AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024

Homework 1: Review of Fluid Mechanics

Problem 1: Irrotational Flow

Show that the velocity potential φ and the stream function ψ for the flows in (a) and (b)
below satisfy Laplace’s equation.

(a) A uniform flow in the x direction:

φ = V∞ x (1)

ψ = V∞ y (2)

(b) A two-dimensional source flow:

Λ
φ= ln r (3)
2π
Λ
ψ= θ (4)
2π

Problem 2: Irrotational Flow

The streamlines for a certain two-dimensional constant density flow are given by:
5
ψ = 5x2 y − y 3 = constant (5)
3
(a) Verify that this stream function satisfies Laplace’s equation.

(b) Obtain expressions for the velocity components u and v, and the vorticity. Verify
that this flow is irrotational.

(c) The relations u = ∂φ/∂x and v = ∂φ/∂y suggest that if u and v are known, φ can be
recovered by integration, with due care in recognizing that we are integrating partial
derivatives (not ordinary derivatives).

(i) Show that udx = 53 x3 − 5xy 2 + f (y) + C where f (y) is some function of y only
R

and C is a constant.
R
(ii) Show that vdy = −5xy 2 + g(x) + C where g(x) is some function of x only and
C is a constant.

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 1

Problem 3: Doublet
Consider the superposition of a source and a sink of equal strength placed at locations
(−b, 0) and (b, 0) in the x–y plane, respectively.

(a) Take a point P (x, y) somewhere in the upper half of the plane, and draw straight
lines from P to both the source and the sink. Denote the angles between these lines
and the positive x axis by θ1 and θ2 , respectively. Show that the stream function of
the resulting flow can be written as:
Λ
ψ=− (θ2 − θ1 ) (6)
2π
(b) Using trigonometry, write the tangents of θ1 and θ2 in terms of x, y and b. Then
rewrite Eq. 6 as:
 
Λ −1 2by
ψ = − tan (7)
2π x2 − b 2 + y 2

You may wish to recall a formula that says tan(θ2 − θ1 ) = ...

(c) Let the source and sink approach each other such that b, and hence ∆θ = θ2 − θ1 ,
approach zero. Recalling the trigonometric property tan(x) ≈ x if x is very small
(and in radians), show that, if b → 0 but Λ → ∞ such that 2bΛ → κ (a constant),
then we obtain (for the doublet):
κ y
ψD = − (8)
2π x + y 2
2

(d) Finally, consider the streamlines represented by the equation:

κ y
− =c (9)
2π x + y 2
2

With some algebra, show that this is a circle that passes through the origin, with
both the center and the radius dependent on the parameter κ/(2πc).

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 1

Problem 4: Rankine Half-Body

The flow field created by the combination of a uniform flow with a source can be used to
model the flow over a flat-topped ‘hill’, as shown below. We can choose the coordinate
system such that the source is located at the origin. This flow (described in Sec. 3.11 of
the textbook) can be represented by the stream function:

Λ
ψ = V∞ r sin θ + θ (10)
2π

Let Λ = 5000 m2 /s, V∞ = 40 m/s, and ignore viscous effects.

(a) Locate the stagnation point B in terms of its (x, y) or (r, θ) coordinates. (Note that
θ = π refers to the negative part of the x-axis.)

(b) What is the height of the hill being modeled?

π
(c) The streamline EBA crosses the positive y-axis (θ = 2
) at point C. What is the
height of this point above the ground?

(d) Using expressions for the velocity components given in class and in the textbook for
this flow, find the velocity magnitude at the location specified in (c) above. (This
may be of interest if, say, a windmill is to be built on the hill.)

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 1

Problem 5: Two Irrotational Vortices

Consider the superposition of two irrotational vortices of the same strength (Γ) centered
at (−a, 0) and (a, 0) respectively in the x–y plane. Examine the two streamline patterns
shown below: one of them represents two clockwise vortices, but the other represents one
clockwise vortex and one anticlockwise vortex.

(a) By considering (perhaps graphically) how the velocity vectors from two irrotational
vortices add up with one another, decide which pattern is which. Explain your
reasoning carefully.

(b) Show that, for the case of two vortices of opposite signs, the stream function at a
point (x, y) is given by:
q 
2 2
Γ  (x + a) + y
ψ= ln q  (11)
2π 2 2
(x − a) + y

Can you deduce the shape of the ‘zero’ streamline (i.e. the one with ψ = 0)?

(c) In the pattern on the right, one of the streamlines is seen to take on a closed peanut-
like shape. Because in inviscid flow, streamlines may be considered as impermeable
body surfaces, we may think of flow around (or over) an object of this shape. Suppose
now a uniform flow of speed V∞ approaches from the left, in the +x direction. Would
there be a lift force? If so, how much?

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AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024
Homework 2: Thin Airfoil Theory (TAT)

Problem 1: Symmetric Airfoil

Consider a thin symmetric airfoil with 1.22 m chord in a uniform flow at V∞ = 67 m/s
and an angle of attack of 8 degrees. The free-stream pressure and density are 95760 N/m2
and 1.191 kg/m3 respectively. Determine the following, in appropriate SI units if needed:

(a) the lift coefficient, and the lift force per unit span.

(b) the total circulation (Γ) around the airfoil (using the Kutta–Joukowski Theorem).

(c) the coefficient of aerodynamic moment per unit span about the leading edge.

(d) the vortex strength (γ) at mid-chord, i.e. halfway between the leading edge and the
trailing edge.

(e) the flow velocities at mid-chord above and below the airfoil, considered as the sum
of (i) a contribution from the free-stream velocity projected along the airfoil and (ii)
a contribution from the vortex sheet (which gives +γ/2 above and −γ/2 below).

The lift coefficient depends on both the airfoil shape and the operating conditions. Do
you think a lift coefficient twice as large as that in (a) is achievable with this airfoil?
Why, or why not?

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 2

Problem 2: Cambered Airfoil

Consider a thin airfoil whose mean camber line is defined by:
 
x  x 2
z = 4zm −
c c

where zm is a positive constant with units of length.

(a) Differentiate the expression above to obtain the slope of the mean camber line (dz/dx)
as a function of x. Determine the location (x) where the camber is at its maximum
on the chord line. Show that zm is the maximum camber for this airfoil.

(b) Substitute x = 2c (1 − cos θ0 ) into your result for dz/dx above – in effect making a
change of variables from x to θ0 .

(c) From part (b), find the zero-lift angle of attack (αL=0 ). Check that your answer is
dimensionless. Can you tell if it is of the correct sign, and if its magnitude is in a
reasonable range?

(d) Determine the coefficients A1 and A2 in the vortex strength expression for this cam-
bered airfoil. Find the moment coefficient (Cmac ) about the aerodynamic center.

(e) Again using A1 and A2 above, find the location of the center of pressure (xcp ). Is it
located between the leading edge and trailing edge, and closer to the former?

(f) Find the value of zm in terms of the chord length (c) if a lift coefficient of 0.8 is
desired at 4 degrees angle of attack.

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 2

Problem 3: Lockheed P-38 Lightning

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was an American fighter aircraft designed by Clarence
‘Kelly’ Johnson for use in World War II. (Kelly Johnson also designed the iconic Lock-
heed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird, among other aircraft.) The P-38 uses a NACA 4412
airfoil for the outboard portion of its wing, which has a mean camber line defined by:

   x 2 
x x
0.25 0.8 − for 0 ≤ ≤ 0.4


z 
 c c c
=  x 2 
c  x x
 0.111 0.2 + 0.8 −
 for 0.4 ≤ ≤ 1
c c c

where c is the chord length, and x and z are in units of length. In the analysis below,
ignore the taper and the inboard portion of the wing.

(a) Using Thin Airfoil Theory, set up integral expressions for the zero-lift angle of
attack (αL=0 ) in terms of the transformed variable θ. Ensure that you include the
correct integration limits, but please do not actually integrate anything.

(b) Given αL=0 = −4.16◦ , calculate the lift coefficient (Cl ) when α = 3◦ .

(c) Set up integral expressions for the coefficients A1 and A2 in the series expansion
of the circulation distribution. Ensure that you include the correct integration limits,
but again please do not actually integrate anything.

(d) Given A1 = 0.1630 and A2 = 0.0277, calculate Cm,c/4 and xcp /c when α = 3◦ .

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AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024
Homework 3: Lifting Line Theory (LLT)

Problem 1: Symmetric Elliptical Wing

A small airplane of mass 2750 kg is cruising at a speed of 350 km/hr in level flight at
1000 ft above the ground, where the air density is 1.194 kg/m3 . The wing is untwisted
and of elliptical planform, with a span of 16 m and an area of 34 m2 . The airfoil shape
used to construct the wing section is symmetric, and its lift slope (denoted by a0 in class)
can be taken to be 2π. Determine the following:

(a) the aspect ratio of the wing.

(b) the wing lift coefficient.

(c) the induced angle of attack.

(d) the downwash velocity.

(e) the geometric angle of attack.

(f) the lift slope (a) of the wing.

(g) the induced drag coefficient.

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 3

Problem 2: Cambered Elliptical Wing

Consider an untwisted elliptical wing of span 8 m and area 10 m2 , whose cross-section
is cambered and has a zero-lift angle of attack of −2 degrees. Let the air density be
1.2 kg/m3 .

(a) What is the aspect ratio of this wing?

(b) Suppose that this wing is used to support an airplane of weight 20 kN which for some
reason is not to fly at speeds above 300 km/hr. At this limiting condition, determine
(i) the wing lift coefficient, (ii) the induced drag coefficient, (iii) the induced angle of
attack, and (iv) the geometric angle of attack.

Problem 3: Relating Elliptical Wings to Non-Elliptical Wings

The claim that an elliptical wing has the lowest induced drag for any given lift and
aspect ratio is an important one. The theory for non-elliptical wings is well described in
Sec. 5.3.2 of the text book (J.D. Anderson). We shall explore some details below.

(a) Consider the functional form:

∞
X
Γ(θ) = 2bV∞ An sin (nθ) (1)
n=1

where cos θ = 2y/b. For an elliptical wing, what do the coefficients (An ) of this
Fourier sine series look like?

(b) Follow the text book (J.D. Anderson) up to Eq. 5.58. By interchanging the order of
summation and integration, show that this expression can be re-written as:

∞ ∞ Z π
2b2 X X
CDi = nAn Am sin (mθ) sin (nθ) dθ (2)
S m=1 n=1 0

The double summation signs here imply a lot of terms are present. Explain how
orthogonality relations for Fourier series allow us to obtain a result in a relatively
simple form.

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 3

Problem 4: General Wing with Twist and Taper

A small general aviation airplane of weight 9640 N is cruising at 62 m/s at an altitude
of 5000 ft where the air density is ρ = 1.056 kg/m3 . The wing is linearly tapered (from
root to tip) with a span of b = 11 m, a wing area of S = 17.6 m2 , a washout angle of
αwashout = 1◦ and a taper ratio of λ = 0.6. The airfoil section of this wing is the NACA
2412, which has a lift slope of a0 = 2π and a zero-lift angle of attack of αL=0 = −2.233◦ .

(a) Calculate the aspect ratio (AR).

(b) Find the root chord (croot ) and the tip chord (ctip ).

(c) Express the spanwise distribution of the geometric angle of attack, α(θ), in terms of
the washout angle.

(d) Express the spanwise distribution of chord length, c(θ), in terms of the root chord
(croot ) and the tip chord (ctip ). Then calculate c(π/8), c(π/4), c(3π/8) and c(π/2).

(e) If the airplane is to maintain straight and level flight under the conditions above,
calculate the lift coefficient (CL ) required.

(f) The airplane is flying at an angle of attack of α = 1.4◦ .

(i) Calculate α(π/8), α(π/4), α(3π/8) and α(π/2).

(ii) Construct a system of linear equations by using the monoplane equation eval-
uated at θ = π/8, π/4, 3π/8 and π/2. Express the system in matrix form.
(iii) By reducing the augmented matrix of the system to reduced row echelon form
(RREF), solve the system to find A1 , A3 , A5 and A7 . You may do this by hand,
in Matlab via the rref command, or online using a web-based row reducer (just
Google ‘row echelon form calculator’).
(iv) Calculate the lift coefficient (CL ) and the induced drag coefficient (CDi ).
(v) Verify that the airplane is indeed in straight and level flight.
(vi) Calculate the parasite drag coefficient (CDp ). You will need the drag-polar
curve, which is included on the next page. In this HW assignment, it is accept-
able to use approximate values when reading numbers off the drag-polar curve
(estimate the Reynolds number, but ignore the ‘Standard roughness’ data).
(vii) Calculate the engine power required to overcome the total drag.

3 of 4
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 3

Drag-polar curve for a NACA 2412 airfoil.

4 of 4
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

Problem 4: General Wing with Twist and Taper

Given:
Airplane weight W 9640 N
Airplane speed V∞ 62 ms−1
Air density ρ 1.056 kgm−3
Wingspan b 11 m
Wing area S 17.6 m2
Washout angle αwashout 1◦
Taper ratio λ 0.6
Section lift slope a0 2π
Zero-lift AOA αL=0 −2.233◦

(a)

b2
AR =
S
112
=
17.6
= 6.875

(b)
ctip
λ= = 0.6
croot
ctip = 0.6croot

b
S= (croot + ctip ) = 17.6
2
b
(croot + 0.6croot ) = 17.6
2
11
(1.6croot ) = 17.6
2
croot = 2 m

ctip = 0.6croot
= 0.6(2)
= 1.2 m

(c)
π
α(θ) = (α − αwashout | cos(θ)|) ·
180
◦ π
= (α − 1 · | cos(θ)|) ·
180
π
= (α − | cos(θ)|) ·
180

1 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

(d)

c(θ) = croot − (croot − ctip ) | cos(θ)|

= 2 − (2 − 1.2) | cos(θ)|
= 2 − 0.8 · | cos(θ)|

π π
c( ) = 2 − 0.8 · | cos( )|
8 8
≈ 1.261 m

π π
c( ) = 2 − 0.8 · | cos( )|
4 4
≈ 1.434 m

3π 3π
c( ) = 2 − 0.8 · | cos( )|
8 8
≈ 1.694 m

π π
c( ) = 2 − 0.8 · | cos( )|
2 2
=2m

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

(e) For the airplane to maintain straight and level flight, lift must equal weight:

L=W
1 2
ρV CL S = W
2 ∞
2W
CL =
ρV∞2 S
2 · 9640
=
1.056 · 622 · 17.6
≈ 0.2699

Therefore, for straight and level flight, CL ≈ 0.2699.

(f)(i)
π 
◦ π  π
α( ) = 1.4 − | cos( )| ·
8 8 180
≈ 0.008 rad

π  π  π
α( ) = 1.4◦ − | cos( )| ·
4 4 180
≈ 0.012 rad

 
3π ◦ 3π π
α( ) = 1.4 − | cos( )| ·
8 8 180
≈ 0.018 rad

π  π  π
α( ) = 1.4◦ − | cos( )| ·
2 2 180
≈ 0.024 rad

(f)(ii) The monoplane equation is:

X h a0 n i a0
An sin (nθ) sin θ + c (θ) = c (θ) · · sin θ · [α (θ) − αL=0 (θ)]
n=1,3,5,7
4b 4b

Putting θ = π/8, π/4, 3π/8 and π/2 into the monoplane equation gives:

n π8 sin π8 + c π8 a4b

0n 
= c π8 · a4b0 · sin π8 · α π8 − αL=0 π8
P





 n=1,3,5,7 An sin
n π4 sin π4 + c π4 a4b

n
= c π4 · a4b0 · sin π4 · α π4 − αL=0 π4

P




An sin 0

Pn=1,3,5,7 3π a0 n

a
n 3π

 3π
 3π 3π
 3π
3π


An sin sin + c = c · 0
· sin · α − αL=0
Pn=1,3,5,7
 8
 8


8 4b
π a0 n

8 a 4b π 8 π
8 8
n 2 sin 2 + c 2 4b = c 2 · 4b · sin 2 · α 2 − αL=0 π2
π π π


n=1,3,5,7 An sin
0

3 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

Because the wing has no aerodynamic twist, the zero-lift angle of attack is constant across
the span: αL=0 (θ) = αL=0 = −2.233◦ · 180
π
= −0.03897 rad.

Putting back a0 /4b = 2π/(4 · 11) ≈ 0.1428, c (π/8), c (π/4), c (3π/8), c (π/2), α (π/8),
α (π/4), α (3π/8), α (π/2) into the system gives:

n π8 sin π8 + 1.261 · 0.1428n = (1.261)(0.1428) sin π8 [(0.008) − (−0.03897)]

P
 

 n=1,3,5,7 An sin
n π4 sin π4 + 1.434 · 0.1428n = (1.434)(0.1428) sin π4 [(0.012) − (−0.03897)]

P
 
An sin
Pn=1,3,5,7
n 3π

 3π
= (1.694)(0.1428) sin 3π

An sin sin + 1.694 · 0.1428n [(0.018) − (−0.03897)]
Pn=1,3,5,7

 8
 8 8

π π π

n=1,3,5,7 An sin n 2 sin 2 + 2 · 0.1428n = (2)(0.1428) sin 2 [(0.024) − (−0.03897)]

Evaluating the coefficients A1 , A3 , A5 and A7 , and the constant term gives:



 0.2153A1 + 0.8526A3 + 1.1853A5 + 0.6287A7 = 0.0032

0.6448A + 0.9344A − 1.2241A − 1.5138A
1 3 5 7 = 0.0074


 1.0770A1 − 0.6312A3 − 0.8163A5 + 2.4178A7 = 0.0127
1.2856A1 − 1.8568A3 + 2.4280A5 − 2.9992A7

= 0.0181

The system above can be rewritten in matrix form:

    
0.2153 0.8526 1.1853 0.6287 A1 0.0032
 0.6448 0.9344 −1.2241 −1.5138   A3   0.0074 
  A5  =  0.0127
    
 1.0770 −0.6312 −0.8163 2.4178 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 A7 0.0181

(f)(iii) The augmented matrix of the system is:

 
0.2153 0.8526 1.1853 0.6287 0.0032
 0.6448 0.9344 −1.2241 −1.5138 0.0074 
 
 1.0770 −0.6312 −0.8163 2.4178 0.0127 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 0.0181

To reduce this augmented matrix into reduced-row echelon form (RREF), we start with:
 
0.2153 0.8526 1.1853 0.6287 0.0032
 0.6448 0.9344 −1.2241 −1.5138 0.0074 
 
 1.0770 −0.6312 −0.8163 2.4178 0.0127 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 0.0181

(0.2153−1 )×r1
−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0.6448
 0.9344 −1.2241 −1.5138 0.0074 

 1.0770 −0.6312 −0.8163 2.4178 0.0127 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 0.0181

4 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

r −0.6448r
2 1
−− −−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741

 0 −1.6190439386902 −4.7739441244775 −3.3966878773804 −0.0021836507199257 

 1.0770 −0.6312 −0.8163 2.4178 0.0127 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 0.0181

r −1.0770r
3 1
−− −−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741

 0 −1.6190439386902 −4.7739441244775 −3.3966878773804 −0.0021836507199257 
 0 −4.8961800278681 −6.7455526706921 −0.72716005573618 −0.0033074314909429 
1.2856 −1.8568 2.4280 −2.9992 0.0181

r −1.2856r
4 1
−− −−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 −1.6190439386902 −4.7739441244775 −3.3966878773804 −0.0021836507199257 
 
 0 −4.8961800278681 −6.7455526706921 −0.72716005573618 −0.0033074314909429 
0 −6.9478476544357 −4.6496668834185 −6.7532953088713 −0.0010078495123084

(−1.6190439386902−1 )×r2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 −4.8961800278681 −6.7455526706921 −0.72716005573618 −0.0033074314909429 
0 −6.9478476544357 −4.6496668834185 −6.7532953088713 −0.0010078495123084

3 r +4.8961800278681r
2
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 7.6914180117308 9.5448251255837 0.003296186105371 
0 −6.9478476544357 −4.6496668834185 −6.7532953088713 −0.0010078495123084

4 r +6.9478476544357r
2
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

5 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 7.6914180117308 9.5448251255837 0.003296186105371 
0 0 15.836890457632 7.8230045294144 0.0083629107061056

(7.6914180117308−1 )×r3
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 1 1.2409707951156 0.00042855375957252 
0 0 15.836890457632 7.8230045294144 0.0083629107061056

4 r −15.836890457632r
3
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 1 1.2409707951156 0.00042855375957252 
0 0 0 −11.830114013952 0.0015759517605491

(−11.830114013952−1 )×r4
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 1 1.2409707951156 0.00042855375957252 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

3 r −1.2409707951156r
4
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 2.0979590462062 0.0013487285105383 
 
 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

2 r −2.0979590462062r
4
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 2.9201114723641 0.014862981885741
 0 1 2.9486192501604 0 0.0016282086785679 
 
 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

6 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

r −2.9201114723641r
1 4
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 0 0.015251985306202
 0 1 2.9486192501604 0 0.0016282086785679 
 
 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

r −2.9486192501604r
2 3
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 5.5053413841152 0 0.015251985306202
 0
 1 0 0 −0.00012288786960625 

 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

r −5.5053413841152r
1 3
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 3.9600557361821 0 0 0.011982528154784
 0
 1 0 0 −0.00012288786960625 

 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804

r −3.9600557361821r
1 2
−− −−−−−−−−−−→

 
1 0 0 0 0.012469170967726
 0
 1 0 0 −0.00012288786960625 

 0 0 1 0 0.00059387001155841 
0 0 0 1 −0.00013321526391804
Thus, we finally get:

A1 ≈ 0.0125
A3 ≈ −0.0001
A5 ≈ 0.0006
A7 ≈ −0.0001

Alternatively, we could have done this with much less suffering by using Matlab or an online
RREF calculator.
(f)(iv)

CL = A1 · π · AR
= 0.0125 · π · 6.875
≈ 0.2699

7 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

X
CDi = π · AR · n · A2n
n=1,3,5,7

= π · 6.875 · 1 · (0.0125)2 + 3 · (−0.0001)2 + 5 · (0.0006)2 + 7 · (−0.0001)2

 

≈ 0.0034

(f)(v)
1
L = ρV∞2 CL S
2
1
= · 1.056 · 622 · 0.2699 · 17.6
2
≈ 9640 N

Lift is equal to weight, so the airplane is indeed in straight and level flight.

(f)(vi) To calculate CDp :

(2n−1)π
Step (1): Evaluate thePsection lift coefficients at θ = 20
where n ∈ [1, 10] by using
4b
Cl (θ) = c(θ) n=1,3,5,7 (An · sin nθ)

π 4 × 11 X  π
Cl = π

An · sin n
20 c 20 n=1,3,5,7
20
= 0.08003

   
3π 4 × 11 X 3π
Cl = An · sin n
c 3π


20 20 n=1,3,5,7
20
= 0.20419

   
5π 4 × 11 X 5π
Cl = An · sin n
c 5π


20 20 n=1,3,5,7
20
= 0.25775

   
7π 4 × 11 X 7π
Cl = An · sin n
c 7π


20 20 n=1,3,5,7
20
= 0.28442

   
9π 4 × 11 X 9π
Cl = An · sin n
c 9π


20 20 n=1,3,5,7
20
= 0.30177

8 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

   
11π 9π
Cl = Cl by symmetry about midspan
20 20
= 0.30177

   
13π 7π
Cl = Cl by symmetry about midspan
20 20
= 0.28442

   
15π 5π
Cl = Cl by symmetry about midspan
20 20
= 0.25775

   
17π 3π
Cl = Cl by symmetry about midspan
20 20
= 0.20419

 
19π π
Cl = Cl by symmetry about midspan
20 20
= 0.08003

Step (2): On the drag-polar curve for a NACA 2412 airfoil, look up the section drag coef-
ficients corresponding to the section lift coefficients calculated above (note: ap-
proximate values are acceptable here):

Cl = 0.08003 =⇒ Cd ≈ 0.0068
Cl = 0.20419 =⇒ Cd ≈ 0.0061
Cl = 0.25775 =⇒ Cd ≈ 0.0060
Cl = 0.28442 =⇒ Cd ≈ 0.0060
Cl = 0.30177 =⇒ Cd ≈ 0.0061

Step (3): Calculate the area of each segment on the wing planform:

       
1 0π 2π b 0π 2π
Sθ= 1π = c +c · cos − cos
20 2 20 20 2 20 20
2
= 0.3283 m

       
1 2π 4π b 2π 4π
Sθ= 3π = c +c · cos − cos
20 2 20 20 2 20 20
2
= 1.0125 m

9 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

       
1 4π 6π b 4π 6π
Sθ= 5π = c +c · cos − cos
20 2 20 20 2 20 20
2
= 1.7540 m

       
1 6π 8π b 6π 8π
Sθ= 7π = c +c · cos − cos
20 2 20 20 2 20 20
2
= 2.5168 m

       
1 8π 10π b 8π 10π
Sθ= 9π = c +c · cos − cos
20 2 20 20 2 20 20
2
= 3.1893 m

Sθ= 11π = Sθ= 9π by symmetry about midspan

20 20

= 3.1893 m2

Sθ= 13π = Sθ= 7π by symmetry about midspan

20 20

= 2.5168 m2

Sθ= 15π = Sθ= 5π by symmetry about midspan

20 20

= 1.7540 m2

Sθ= 17π = Sθ= 3π by symmetry about midspan

20 20

= 1.0125 m2

Sθ= 19π = Sθ= 1π by symmetry about midspan

20 20

= 0.3283 m2
P
Cd ds
Step (4): Evaluate the parasite drag coefficient using CDp = S

P
Cd ds
CDp =
S
 (Cd Sθ= 1π ) (Cdθ= 3π Sθ= 3π ) (Cdθ= 5π Sθ= 5π )
θ= 1π
20 20 20 20 20 20
= + + ...
S S S
(Cdθ= 7π Sθ= 7π ) (Cdθ= 9π Sθ= 9π ) 
20 20
+ 20
+ 20
× 2 by symmetry about midspan
S S

(0.0068 × 0.3283) (0.0061 × 1.0125) (0.0060 × 1.7540)
= + + ...
17.6 17.6 17.6

(0.0060 × 2.5168) (0.0061 × 3.1893)
+ + × 2 by symmetry about midspan
17.6 17.6
= 0.0061

10 of 11
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Homework 3 Solution to Problem 4

(f)(vii) The total drag coefficient is just the sum of the parasite drag coefficient and the induced
drag coefficient:

CD = CDp + CDi
= 0.0061 + 0.0034
= 0.0095

The total drag force is thus:

1
D = ρV∞2 CD S
2
1
= · 1.056 · 622 · 0.0095 · 17.6
2
= 339 N

The engine power required to overcome this total drag force is:

power = force × velocity

= D × V∞
= 339 N · 62 m/s
= 21 kW (which is roughly 30 hp)

11 of 11
AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024
Homework 4: Boundary Layers

Unless otherwise noted, take the properties of water to be µ = 9 × 10−4 kg/m · s and
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 . For air, use µ = 1.789 × 10−5 kg/m · s and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . If
necessary, interpolate linearly between the tabulated values of the Blasius solution.

Problem 1: Fundamentals of the Blasius Boundary Layer

Blasius’ solution for the incompressible 2D steady laminar boundary layer on a flat plate
is based on the idea of transforming
p the independent variables (x, y) into a single inde-
pendent variable√ η ≡ y/ νx/U∞ and proposing that the stream function be given by
the form ψ = νxU∞ f (η) where f is a non-dimensional stream function that depends
on η only.

(a) In your own words, explain why η and f are defined in the ways given above.
p
(b) From the definition of η, show that ∂η/∂y = U∞ / (νx) and ∂η/∂x = −η/ (2x).
Then use the chain rule of calculus to derive the following results:

1
u = U∞ f ′ (η) v = (νU∞ /x)1/2 (ηf ′ − f )
2
The primes here denote ordinary derivatives, i.e. f ′ (η) ≡ df /dη.

(c) Consider two cross-sections at distance xA and xB > xA from the leading edge. Make
sketches to show how the velocity profiles at xA and xB would compare with each
other, if the profiles are plotted as (i) y versus u, and as (ii) η versus u/U∞ .

Problem 2: Boundary Layer of Water

Water flows past a 10 m long flat plate with a free-stream velocity of 0.03 m/s. Assuming
that the Blasius solution applies, calculate the following:

(a) the streamwise (u) and normal (v) components of velocity at a location 10 mm away
from the plate (measured in the y direction) and 1.5 m along the plate (measured
from the leading edge). Repeat this calculation at 3 m downstream from the leading
edge and comment on the difference in the results.

(b) the momentum thickness (θ) and the momentum-thickness Reynolds number (Reθ ≡
U∞ θ/ν) at the two streamwise locations in part (a).

(c) the overall skin-friction coefficient (CF ) averaged over the length (L) of the plate.

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 4

Problem 3: Boundary Layer of Air

Consider a laminar boundary layer formed by air flowing over a flat plate at a free-stream
velocity of 2 m/s. Suppose that, at a certain streamwise location, the local streamwise
velocity is measured to be 1.7 m/s at a height of 2 mm above the plate. Assuming that
the Blasius solution applies, calculate the following:

(a) the streamwise location in question.

(b) the local skin-friction coefficient (cf ), the wall shear stress (τw ), and the friction
velocity (u∗ ).

Problem 4: Boundary Layer on a Small Wing

Consider the airflow over a model rectangular ‘wing’ surface that is 0.2 m in chord length
and 1.6 m in span.

(a) Suppose that a stream of air at uniform speed 5 m/s passes over this surface. At 0.1 m
downstream from the leading edge, calculate both the x and y velocity components
at a distance from the wing equal to the local displacement thickness.

(b) If the theory above applies all the way from the leading edge to the trailing edge,
calculate the overall friction coefficient (CF ) and the total drag force experienced by
the wing.

(c) Suppose that the wing is turned around by 90 degrees such that the free-stream is
now flowing parallel to the longer edge of the wing. What would the answers in (b)
become? Should we be concerned about the validity of the theory used, and why?

2 of 2
AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024
Homework 5: Compressible Flow through a Nozzle

Problem 1: Supersonic Wind Tunnel

A supersonic wind tunnel of circular cross-section is to be designed to produce a Mach
4.5 airflow in its test section. The flow is to be supplied from a nozzle upstream, with a
stagnation pressure of 70 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 288 K. Both the nozzle
inlet and test section are 0.15 m in diameter.

Assuming isentropic flow, determine the following:

(a) the area of the throat.

(b) the temperature and pressure in the test section.

(c) the Mach number at the nozzle inlet.

(d) the mass flow rate through the wind tunnel.

Problem 2: Converging Nozzle

A converging nozzle with an exit area of 1.0 cm2 is supplied from a large oxygen reservoir
(where the fluid is essentially at rest) in which the pressure is 500 kPa and the temperature
is 1200 K.

(a) Show that the flow would be choked if the exit pressure was 264 kPa.

(b) Calculate the mass flow rate at the choked condition above. Re-calculate this assum-
ing that the back pressure was increased to 400 kPa.

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 5

Problem 3: Converging-Diverging Nozzle with a Choked Throat

A converging-diverging nozzle with an exit area of 0.12 m2 is designed to operate isen-
tropically with air at an exit Mach number of 1.75. For a constant upstream chamber
pressure and temperature of 5 MPa and 200◦ C respectively, calculate the following:

(a) the maximum back pressure required to choke the nozzle.

(b) the mass flow rate for a back pressure of 101 kPa.

(c) the mass flow rate for a back pressure of 1 MPa.

Problem 4: Converging-Diverging Nozzle with a Normal Shock

Consider air expanding from a large storage tank fitted with a converging-diverging nozzle
whose exit area is four times the throat area. Suppose a normal shock occurs at a location
between the throat and exit; at this shock location, the area is twice that at the throat.
Assume isentropic flow except across the shock, that the air behaves as a perfect gas with
γ = 1.4, and that the storage tank’s pressure and temperature are 200 kPa and 300 K.
Determine the following:

(a) the Mach numbers in front of and behind the normal shock.

(b) the Mach number at the exit plane.

(c) the stagnation pressure at the exit plane.

(d) the static pressure and flow velocity at the exit plane.

Problem 5: Subsonic Diffuser

A subsonic diffuser (i.e. a diverging nozzle) with an inlet Mach number of M1 < 1 has
an inlet area of A1 and an exit area of A2 , where A2 > A1 . The static pressure is P1
at the diffuser inlet and P2 at the diffuser exit. Assuming isentropic flow with γ = 1.4,
determine the following:

(a) the relation between P2 /P1 , A2 /A1 and M1 .

(b) the area ratio A2 /A1 for P2 /P1 = 1.2 and M1 = 0.6.

2 of 2
AESF-5310 Advanced Aerodynamics Fall 2024
Homework 6: Oblique Shocks and Expansion Fans

Problem 1: Oblique Shock

Uniform airflow at Mach 3 encounters a wedge of angle 15 degrees, as shown below. The
pressure and temperature in the supersonic flow are, respectively, 72 kPa and 290 K.

(a) Determine the tangential and normal components of velocity and Mach number up-
stream and downstream of the oblique shock.

(b) Find the static and stagnation pressure ratios across the oblique shock.

(c) At what value of the wedge angle would the shock detach from the corner?

1
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 6

Problem 2: Expansion Fan

A uniform stream of air at Mach 2.6, with stagnation pressure of 5 MPa and stagnation
temperature of 1000 K, expands around a convex corner, as shown below.

(a) If the angle θ is 20 degrees, determine the resulting Mach number, static pressure
and temperature downstream.

(b) If the aim is to double the Mach number, how large should θ be?

Problem 3: Shock–Expansion System

For airflow at Mach 2.5 over the symmetrical protrusion shown below, find M2 , M3 and
M4 . If P01 = 105 Pa, find the pressures P2 , P3 and P4 .

2 of 3
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics) Homework 6

Problem 4: Full Potential Equation

The equations for conservation of mass and momentum in a 2D steady inviscid flow with
variable density are:
∂ρu ∂ρv
+ =0 (1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
u +v =− (2)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x
∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
u +v =− (3)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y

Furthermore, if the flow is isentropic, changes (and gradients) of pressure and density are
related by the expression:
 
2 ∂p
a = (4)
∂ρ S

Perform the following manipulations:

(a) Expand the derivatives in Eq. (1) using the product rule of calculus. Let’s call the
result Eq. (5).

(b) Substitute Eq. (4) into Eq. (5), thus converting density gradients to pressure gradi-
ents. Then substitute the pressure gradients from Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) to obtain:

u2 v 2 ∂v
     
∂u uv ∂u ∂v
1− 2 − 2 + + 1− 2 =0
a ∂x a ∂y ∂x a ∂y

(c) Assuming the flow is irrotational, express all the terms in this expression in terms of
the velocity potential ϕ.

3 of 3
 AESF-5310
Advanced Aerodynamics

Mock Final Exam – Solutions

Fall 2024

Open book and notes.

Standard calculators allowed, but no laptops, tablets or phones.
No internet.
Feel free to include sketches in your answers.

3 hours.
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

Part A: Short questions

Each question in this part is worth 2 points.

1. Who was the first person to break the sound barrier in an aircraft?
Chuck Yeager, an American test pilot. He made his history-setting flight
on 14 Oct 1947 in an airplane he dubbed Glamorous Glennis, after his
wife. The airplane, a Bell X-1 rocket plane, which today hangs in the
Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, passed Mach 1 following a drop-
launch from a B-29 airplane.

2. In fluid mechanics, what is the velocity potential? For what type of flow is it
defined?
In an irrotational region of flow (i.e. in a flow region with negligible
vorticity, or negligible fluid particle rotation), the velocity vector can be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar function called the velocity potential
ϕ. Regions of irrotational flow are therefore called regions of potential
flow. Unlike the stream function, the velocity potential is not restricted
to two-dimensional flows, but is also valid for three-dimensional flows as
long as the approximation of irrotationality is valid.

3. Explain the physical cause of d’Alembert’s paradox.

Viscosity. Under the irrotational flow approximation, the aerodynamic
drag on a body of any shape immersed in a uniform flow is exactly zero.
This is because, without viscous effects, there is (i) perfect slip on the
body surface, no shear stresses, and therefore no viscous drag, and (ii)
no boundary layer, no boundary-layer separation, perfect pressure recov-
ery, and therefore no pressure drag. In reality, this result is unphysical
because real fluids have finite viscosity.

4. Explain the Magnus effect.

Consider a soccer ball spinning in flight. Above the ball, the spin in-
creases the local velocity, thus decreasing the local pressure. Below the
ball, the spin decreases the local velocity, thus increasing the local pressure.
The result is a net pressure imbalance in the vertical direction, giving
rise to an upwards lift force, called the Magnus force.

2 of 10
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

5. With the aid of a sketch, explain how lift arises from an airfoil in uniform flow using
only the curvature of streamlines.
For a lift-generating airfoil, the streamlines both above and below the
airfoil are concave down. Recalling that streamlines always turn towards
lower pressure, we can write P1 > P2 and P3 > P4 . We can also write
P1 = P4 = Patm because, in the far field, the pressure must approach
atmospheric pressure. This implies P3 > P4 = P1 > P2 . From this, we get
P3 > P2 and hence lift.

6. Why is it necessary to enforce the Kutta condition?

...to enable inviscid theory (e.g. TAT) to predict finite lift. In a perfectly
inviscid world, an airfoil of any shape would produce no lift because cir-
culation arises from viscous friction on the airfoil surface. In TAT, we
manually incorporate this viscous effect via the Kutta condition, i.e. by
imposing the exact amount of circulation needed to cause the flow to
leave the trailing edge smoothly. In real (viscous) flows, Nature enforces
the Kutta condition naturally using (viscous) friction in the boundary
layers. In TAT, there is no inherent viscous mechanism in place to en-
force the Kutta condition (because there are no boundary layers), so we
have to enforce it ourselves. Incidentally, without the ability to account
for boundary layers, TAT predicts zero drag (d’Alembert’s paradox).
7. Thin Airfoil Theory becomes invalid at high angles of attack. Why?
...because the flow (boundary layer) on the upper surface of an airfoil
separates at high AOA, leading to stall, which cannot be predicted by
TAT because it is an inviscid theory.
8. According to Thin Airfoil Theory, where is the aerodynamic center located on a
symmetric airfoil? What about a cambered airfoil?
Quater-chord (c/4) for both.
9. The lift slope of an airfoil is always greater than that of its corresponding wing.
What physical phenomena are responsible for this difference?
(a) 3D wing → trailing vortices → reduced ∆P between upper and lower
surfaces → reduced lift.
(b) 3D wing → trailing vortices → downwash velocity → reduced effective
α → reduced lift.

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

10. What is washout? Why is it used?

Washout occurs when α decreases from wing-root to wing-tip (i.e. αroot >
αtip ) but the airfoil section (i.e. αL=0 ) remains constant. In other words,
the chord line twists its LE downwards in going from wing-root to wing-
tip. Washout is used to delay stall at the wing-tips (i.e. to reduce
tip-stall). Tip-stall is particularly dangerous because if the flow over the
outer control surfaces (e.g. the ailerons) separates, roll control will be
lost. Typically we want the wing-root to stall before the wing-tip.

11. With the aid of a sketch, explain what induced drag is and how it physically arises.
The ∆P between the upper (suction) and lower (pressure) surfaces of
a finite-span wing causes flow to wrap around the wing-tips, producing
a pair of counter-rotating vortices, called wing-tip vortices. Along the
wingspan, these vortices induce a downward velocity component (called
downwash) that deflects the free-stream vector downwards, reducing the
effective AOA. In doing so, it also tilts the lift vector backwards such that
a small, but significant, component develops in the horizontal direction,
against the aircraft’s motion. This horizontal component of the tilted lift
vector is called induced drag. Physically, it arises from the interaction
between wing-tip vortices, the free-stream vector, and the lift vector.

12. Without resorting to lengthy mathematical expressions, give a brief overview of

how Lifting Line Theory differs from Thin Airfoil Theory.
TAT: for 2D infinite-span airfoils; derived from the linear superposition
of a uniform flow with a vortex sheet placed on the chord line, subjected
to (a) the camber line being a streamline and (b) the Kutta condition.
LLT: for 3D finite-span wings; derived from the linear superposition of an
infinite number of horseshoe vortices placed on the lifting line, subjected
to zero lift at the wing-tips.

13. According to Lifting Line Theory, why is an elliptical wing planform so desirable?
...because it has the lowest induced drag for a given amount of lift.

14. According to Lifting Line Theory, in what way does the downwash velocity vary
across the span of an elliptical wing?
It doesn’t vary.

4 of 10
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

15. Why are the Navier–Stokes equations so difficult to solve?

...because they are 2nd-order nonlinear PDEs. The nonlinear convective
terms are particularly troublesome.

16. In the boundary layer approximation to the Navier–Stokes equations, what is the
main result that arises from an order of magnitude analysis of the y-momentum
equation? How is this result useful in practice?
∂P/∂y ≈ 0, which means that (a) the pressure variation across the BL
is small (0 if inviscid) and (b) measurements taken at the wall can be
projected accurately to the edge of the BL. Similarly, this is why inviscid
theory (e.g. TAT) can be trusted for the calculation of lift.

17. In physical and mathematical terms, explain how Blasius’ similarity variable is
defined.

Laminar flat-plate BL: Blasius similarity variable [AS18.2]

How do we form this new variable?
-First we consider that viscous effects diffuse (or ‘spread’) through a flow at the same
time as that flow moves downstream.
-The time that it takes for a fluid parcel with speed ܷஶ to travel from the LE to some
௫
downstream location ‫ ݔ‬is called the convective time: ‫ݐ‬௖ ൌ (units of time)
௎ಮ
-Over this time interval, viscous effects are active and will diffuse to a distance equal
௫
to the viscous diffusion length: ߥ‫ݐ‬௖ ൌ ߥ
௎ಮ
-We use this length scale to normalize ‫ݕ‬, thus
forming the Blasius similarity variable:

ఔ௫ ௎ಮ
ߟ ൌ ‫ݕ‬ൗ ൌ‫ݕ‬ [AE18.4]
௎ಮ ఔ௫

-By rescaling ‫ ݕ‬in this way, we collapse the

different velocity profiles at different
downstream locations (‫ )ݔ‬into a single
self-similar profile: 10

5 of 10
AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

18. In general, is turbulence in the boundary layer of a bluff body (e.g. a golf ball)
good or bad for reducing pressure drag? Why?
Good. The eddies in a turbulent boundary layer enhance the transport
of momentum between the (slow) fluid near the wall and the (fast) fluid
away from the wall, thus increasing the momentum of the boundary layer
and enabling it to better resist separation when subjected to an adverse
pressure gradient. This keeps the flow attached, extending the time
available for pressure recovery. When the flow eventually separates, it
does so in a way that reduces the pressure imbalance between the front
stagnation point and the rear separated wake, reducing pressure drag.

19. What are three basic characteristics of turbulence?

Pick three: (a) disorder and apparent randomness, (b) efficient mixing
and transport, (c) high Reynolds number, (d) presence of shear, (e) 3D
not 2D because vortex stretching, which is the only mechanism by which
TKE can be transferred down the inertial sub-range, can only occur in
3D, and (f ) dissipative and diffusive.

20. What is meant by ‘choked flow’ ? Physically, why does this occur?
For choked flow, changes in the flow conditions downstream no longer
affect the conditions upstream, i.e. no further change in mass flow rate.
This occurs because, in supersonic flow, ‘information’ cannot travel up-
stream.

21. Across a shock wave, how does the stagnation temperature vary? Why?
T0 is constant because, across the shock, the flow is adiabatic (because
there is no time or mechanism for heat transfer to occur).

22. Across a shock wave, how does the stagnation pressure vary? Why?
P0 decreases because, across the shock, the flow is irreversible and hence
non-isentropic (because of a rise in entropy).

23. In a converging-diverging nozzle, if a normal shock appears somewhere in the di-

verging section, what is the Mach number at (a) the throat and (b) the nozzle
exit?
(a) M = 1 and (b) M < 1

24. The flow downstream of an oblique shock may still be supersonic. Why?

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AESF-5310 (Advanced Aerodynamics): Mock Final Exam – Solutions Fall 2024

Take M1n to be the Mach number upstream pof and normal to the shock.
Although M1n > 1 and M2n < 1 always, M2 = (M2t )2 + (M2n )2 can still be
greater than 1 (i.e. supersonic).

25. What is a bow shock? Under what conditions does it arise?

A bow shock, also known as a detached oblique shock, is a curved sta-
tionary shock wave that is typically found in supersonic flow around a
blunt body. It has two notable characteristics: (i) it greatly increases
drag because the flow behind it is forced to slow down to subsonic ve-
locities, and (ii) it is very effective at converting the kinetic energy of
the supersonic free-stream into heat and then dumping that heat into
the airflow behind the shock; this leaves less energy available to heat
the body itself, reducing the thermal stresses acting on the body. Bow
shocks tend to arise at large wedge angles, which is why most re-entry
vehicles have blunt noses.

26. In physical terms, define the Prandtl–Meyer angle.

The PM angle is the angle by which a sonic free-stream (M = 1) has to
be turned (i.e. expanded) in order to accelerate to a given M > 1.

27. In general, why don’t supersonic airfoils work well in subsonic flow?
Flow separation.

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