying very tiny drops of ink onto the paper to make a picture or
words. These printers are common in homes and offices because they are not too expensive. They can print
high-quality photos and documents. They are good for printing just a few pages, but the ink can run out quickly
if you print a lot.

3. Laser Printing- Laser printing uses a laser beam and a powder called toner to make the print. It is faster than
an inkjet printer and works well for printing many pages quickly. The prints are sharp and clear, especially for
text. Laser printers are mostly used in schools, offices, and businesses that need to print a lot.

4. 3D Printing- 3D printing is very different from other printers. It does not print on paper. Instead, it makes real,
solid objects from plastic or other materials. The printer builds the object layer by layer. People use 3D printers to
create models, toys, tools, and even parts for machines or medical use. It’s great for making custom items.
5. Dye-Sublimation Printing- This kind of printing uses heat to move dye (color) from a special paper onto
another object, like a T-shirt, mug, or photo card. The color becomes part of the object, so it doesn’t peel or
fade easily. The prints look smooth and bright. It is often used to make gifts, ID cards, or clothes with pictures.

6. UV Printing- UV printing uses special ink that dries instantly when UV (ultraviolet) light shines on it. This lets the
printer work on many different materials like glass, metal, plastic, or wood. It makes colorful and strong prints
that don’t smudge. UV printing is great for printing on things like signs, phone cases, or bottles.

7. Thermal Printing- Thermal printing uses heat to make words or pictures appear on special paper. There is no
ink or toner. These printers are often used in stores to print receipts, price tags, or barcodes. They are quiet, fast,
and don’t need much maintenance, but the print may fade over time.

8. Lenticular Printing- Lenticular printing is a way to print pictures that change when you move them. Some
images can look 3D, while others can flip between two or more pictures. This is done by placing tiny plastic
lenses over the printed image. It is often used for cards, posters, and fun advertisements.

Week 13
ELECTRONIC RELATED CRIMES

A. COMPUTER ABOUT QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A computer-generated questioned document is any document created by a computer that is subject to

scrutiny due to potential disputes about its authenticity, authorship, or creation date. This can include:
• Digitally altered documents
• Manipulated images
• Any other computer-generated evidence where questions arise about its integrity or source

Guidelines in the Examination Process of Computer-Generated Documents

(Kelly & Lindblom, 2006)
Below are questions that can be used to guide the examination process:
1. Is the document an original or copy?
The FDE should attempt to determine if the evidence is an original machine-printed document or a
machine copy.
2. Can the printing technology be identified? Dated?
Identifying the printing technology means attempting to classify the printing process. Microscopic
examinations can help determine if the document has been printed:
o in color or black & white,
o using an impact or non-impact process,
o with toner, wet ink, or another medium.
3. Has more than one technology been used to prepare the document?
This question usually applies to documents with reinsertions and page substitutions.
o Reinsertion involves placing a document back into a printer after it has been signed, allowing a
different portion to be printed.
o Page substitution occurs when one or more pages of the original are removed and replaced, for
example, leaving the signature page intact but changing the remaining content.
4. In a multi-page document, is there evidence that one or more pages are prepared differently than the
others?
This refers to entire pages substituted but printed using the same printer. Look for inconsistencies in:
o spelling, punctuation, staple holes, formatting, etc.
o chronological anomalies (e.g., use of a printer model not yet available at the time claimed).
5. Is there any evidence that text has been altered or added to the document?
Look for discrepancies in:
o line spacing,
o printer technology,
o fonts,
o layout
These can suggest reinsertion or later additions to the original content.
 6. Are there any obvious (gross) defects in the printing that might lead to the machine being
individualized?
Gross printer defects are rare and usually related to ink or toner cartridges and other replaceable
components. These defects may disappear once the defective parts are replaced, but can provide
clues to machine identification in the meantime.

Examination of Photocopied Documents

The printing mechanisms of inkjet printers and photocopiers exhibit similar characteristics and therefore
require the same method of examination.
To identify individual copiers, the Forensic Document Examiner (FDE) can do the following:
1. Determine whether or not two or more copies came from the same machine
2. Determine whether or not a particular machine produced the copies
3. Determine the approximate date of the copies

Identification of Copier-Specific Marks

Similar to typewriters, a copier will develop its own idiosyncrasies over time due to wear and use. These
result in distinctive marks that may be transferred onto copies. By analyzing and interpreting these marks, a
forensic document examiner may:
• Associate a copy with the machine that produced it
• Track changes in these characteristics over time
Note: Some copier idiosyncrasies may disappear after repairs or maintenance. In such cases, the FDE
should consult the copier's repair records.

Types of Unique Marks

• Marks on the platen or imaging glass:
o Debris
o Dirt
o Smudges from fingerprints
o Adhesive residue from tape or labels
These marks may be temporary and can be removed by cleaning. Therefore, it is important to
obtain known samples produced close to the time the questioned copy was made.
• Scratches on the glass surface:
These may create permanent identifiable marks on the copies.
• Rubber backing blanket artifacts:
The rubber pad used to hold the original document in place can sometimes leave repeatable marks on
the copied documents.

C. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIGH-TECH CRIMINAL

Characteristics of the High-Tech Criminal

(Related to Questioned Document Examination)
1. Skilled in Forgery
o They know how to create fake documents, like IDs, contracts, or certificates.
o They may copy handwriting, signatures, or use computer software to make it look real.
2. Uses Advanced Technology
o They use high-quality scanners, printers, and editing tools to make fake documents.
o Some even use digital signatures and watermarks to make fakes look official.
3. Alters Original Documents
o They change important information on real documents, such as names, dates, or numbers.
o This is often done to commit fraud or hide their identity.
4. Creates Counterfeit Documents
o They produce fake documents like passports, checks, school diplomas, or licenses.
o These documents can be hard to detect without expert examination.
5. Expert in Digital Manipulation
o They use software like Photoshop to change photos, text, and other elements of a document.
o These changes may not be visible to the naked eye but can be found by QDE experts.
6. Leaves Digital Evidence
 o Even when trying to hide their work, they often leave traces like metadata, printer marks, or file
histories.
o Document examiners can find these clues using forensic tools.
7. Attempts to Hide Their Tracks
o They use fake names, throwaway email accounts, and encryption to avoid being traced.
o They often delete files or use "anti-forensic" methods to destroy evidence.
8. Aware of Security Features
o They study document security features like holograms, barcodes, and watermarks.
o They try to copy or bypass them when making fakes.
9. Involved in Cybercrime
o Some commit fraud online by creating fake digital documents for loans, jobs, or scams.
o These digital documents may need to be verified by QDE experts.
10. Challenges Investigators
• Because of their use of technology, high-tech criminals make document examination more difficult.
• It takes skilled forensic examiners to detect the changes or prove a document is fake.

B. PREPARATION FOR COURT EXHIBIT

Week 14
PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS AND THE EXPERT WITNESS

A. PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

PHOTOGRAPHY IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

1. Photograph serves as a record of the initial conditions of disputed document.
2. Photograph makes clear what is otherwise may be hidden or indistinct.
3. By means of photographs, a writing in question can be accurately be enlarged so that every quality
and characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted whether the facts so shown the points
to genuineness or forgery.
4. Any number of accurate reproductions of the document could be made through photographs, thus
affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners that
could not be possible by using the documents alone.
5. Photograph can be cut apart, as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparison.
6. Photograph is also useful in showing delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent
changes that may be otherwise overlooked or interpreted.
7. Erasure by abrasion made by ordinary rubber eraser can be sometimes be shown clearly and recorded
in permanent form by a photograph taken which the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens
and the plane are inclined at just right angle of reflection so as to show differences in the reflected light
from the different portions of the paper surface.

B. EXPERT WITNESS

An expert witness is someone with specialized knowledge, skills, experience, or training in a particular
field that is relevant to a legal case. Their role is to provide testimony that helps the court understand
complex issues that are beyond the knowledge of the average person. Expert witnesses are permitted
to offer opinions, interpretations, and conclusions based on their expertise within their specific field. For
example, a psychiatrist may testify about the mental state of an accused person. To be considered an
expert witness, the individual must be qualified in their field through education, training, or experience.
According to the Crown Prosecution Service, an expert witness has a duty to assist the court by
providing objective and unbiased expert opinions within their area of expertise.

C. NON-EXPERT WITNESS

Non-Expert Witness (Lay Witness):

A non-expert witness, also known as a lay witness, is a person who testifies about facts they personally
witnessed or experienced. Their role is to provide factual testimony based on what they directly
observed or heard during an event. Unlike expert witnesses, non-expert witnesses cannot offer opinions
 or interpretations beyond their personal knowledge and observations. An example of a lay witness
would be a person who saw a car accident. They are qualified to testify based on their personal
knowledge of the facts related to the case.

Week 15-16
GUIDELINES IN HANDLING QUESTIONED DOCUMENT CASES (FROM EXAMINATION TO PRESENTATION IN COURT)

A. CARE AND PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE

B. OBSERVANCE OF ETHICS
C. AS FAR AS THE CONDITIONS PERMIT, A CAREFUL EXAMINER WILL OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING CAUTIONS

FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINER

A Forensic Document Examiner or a Questioned Document Examiner refers to the person who studies all
aspects of a document to determine its authenticity, origin, handwriting, photocopies, inks, and papers. They
differ from a typical law enforcer or crime scene investigator. They work not in face-to-face encounters with
law violators, victims, and witnesses, but they only conduct laboratory investigations.

The goal of a Forensic Document Examiner is to study and investigate documents in order to determine the
facts about their preparation and history. The work usually involves the examination of handwriting, but the
scope of the expertise of the Forensic Document Examiner must include the following:

• √ Recognizing genuineness

• √ Analyzing color tone of inks, papers, and other substances

• √ Revealing additions and substitutions

• √ Restoring or deciphering erased and obliterated writing

Moreover, the forensic document examiner must be a scientist; examinations must be thorough, accurate, and
entirely objective. He must establish the facts of the document's preparation and history through a study of its
identifying details and comparison of its elements with those of known specimens.

But the work does not end with such discovery of identifying details. He must properly interpret them and,
through logical reasoning, arrive at a correct conclusion regarding the problem. Afterwards, he must prepare a
report that can be understood and appreciated by a judge, an attorney, an investigator, or other interested
parties.

Qualifications of a PNP Questioned Document Examiner

To be a Questioned Document Examiner of the PNP-QDED, one must:

• Be a registered criminologist,

• Have a specialized training of at least six months under the supervision of the PNP Crime Laboratory,
and

• Have six months of continuous and actual questioned document examination under the supervision of a
qualified forensic document examiner of the PNP Crime Laboratory.

Duties and Responsibilities of a Questioned Document Examiner

1. To examine, identify, compare, and analyze signatures, handwriting, initials, and typewriting in
questioned documents;
 2. To conduct examination, identification, comparison, and analysis of obliteration, erasures, and
abrasions in checks, treasury notes, and stamps;

3. To conduct examination, comparison, and analysis of interlineations, insertions, and distortions in

questioned documents;

4. To take photographic reproductions of evidence that are examined, compared, analyzed, and
identified;

5. To evaluate and prepare reports on documents examined;

6. To conduct lectures regarding the different examinations on questioned documents, as well as the
functions and capabilities of the QDED; and

7. To appear as expert witnesses in civil and military courts regarding findings on questioned documents.

Additionally, the questioned document examiner should adhere to specific protocols and guidelines related to
the handling and preservation of document evidence, including maintaining a chain of custody, avoiding the
use of pins, staples, or tape on documents, and ensuring the careful handling of questioned documents to
prevent damage or contamination.

Ten Commandments of Questioned Document Experts

With these, the Forensic Document Examiners of the PNP also abide by the "Ten Commandments of Questioned
Document Experts" as enumerated below:

1. Questioned document experts must render their unprejudiced professional service in the view of justice;

2. Questioned document experts' professional service should be rendered in behalf of the client if their
findings corroborate the claim;

3. Questioned document experts should keep the examination on the most professional level;

4. Questioned document experts should not be influenced by circumstantial evidence, preconceived

ideas, others' testimonies, or elements other than the facts established based on the examination of the
documents involved in the case;

5. Questioned document experts should initially take a case for preliminary examination only;

6. Questioned document experts should always have a pretrial conference with the lawyer based upon
the result of the preliminary examination;

7. Questioned document experts should, if possible, examine the original document and insist upon
authentic standards for comparison other than those prepared for the purpose of examination,
otherwise the opinion they render should be conditional;

8. Questioned document experts should prepare photo enlargement exhibits and comparison charts in
order to demonstrate and illustrate to the court their testimony;

9. Questioned document experts should never underestimate the ability of the opposing party; and

10. Questioned document experts must maintain an ethical conduct of practice in every respect, and
should not receive compensation for services on the basis of the outcome or result of the case.

PROPER CARE AND HANDLING OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

The improper or careless handling of a disputed document can compromise the forensic examination. Law
enforcement agencies usually have policy manuals listing their procedures on the collecting, recording, and
handling of evidence. Always remember the golden rule in the criminal investigation.
Jan Seaman Kelly provided some recommendations to retain a questioned document's evidentiary value (Kelly
& Lindbloom, 2006):

DO's

1. Use envelopes for storage and transportation. The envelopes should be large enough to hold the
document without folding. If the document is to be examined for fingerprints or indented writing, wear
gloves or hold it tightly between the sides of the fingers, but only long enough to place it in the
evidence envelope. Be sure to label the envelope for fingerprinting.

2. Photocopy, photograph, or scan the documents as required – the process will not damage them in any
way. Do not use the auto feed option on a photocopier.

3. Protect documents from excessive heat, light, or dampness.

4. Prepare a complete history of each document showing date, place, and from whom it was obtained.

5. Handle documents as little as possible.

6. Remember: The document evidence must be examined first before it is subjected to additional forensic
examinations. Be sure to state on the evidence package or in the request to the examiner that
additional forensic testing is desired.

DON'Ts

1. Use staples, pins, or clips.

2. Make perforations.

3. Create new folds.

4. Write on or otherwise mark the documents. If labeling and initialing is necessary, then make
identification marks in blank spaces.

5. Write on the evidence envelope if it contains the document.

6. Touch the document with a pencil, pen, or other pointed instrument.

7. Glue the pieces of a torn or fragmented document onto a background. Submit them "as is" in a sealed
evidence package.

8. Make erasures.

9. Make any tracings.

10. Cut or tear a document. Also, do not attempt to repair a cut.

11. Underscore, highlight, or encircle words.

12. Carry disputed documents loosely in pockets.

13. Allow other people to handle or tamper with questioned writings.

14. Allow the suspect to handle or see the disputed document.

15. Allow anyone other than a properly trained forensic scientist to make chemical or other tests.

DO's and DON'Ts for Collecting Standards

(Koppenhaver, 2007):

1. DON'T rely on too little writing. How much is enough? Enough to show the range of handwriting
characteristics of the writer.

2. DO obtain sufficient handwriting exemplars, at least twenty to twenty-five signatures or four to five
pages of handwriting or hand-printing.

3. DON'T rely exclusively on writing that differs significantly from the questioned.

4. DO collect similar samples: hand-printing with hand-printing, ink signatures with ink signatures, lined
paper with lined paper, same size with same size.

5. DON'T rely on documents recently written if the comparison documents were written many years ago.

6. DO collect standards dated at approximately the same time as the questioned.

7. DON'T compare writing written under abnormal conditions (for example, when the writer was
intoxicated) with normal writing.

8. DO collect documents that duplicate the writing environment: checks with checks, contracts with
contracts.

9. DO instruct the writer in order to obtain similar exemplars. For example, print with all uppercase letters.

PERSONALITIES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

1. Albert Sherman Osborn

Contribution: Known as the "Father of Questioned Document Examination," Albert S. Osborn was a
pioneer in the field. He is best known for his foundational work on handwriting analysis and document
examination. His significant contributions lie in the development of principles and techniques that are
still used today.

2. Albert D. Osborn
Contribution: The son of Albert S. Osborn, Albert D. Osborn continued his father's legacy. He co-
authored the influential book "Questioned Documents," which became a standard reference in forensic
document examination. The Osborns helped establish handwriting analysis as a recognized forensic
science.

3. B.J. Vreeland Haring and J. Howard Haring

Contribution: These two figures significantly contributed to the literature and methodology of questioned
document examination. Their work involved the analysis of various types of documents, including
handwriting and printed materials.

4. J. Newton Baker
Contribution: J. Newton Baker was a notable forensic document examiner. His expertise included
handwriting analysis and the detection of forgeries, advancing techniques in document examination.

5. James V.P. Conway

Contribution: A well-known expert in handwriting analysis, James V.P. Conway contributed research,
publications, and practical applications in the field. He played an important role in shaping the
standards and practices of questioned document examination.

6. Hans Scheickert
Contribution: Hans Scheickert was recognized for his analytical work on handwriting and printed
documents. His contributions helped in the evolution of forensic document examination techniques.

7. Dr. Wilson R. Harrison

Contribution: Dr. Harrison was a leading figure in the advancement of handwriting analysis and
document examination. His research influenced the development of modern standards and
procedures in the field.
8. Ordway Hilton
Contribution: Ordway Hilton made substantial contributions through his work in handwriting analysis and
document examination. He was instrumental in improving the methodologies used in the field.

9. Roy A. Huber
Contribution: Roy A. Huber was known for his expertise in handwriting analysis. His work included
research, publications, and real-world applications, influencing professional standards in questioned
document examination.

10. Charles Chabot

Contribution: Charles Chabot made notable advances in the analysis of handwriting and printed
materials. His expertise played a key role in the development of forensic document examination
techniques.