STUDY MATERIAL

B.SC. FORENSIC SCIENCE – SEMESTER I

CORE I – BASICS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

 BASICS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

UNIT I - BASIC KNOWLEDGE IN CRIME

Definition of crime, characteristics of crime, classification of crimes, A brief ideas about

White collar crime, professional crime, organized crime, present scenario of crime in India

UNIT II - INVESTIGATION AND PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Crime scene Investigation: Definition of Crime Scene. Classification of crime Scene: indoor
& outdoor, primary & secondary, macroscopic & microscopic crime scene. Significance of
crime scene, argument and ethics of crime scene. Physical evidence: Definition, classification
of physical evidence, types of physical evidences, sources of physical evidence, signification
and value of physical evidence, linkage between crime scene, victim and criminal, study of
some special crime scene such as mass disaster, terror attack, geological scene and explosive
etc.

UNITIII - BASICS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

Introduction Global History and Scope, Need and Development Principles, emphasizing on
Specific contribution of Scientists in the field of Forensic Science.

UNIT IV - DOMAINS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Branches of Forensic Science, Police officers, Prosecution, Judicial Officers and Medico
legal expert etc. Role and Qualifications of forensic scientists. Code of conduct for forensic
scientists, Ethical issue in Forensic Science, professional standards for practice of
Criminalistics, sanction against expert for unethical conduct.

UNITV - FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY

Structure and function of State and regional Forensic Science Laboratory, Central Forensic
Science Laboratory and facility provided, Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory. Directorate of
Forensic Science Service. Police and Forensic scientist relationship, role of FSL in criminal
investigation, relationship between forensic expert and judiciary officer, Importance of FSL,
National and International scenario of FSL, facilities provided in forensic science laboratory.

BOOKS FOR STUDY AND REFERENCES

1. B.B. Nanda and R.K. Tiwari, Forensic Science in India: A Vision for the Twenty First
Century, Select Publishers, New Delhi (2001).
2. Suzanne Bell, Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative
Techniques, Fifth Edition, (2019)
3. Forensic Science in Crime Investigation in written by B.S. Nabar, Asia Law House
Hyderbad Edition, (2018)
4. M.K. Bhasin and S. Nath, Role of Forensic Science in the New Millennium,
University of Delhi, Delhi (2002).
 UNIT I

BASIC KNOWLEDGE IN CRIME

An action committed or omitted, which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law, is a

crime. Crime is an unlawful act that is forbidden and punished by the State or the law. In
other words, anything which is injurious to public welfare is a crime.“A suspect” is a person
who is believed to have committed a crime, but has not yet been found guilty. If a suspect
received an arrest warrant, they might then be identified as a defendant; and after the suspect
was convicted or found guilty, they would be called an offender. “Victim” means a person
who has suffered any loss or injury caused by reasons of the act or omission for which the
accused person has been charged. “Witness”a person who gives testimony, as in a court of
law. a person who signs a document attesting the genuineness of its execution.

The main elements that make up a crime are:

1. Human Being

The first element of a crime is a human being. Any wrongful act to be called a crime must be
done by a human being. There must be a human being under a legal obligation to act in a
particular way, and it must also be capable of being punished.

2. Mens Rea

The second essential element of a crime is mens rea or guilty mind or evil intent. Mens rea
refers to the mental element that is necessary for a particular crime. Any wrongful act
committed by a human being cannot be called a crime if committed without evil intent. There
must be an evil intent while doing an act.

There is a well-known maxim– „Actus non facitreum nisi mens sit rea.‟ It means „the act
itself does not make a man guilty unless his intentions were so.‟ From this maxim, there came
another maxim- „actus me invitofactus non est mens actus,‟ which means „an act done by me
against my will is not my act at all.‟

3. Actus Reus
The third element of the crime is actus reus. The criminal intent to be punishable must be
obvious in some voluntary act or omission. As per Kenny, „actus reus‟ is such a result of
human conduct as the law seeks to prevent. The act committed must be one that is forbidden
or punished by the law.

An act also includes omissions. A man is also held liable if some duty is imposed upon him
by law, and he omits to discharge that duty. An omission must be a breach of a legal duty.

4. Injury

Injury is the last important, or we can say the essential element of a crime. It must be caused
illegally to another human being or a body of individuals or society at large. „Injury‟ has been
defined in section 44 of the Indian Penal Code as „any harm whatever illegally caused to any
person in body, mind, reputation or property.‟

CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIME

 Crime is a conviction against social norms and values.

 Crime is an abnormal form of human social behavior.
 It is socially, personally and ideologically damaging.
 Crime is essentially relative; Differences in its form and dimensions are observed
according to time and society.
 Crime is a serious threat to social cohesion and stability.
 Crime is related to social structure. For example, the criminality of industrial society
is different from that of agricultural society.
 Crime is the result of social interaction and socialization.
 Crimes or offenses are punishable by law.
 The degree and seriousness of the offense is determined by age.The crime is
reprehensible and reprehensible.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

There are a variety of crimes that can be committed by individuals. Some crimes,such
asmurder or kidnapping, are considered serious crimes by society. Othercrimes, such
asspeeding or trespassing, are not considered serious. Although allcrimes mean a violation of
the law, there's a wide range of punishments that can beimposed on a criminal.The
classification of a crime is based on the extent of punishment that can begiven for committing
it. The punishment is usually based on the seriousness of thecrime. States may differ as to the
classification of any particular crime. A crimecommitted in one state may be classified
differently than if it was committed inanother state.

1. Felony Crimes
A felony is considered a serious crime. Most states and the federal government
classify a crime that's punishable by more than one year in prison as a felony. Some
states consider a felony as any crime that's punishable by any length of time in prison.
A felony that's punishable by death is considered a capital crime. There are many
different crimes that are considered felonies in most states. Some common felonies
include:
- Murder
- Rape
- Burglary
- Kidnapping
- Arson
- Robbery
2. Misdemeanour Crimes

A misdemeanour is considered a less serious crime. Most states and the federalgovernment
classify a crime that's punishable by less than one year in prison as amisdemeanour. Some
states consider a misdemeanour as any crime that's punishableonly by fine or a small length
of time in jail. If a misdemeanour is considered a veryminor offense, such as jaywalking, the
crime may be classified as a petty offense.There's a wide variety of crimes that are considered
misdemeanours in most states.Some common misdemeanours include:

- Public intoxication
- Trespassing
- Speeding
- Prostitution
- Vandalism
- Use of a false ID

Whether a crime is considered a felony or a misdemeanour will many times dependon any
aggravating factors. These are factors that make a crime more serious.For example, the theft
of a very inexpensive item from a store may be considered amisdemeanour. However, the
theft of multiple items that are worth thousands ofdollars may be considered a felony.
 3. Crimes against the Person and Property

A crime against person means intentionally causing harms or bodily injury to another person.
A crime against property is a crime that's committed by damaging or intruding onthe property
of the victim. Burglary and arson are two crimes against property thatare normally felonies.
Criminal mischief, which involves the intentional destructionof property, goes from a
misdemeanour to a felony based on the value of thedamage. Criminal trespass is usually
classified as a misdemeanour.

4. Theft and Fraud Crimes

There are a wide variety of theft and fraud crimes that involve illegally taking avictim's
property. Whether a theft or a fraud crime is a misdemeanour or a felonyusually depends on
the value of the property stolen and the method used to committhe crime. A fraud crime is a
crime in which deception is used to cause anotherperson to suffer financial harm. Robbery,
which is the taking of property fromanother using force, is classified as a felony.

5. Crimes against Public Order

A crime against public order is a crime that harms the community. Some examplesinclude
disorderly conduct, public lewdness, and prostitution. Many crimes againstpublic order are
considered misdemeanours. However, if a minor child is a victim, themisdemeanour may be
raised to a felony.

6. Drug-Related Crimes

Crimes relating to drugs involve manufacture, possession, distribution and sale. Possessing a
small number of illegal drugs will usually be classified as amisdemeanour. However,
distributing and selling large amounts of illegal drugs willalmost always be
classified as a felony.

WHITE COLLAR CRIMES

White collar crime denotes a display of fraudulentscheme, corruption and commercial

offencescommitted by businessman and public official alike.Its current usage includes broad
range of non-violent offence where cheating, dishonesty andcorruption are the central
elements of the crime.White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent crime
committed by businesses and government professionals.It was first defined by the sociologist
Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social
status in the course of their occupation".

CAUSES OF WHITE-COLLAR CRIMES:

 FINANCIAL PROBLEMS:
- Most people do not start out as criminals.
- Most white-collar crimes involve normalpeople who are struggling financially.
- It is just as common in bigger corporationsas stealing is in a poor community.
 GREED:
- Greed is another influence on this crime.
- Many people with high-ranking jobs tend todesire wealth and will do
anything to obtain it.

People are beginning to think that committingthese crimes is acceptable because they
havebeen around the corruption for long periods of time.

 RARE CONVICTION:
- Many people get away with white-collar crimemore than regular street crimes.

It is a fact that almost no police efforts gointo stopping it and people are
rarely convicted.People may have power because they havefriends in politics, they have
money to get thebest lawyer, or they usually have friends in thelaw-enforcement
agencies.When a crime is discovered, suspects usuallyget a light punishment because
violence wasn'tused.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WHITE-COLLAR CRIMES:

 It is not associated with poverty or with the socialand personal pathologies of the
individual criminalas in case of traditional and conventional crimes.
 Victims often suffer the effect of white-collarcrime without even meeting the
perpetrator.
 Offenders are at work at the scene while victimsare present and unaware of offending.
  There are two essential elements that must beproved beyond reasonable doubt in
every criminalcase: the criminal act (known as the actus reus) andthe criminal intent
(known as the mens rea).
 Criminal acts are typically defined by statute and canbe proven by direct or
circumstantial evidence.
 But even if criminal acts can be proven, there can beno conviction when you don't
have the requisitecriminal intent.

MENS REA IN WHITE COLLAR CRIMES:

In fact, it is usually a key element of the chargedwhite-collar offence - whether it is

conspiracy,mailfraud, wire fraud, securities fraud, health care fraud,falsifying books and
records, insider trading, moneyloundering, or racketeering.Since charges related to white
collar crimes do notrequire proof that you acted with force or threats ofviolence, prosecutors
rely on proving your liabilitythrough criminal intent.The intent to commit white collar crimes
that mustbe proven by the government is generally that the actwas committed in order to
obtain money, property,services, or some personal benefit or businessadvantage.Criminal
intent for white collar crimes can also stemfrom the fear of losing money or covering illegal
actsto escape criminal liability.If there is a legitimate reason that can beproven in your
defence for why the criminalact was committed, thereby negating mensrea, no crime
has been committed.

Prosecutors generally have an easy timeproving the "what happened" of a case, butthe same
cannot be said of proving criminalintent.

WHITE COLLAR CRIME IN INDIAN SOCIETY:

The reason for the recent enormous increase in whitecollar crime in India is the fast-
developing economyand industrial growth of the country.The post-independence period in
India led to an eraof welfare activities which needed regulatorymeasures on the part of
government.It is the contravention of such regulatory measureswhich generally give rise to a
white-collar crime.Corruption, fraud, and bribery are some of the mostcommon white-collar
crimes in India as well as all overthe world.In 2014, India was ranked 85th which
subsequentlyimproved to 76th position in 2015 because of severalmeasures to tackle white
collar crimes.In 2018, as per the report of The Economic Times,India was placed at 78th
position, showing animprovement of three points from 2017, out of thelist of 180 countries.

India is a developing country and white-collar crimesare becoming a major cause for its
underdevelopment along with poverty, health, etc.The trend of white-collar crimes in India
poses athreat to the economic development of the country.These crimes require immediate
intervention by thegovernment by not only making strict laws but alsoensuring its
proper implementation.The Santhanam Committee Report showed apicture of white-collar
crimes committed bypersons belonging to high status.The report of the committee stated that
thebig industrialists, businessmen, governmentofficers are responsible for white
collar crimein India.

TAX CRIMES:

An illegal practice where a person, organization,corporation intentionally avoids paying

his/her/its true tax liability.Those caught evading taxes are generallysubjected to criminal
charges and substantialpenalties.

 REASONS FOR TAX CRIMES

- Weak surveillance system.
- Rampant corruption in tax department.
- Complicated tax laws and filing mechanism.
- Tax deductions offering loopholes to tax evaders.
- Absence of social security system.
- Tax rates are too high.
- Lack of transparency in government expenditure.
 TAX EVASION PRACTICE
- Under-reporting.
- Bribery of tax officials.
- Refusal to pay.
- Lobbying of Government to reduce tax liability oreffective incidence of Tax system.
- Lobbying via international institutions(IMF, WorldBank, World Trade Organization)
to achieve effects.
 TAX AVOIDANCE
- Tax avoidance is the legal utilization of the tax regime toone's own advantage, to
reduce the amount of tax that ispayable by means that are within the law.The use of
 legal methods to modify an individual'sfinancial situation in order to lower the
amount of incometax owed. This is generally accomplished by claiming
thepermissible deductions and credits.
 TAX PLANNING
- Tax planning that may result in taxpostponement and avoidance in legalmanners.

WHITE COLLAR CRIME IN DIFFERENT:

1. Medical profession:

White Collar crimes which are commonly committed by persons belonging to medical
profession include issuance of false medical certificates, helping illegal abortion, secret
service to decoits by giving expert opinion leading to their acquittal and selling sample drugs
and medicines to patients and chemists with a view to extracting huge sum from them.

2. Engineering:

In the engineering profession underhand dealing withcontractors and suppliers, passing of

sub-standardworks and materials and maintenance of bogusrecords of work-charged labour
are some of thecommon examples of white-collar crime.

3. Educational Institutions:

Another field where white-collar criminals operate with impunity are the privately run
educational institutions in this country. The governing bodies of those institutions manage to
secure large sums by way of government grants of financial aid by submitting fictitious and
fake details about their institutions. The teachers and other staff working in these institutions
receive a meagre salary far less than what they actually sign for thus allowing a big margin
for the management to grab huge amount in this illegal manner.

4. Legal profession:

The instances of fabricating false evidence, engagingprofessional witness, violating ethical

standards oflegal profession and dilatory tactics in collusion withthe ministerial staff of the
courts are some of thecommon practices which are, truly speaking, the white-collar crimes
quite often practiced by the legalpractitioners.

NATURE OF PUNISHMENT:
The purpose of punishment besides being reformative isdeterrent as well, so that it may deter
the accused fromrepeating the crime in future and may be a warning to these whoare like-
minded. The law should not take a lenient attitude in fixing punishment toa white collar or a
socio-economic criminal.The law would fail in its objective and duty, if it gives shelter
orshows a soft attitude to such criminals.

The penalty imposed for white collar, social andeconomic criminals should be more punitive
and bedetermined according to the gravity of the offencecommitted and the social harm
caused.The harsh punishments till now reserved for a mancommitting traditional and
conventional offencesprescribed in the Indian Penal Code should beextended to a white collar
and economic criminals aswell.

For instance, in case of offences like adulteration offood, drinks and drugs, of offences which
affect theeconomy of the state, such as smuggling, evasion oftaxes, hoarding, black-
marketing, etc., the quantumof penalty should be deterrent enough to stop suchgrave
offences.The penalty might be extended up to sentence ofdeath or life imprisonment, if the
circumstances sodemand.

PROFESSIONAL CRIME

 A professional crime is one in which crime is committed in a specialized way with

prime motive of economic gain. According to Sutherland, the term „professional‟,
when applied to a criminal, refers to the following four things:
i. the pursuit of crime as a regular normal occupation
ii. the development of skilled techniques
iii. careful planning
iv. status among criminals.
 It is on the basis of factors like these that the professional criminal is differentiated
from the occasional criminal, the amateur criminal, and the unskilled criminal.
 Professional criminals who commit crime as a regular business use techniques which
have been developed over a long period of time and transmitted to them through
personal association.
 With their codes of behaviour and consensus, they tend to look down upon amateur
criminals as „kids‟. What is important in professional crimes like burglary, robbery,
dacoity, picking people‟s pockets, etc. is the skill with which crime is committed.
  For example, committing robbery in a professional way involves finding a person
carrying a good amount of money, ornaments, jewels, etc., locating a place for the
holdup, planning the hold-up, and executing the job. Generally speaking, a
professional crime is committed in a non-violent way, though sometimes it involves
violence too.
 Professionalisation extends beyond the execution of a crime. It involves prior location
of spots and prior preparation for escaping punishment in case of the detection of
crime. Arrangements are made in advance for bail, legal service, and fixing the case.
 It is in these advance arrangements, quite as much as in the technique of executing the
crime, that professionalisation is found.
 Similarity has been noticed in the behaviour patterns of professional criminals and
businessmen engaged in legitimate activities - Both are engaged in a full-time pursuit;
both are self-employed; both take their activities as the main means of earning their
livelihood; both work for economic profit; both use specialised skills in their
activities; both enjoy respect and reputation in their own worlds; and both have their
own philosophy of life pertaining to their profession.

ORGANISED CRIMES

Organized crime in India involves various illicit activities coordinated by criminal syndicates
or gangs with a hierarchical structure and well-defined roles. These activities can range from
smuggling and drug trafficking to extortion, money laundering, and human trafficking. Here
are some key aspects of organized crime in India:

1. Drug Trafficking: India serves as a transit route for the trafficking of drugs such as
heroin, cocaine, and synthetic drugs. Some criminal organizations also engage in the
production and distribution of illicit drugs within the country. The narcotics trade is
often linked to international drug cartels, and certain regions in India, such as the
Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent, are known for drug production and trafficking.

2. Smuggling: Organized crime groups are involved in various forms of smuggling,

including arms smuggling, wildlife trafficking, and smuggling of contraband goods
such as gold and electronic items. Smuggling networks operate through intricate
channels, often exploiting porous borders and corrupt officials.
 3. Extortion and Protection Rackets: Criminal syndicates frequently engage in
extortion activities, targeting businesses, traders, and individuals for monetary gain.
They use threats, violence, and intimidation to extract payments or force businesses to
comply with their demands. Protection rackets are also common, where criminals
offer "protection" to businesses in exchange for regular payments.

4. Money Laundering: Organized crime groups engage in money laundering to conceal

the illicit origins of their proceeds. They use various methods such as shell
companies, front businesses, and investments in legitimate sectors to launder money
earned from criminal activities. Money laundering not only facilitates organized crime
but also undermines the integrity of the financial system.

5. Human Trafficking: India is a source, transit, and destination country for human
trafficking. Criminal networks exploit vulnerable individuals, including women and
children, for forced labor, sexual exploitation, and organ trafficking. Human
trafficking networks often operate across international borders, and the victims are
subjected to various forms of abuse and exploitation.

6. Cybercrime: Organized crime syndicates have expanded their operations into the
realm of cybercrime, including hacking, identity theft, online fraud, and cyber
espionage. These activities pose significant threats to individuals, businesses, and
government institutions, and they often operate on a global scale, leveraging
technology to perpetrate crimes anonymously.

Efforts to combat organized crime in India involve coordination between law enforcement
agencies at the national, state, and local levels. Strategies include intelligence gathering,
surveillance, targeted operations against criminal networks, and legislative measures to
strengthen anti-organized crime laws. Additionally, international cooperation plays a crucial
role in tackling transnational organized crime, especially in areas such as drug trafficking and
human trafficking.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZED CRIME:
 Team Work.
 Hierarchical Structure.
 Planning.
  Division of Labour.
 Violence.
 Effective control of its members.
 Not limited to illicit services.
 ACTIVITIES OF ORGANIZED CRIME:
 Narcotics distribution.
 Gambling.
 Prostitution.
 Illegal Sale or Distribution of Firearms.
 Money Laundering.
 Kidnapping.
 Human Trafficking.
 Bank Robberies.
 Blackmailing.

PRESENT SCENARIO OF CRIME IN INDIA

As of my last update in January 2022, crime rates in India varied across different regions and
types of crimes. While overall crime rates have been fluctuating over the years, some
common issues include:

1. Violent Crimes: Incidents of violence, including murder, assault, and rape, have been
a concern in various parts of India. Efforts to combat these crimes have included
legislative changes, such as the introduction of stricter laws and initiatives aimed at
improving law enforcement and public safety.

2. Cybercrime: With the increasing use of technology, cybercrimes such as hacking,

online fraud, and cyberbullying have become more prevalent. The government has
been taking steps to strengthen cybersecurity measures and enhance awareness among
the public about online safety.

3. Crimes Against Women: Despite efforts to address gender-based violence, crimes

against women, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and dowry-related
offenses, continue to be reported. Various organizations and government initiatives
are working to empower women and improve their safety and security.
 4. Organized Crime: India has faced challenges related to organized crime, including
activities such as smuggling, human trafficking, and organized drug trade. Law
enforcement agencies have been engaged in efforts to dismantle criminal networks
and disrupt their activities.

5. Corruption: Corruption remains a significant issue in India, with reports of bribery,

embezzlement, and other forms of corrupt practices in both the public and private
sectors. Anti-corruption measures and campaigns have been implemented to tackle
this problem, including legislative reforms and the use of technology for transparency
and accountability.

6. Terrorism: India has faced threats from terrorist organizations, both domestic and
international. Efforts to counter terrorism include intelligence gathering, security
measures, and cooperation with other countries.

It's important to note that crime statistics and trends can vary over time and may be
influenced by factors such as socio-economic conditions, cultural dynamics, and government
policies. For the most accurate and up-to-date information on the current scenario of crime in
India, it's advisable to consult recent reports from official sources such as the National Crime
Records Bureau (NCRB) or other relevant government agencies.

QUESTION BANK

5 MARKS

1. What is meant by White-collar crime?

2. Explain crime and its characteristics.

10 marks

1. Elaborate Organized crime.

2. Explain the present scenario of crime in India.

 UNIT II

INVESTIGATION AND PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION

Crime scene investigation (CSI) is a crucial aspect of criminal investigations aimed at

gathering evidence, analysing facts, and reconstructing events to establish the truth about a
crime. Crime scene investigation (CSI) is a fundamental component of the criminal justice
process, essential for uncovering evidence, reconstructing events, and ultimately solving
crimes. It involves a systematic and scientific approach to analysing the scene of a crime to
gather information that can be used to identify suspects, establish motives, and support legal
proceedings.At its core, CSI aims to answer the key questions: what happened, how it
happened, who was involved, and why.

The process of crime scene investigation typically involves several key steps:

1. Initial Assessment and Securing the Scene: Law enforcement officers respond to
the scene and assess the situation, ensuring the safety of all individuals involved and
securing the area to prevent contamination or tampering with evidence.

2. Documentation: Detailed documentation of the crime scene is essential. This

includes photographing and sketching the scene, noting relevant details such as the
location of evidence, bloodstains, and points of entry or exit.
 3. Evidence Collection: CSI personnel systematically collect physical evidence from
the scene using specialized techniques and tools. This may include biological
samples, trace evidence, weapons, and other items that may be relevant to the
investigation.

4. Forensic Analysis: Collected evidence undergoes thorough forensic analysis by

experts in various fields such as DNA analysis, fingerprint comparison, ballistics, and
toxicology testing. This scientific examination aims to extract information and
establish links between the evidence and individuals or events involved in the crime.

5. Reconstruction and Interpretation: Based on the evidence collected and analysed,

investigators reconstruct the sequence of events leading up to and following the
crime. This involves interpreting the evidence in the context of witness statements,
forensic findings, and other investigative leads to develop hypotheses about what
occurred.

6. Chain of Custody: Maintaining the chain of custody is critical to ensuring the

admissibility and reliability of evidence in court. This involves documenting the
handling of evidence from the time it is collected at the crime scene to its presentation
in legal proceedings, establishing a clear record of who had possession of the
evidence and when.

CRIME SCENE

A place where the crime is committed or where the maximum physical evidence related to
crime is found is known as a crime scene. A crime scene is a starting point of the
investigation which provides information about the suspect and the victim. This helps to
reconstruct the crime and fast resolution of the case. It is noted that the crime scene is not
limited to a single place but may extend to a wider area depending upon the nature of the
crime committed. For example, in a murder case where murder is done at one place and the
body is disposed on another place.

TYPES OF CRIME SCENE

Based on evidence found on the crime scene:

1. Primary Crime Scene

The crime scene where the actual crime occurred or where more usable pieces of evidence
were found is known as the primary crime scene. For example, A murder scene, theft,
assault, etc.

2. Secondary Crime Scene

The crime scene which is some or another way related to the crime but is not a place where
the actual crime is committed is known as a secondary crime scene. It is very important
because it may provide a strong link between the suspect and the victim.

For example, In a murder case where murder is done at one place and the body is dumped in
a different place. In this case, the secondary crime scene (where the body is dumped) can
provide more information in terms of evidence like cloth, fiber, hair, weapon, etc. of the
suspect. This will help to trace the primary crime scene.

Based on the geographical location of the crime scene:

1. Outdoor crime scene

A crime that is committed in an open and wide area like a field, park, road, playground, etc.
is known as an outdoor crime scene. An outdoor crime scene is more vulnerable to loss or
contamination of evidence by sunlight, air, or extreme weather.

Thus, outdoor crime demands professional handling of evidence and documentation by the
first responding office or a forensic expert.

Characteristics of outdoor crime scene

1. Evidence found at an outdoor crime scene is more susceptible.

2. It requires larger investigating teams depending upon the size of the crime scene.

4. More eye witnesses can be found in outdoor crime scenes which can help to solve the case
more quickly.
5. Grid or strip search method provides a better result to find evidence at an outdoor crime
scene.

2. Indoor Crime Scene

A crime that is committed in an enclosed and small area like a room, hall, corridor, kitchen,
etc. is known as an indoor crime scene. An indoor crime scene is less vulnerable to loss or
contamination of evidence by whether condition as it occurred in an enclosed area.

Thus, timely cordoning of the entry/exit gates of the place like doors and windows help to
collect evidence easily and fast resolution of the case can be done.

Characteristics of Indoor Crime Scene

1. Evidence found in an indoor crime scene is less susceptible.

2. It requires a small team of IOs/ Forensic experts as the area of an indoor crime scene is
generally small.

3. It is less prone to damages of evidence through climatic conditions.

4. Less or no eye witness can be found in an indoor crime scene as their areas are generally
closed and protected.

5. Spiral, circular, and zone search methods provide better results to find evidence at an
indoor crime scene.

3. Mobile/ Conveyance Crime Scene

Conveyance is a means of transportation. Types of crimes committed in conveyances include

the following: Vehicle, Train/Bus, Lift, Flight. Physical evidence recovered from these
scenes may extend well beyond the conveyance.

Based on the size of the crime scene:

1. Microscopic Crime scene

In microscopic crime scenes, evidence is examined at a very small scale, often requiring the
use of specialized tools such as microscopes. This type of analysis focuses on tiny particles,
Fibers, hairs, bloodstains, and other minuscule traces left behind at the crime scene.
Microscopic examination allows forensic scientists to gather detailed information about the
evidence and draw conclusions that may not be visible to the naked eye. Examples include
analysing blood spatter patterns, gunshot residue, and trace Fibers.

2. Macroscopic Crime scene

Macroscopic crime scenes involve the examination of evidence at a larger scale, where the
naked eye can perceive most of the evidence without the need for magnification. This
includes observing bloodstains, footprints, weapons, broken glass, and other visible signs of a
crime. Macroscopic analysis focuses on the overall scene and the spatial relationships
between different pieces of evidence. Investigators use techniques such as photography,
sketching, and documentation to capture and preserve the details of the crime scene.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CRIME SCENE

 Evidence Collection: The crime scene is the primary location where physical
evidence related to a crime is found. Proper documentation, collection, and
preservation of evidence are essential for building a case and determining what
happened.

 Reconstruction of Events: Examining the crime scene can provide insights into how
the crime occurred, including the sequence of events, the actions of those involved,
and any potential motives.

 Identification of Suspects: Evidence collected at the crime scene, such as

fingerprints, DNA, and trace materials, can help identify potential suspects and link
them to the crime.

 Establishing Culpability: The crime scene helps establish culpability by providing

clues that can corroborate or refute witness statements and suspect alibis.

ARGUMENTS OF CRIME SCENE

  Admissibility of Evidence: Legal arguments often revolve around the admissibility
of evidence collected at the crime scene. Défense attorneys may challenge the
integrity of the crime scene investigation or the reliability of the evidence presented.

 Chain of Custody: Arguments may arise regarding the chain of custody, ensuring
that evidence is properly documented and accounted for from the moment it is
collected until it is presented in court.

 Expert Testimony: Expert witnesses may provide arguments regarding the

interpretation of evidence and the methodologies used in analysing crime scene data.

ETHICS OF CRIME SCENE

 Integrity of Evidence: Maintaining the integrity of the crime scene and evidence is
paramount. Investigators must avoid contaminating or altering evidence, as this could
jeopardize the investigation and compromise justice.

 Respect for Victims and Families: Ethical considerations dictate that investigators
treat crime scenes with sensitivity and respect, considering the emotional impact on
victims and their families.

 Professional Conduct: Ethical standards require investigators to conduct themselves

with professionalism, honesty, and impartiality. This includes avoiding biases and
ensuring that evidence is collected and analysed objectively.

 Privacy and Consent: Investigators must respect the privacy and rights of individuals
involved in the investigation, including suspects, witnesses, and victims. Obtaining
consent for evidence collection and respecting confidentiality are essential ethical
considerations.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Physical evidence refers to any tangible objects or materials that are relevant to a criminal
investigation and can provide information about a crime or the individuals involved. This
evidence can be collected from the crime scene, victims, suspects, or other sources, and it is
analyzed to draw conclusions and support legal proceedings.

Classification of Physical Evidence:

 1. Transient Evidence: Transient evidence is temporary and easily lost, destroyed, or
changed. Examples include odors, temperature changes, and blood spatter patterns
that may fade over time or be altered by environmental factors.

2. Pattern Evidence: Pattern evidence consists of impressions or patterns left at the

crime scene that can provide information about the events that occurred. This includes
fingerprints, footwear impressions, tire tracks, tool marks, and bloodstain patterns.

3. Conditional Evidence: Conditional evidence is associated with specific conditions or

circumstances. For example, the presence of bloodstains on clothing may be
conditional evidence if it is linked to a specific event or action.

4. Associative Evidence: Associative evidence links a suspect to a crime scene or

victim. This includes personal belongings, clothing fibers, hairs, or DNA samples that
can be traced back to an individual.

5. Transfer Evidence: Transfer evidence is material that is transferred between two

surfaces during a crime. This can include fibers, hairs, glass fragments, or soil
particles that are transferred from one person or object to another.

6. Biological Evidence: Biological evidence consists of organic materials such as blood,

saliva, semen, hair, and tissues. DNA analysis of biological evidence is often crucial
in identifying suspects and linking them to a crime.

7. Physical Matches: Physical matches occur when two or more objects fit together or
share unique characteristics. This includes broken fragments of glass, tool marks, or
torn pieces of fabric that can be matched to each other.

Types of Physical Evidence:

1. Fingerprints: Fingerprints are unique patterns of ridges and valleys on the skin's
surface. They are often found at crime scenes on various surfaces and can be used to
identify individuals.
 2. Footwear Impressions: Footwear impressions are marks left by shoes or footwear on
surfaces such as soil, dust, or flooring. They can provide information about the type of
shoes worn by suspects and their movements.

3. Tool Marks: Tool marks are impressions or scratches left on surfaces by tools or
instruments. They can help identify the type of tool used in a crime, such as a crowbar
or screwdriver.

4. Bloodstain Patterns: Bloodstain patterns can reveal information about the dynamics
of a crime, including the direction and force of impact, the number of blows inflicted,
and the position of individuals involved.

5. Hair and Fiber Analysis: Examination of hair and fibers found at a crime scene can
provide clues about the individuals present, their activities, and potential sources of
evidence.

6. DNA Evidence: DNA analysis is used to identify individuals and establish

connections between suspects, victims, and crime scenes. It can be extracted from
biological materials such as blood, saliva, semen, and hair follicles.

7. Trace Evidence: Trace evidence includes small particles or fragments such as glass,
soil, paint, or gunshot residue. These materials can help reconstruct events and
provide valuable leads in criminal investigations.

Physical evidence plays a crucial role in criminal investigations by providing factual

information and corroborating witness statements or suspect testimony. Analyzing and
interpreting physical evidence requires specialized knowledge and techniques to ensure
accuracy and reliability in legal proceedings.

Sources of Physical Evidence:

 Crime Scene: The primary source of physical evidence is the crime scene itself. This
can include traces left behind by the perpetrator, such as fingerprints, bloodstains,
DNA, footwear impressions, tool marks, and discarded items.
  Victim: Physical evidence can also be obtained directly from the victim. This may
include injuries, biological fluids (blood, saliva, semen), clothing fibers, hairs, and
personal belongings that can provide clues about the perpetrator or the circumstances
of the crime.

 Suspect: Evidence collected from suspects, such as fingerprints, DNA samples,

clothing fibers, and personal belongings, can be compared to evidence from the crime
scene to establish a connection between the suspect and the crime.

Significance and Value of Physical Evidence:

 Objective Information: Physical evidence provides objective information about a

crime that can corroborate or refute witness statements and suspect accounts. It serves
as tangible proof of what occurred and who was involved, reducing reliance on
subjective interpretations.

 Reliability: Unlike eyewitness testimony, physical evidence is less susceptible to

bias, memory errors, or deception. It can withstand scrutiny in court and is often
considered more reliable and persuasive to judges and juries.

 Linkage and Corroboration: Physical evidence can link the crime scene, victim, and
criminal by establishing connections between different elements of the investigation.
For example, matching fingerprints found at the crime scene to those of a suspect
provides direct evidence of their involvement.

 Probative Value: Physical evidence has probative value, meaning it has the ability to
prove or disprove facts relevant to the case. The presence or absence of specific
physical evidence can strengthen or weaken the prosecution's case.

Linkage Between Crime Scene, Victim, and Criminal:

 Crime Scene to Criminal: Physical evidence collected at the crime scene can be
analyzed to identify the perpetrator. This includes matching DNA, fingerprints, or
other unique identifiers found at the scene to those of known suspects or individuals
in criminal databases.
  Victim to Crime Scene: Physical evidence obtained from the victim can provide
crucial information about the circumstances of the crime and the identity of the
perpetrator. For example, analyzing injuries, biological fluids, or personal belongings
can help reconstruct events and establish a timeline.

 Criminal to Victim: Evidence collected from suspects, such as DNA or fingerprints,

can be compared to physical evidence from the victim or the crime scene to establish
a direct link between the perpetrator and the victim. This linkage is essential for
proving the elements of the crime and securing convictions.

MASS DISASTER

Mass disasters involve events that result in significant loss of life, extensive damage, or
widespread disruption, such as natural disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis),
industrial accidents (chemical spills, building collapses), transportation accidents (plane
crashes, train derailments), or mass casualty incidents (mass shootings, bombings). Forensic
experts and investigators employ specialized techniques to document, collect, and analyze
evidence from mass disaster scenes. This may include mapping the scene, conducting
systematic searches for human remains, using DNA analysis for victim identification, and
collaborating with various agencies and experts to reconstruct the sequence of events.

EXAMPLES FOR MASS DISASTER INCIDENTS:

1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

 Location: Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

 Incident: Considered one of the world's worst industrial disasters, toxic methyl
isocyanate gas leaked from the Union Carbide pesticide plant, exposing over
half a million people to the deadly gas. The immediate death toll was
estimated to be around 3,800, with thousands more suffering long-term health
effects.

 Impact: The Bhopal Gas Tragedy remains a symbol of industrial negligence

and the devastating consequences of chemical accidents. It led to widespread
outrage, legal battles, and efforts to improve industrial safety regulations in
India.
2. Gujarat Earthquake (2001):

 Location: Gujarat state, western India

 Incident: A powerful earthquake with a magnitude of 7.7 struck the Kutch

region of Gujarat, causing widespread destruction and loss of life. Thousands
of buildings, including homes, schools, and businesses, were destroyed or
damaged, resulting in over 20,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands of
injuries.

 Impact: The Gujarat Earthquake was one of the deadliest earthquakes in

India's recent history, prompting large-scale rescue and relief efforts, as well
as initiatives to improve earthquake preparedness and infrastructure resilience
in the region.

3. Kedarnath Flash Floods (2013):

 Location: Uttarakhand state, northern India

 Incident: Heavy rainfall and cloudbursts triggered flash floods and landslides
in the mountainous region of Uttarakhand, particularly around the pilgrimage
town of Kedarnath. Thousands of pilgrims and residents were stranded or
swept away by the raging waters, resulting in widespread devastation and loss
of life.

 Impact: The Kedarnath disaster highlighted the vulnerability of Himalayan

regions to natural hazards and the need for improved disaster management and
infrastructure planning in high-risk areas prone to floods, landslides, and other
environmental risks.

4. Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004):

 Location: Coastal areas of southern India, particularly Tamil Nadu and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

 Incident: A massive undersea earthquake off the coast of Sumatra triggered a

series of devastating tsunamis across the Indian Ocean region. In India, coastal
communities were inundated by massive waves, resulting in thousands of
 deaths, widespread destruction of coastal infrastructure, and displacement of
populations.

 Impact: The Indian Ocean Tsunami was one of the deadliest natural disasters
in recorded history, prompting significant international humanitarian aid and
efforts to improve early warning systems and disaster preparedness in coastal
regions.

TERRORIST ATTACKS

Terrorist attacks involve deliberate acts of violence or destruction intended to instill fear,
cause harm, or achieve political or ideological goals. These attacks can target civilians,
infrastructure, or symbolic locations and may involve various methods such as bombings,
shootings, hijackings, or cyberattacks. Investigating terrorist attacks requires coordination
between law enforcement, intelligence agencies, and forensic experts. Investigators analyze
physical evidence, including explosives residues, weapon fragments, and surveillance
footage, to identify perpetrators and uncover their motives. Additionally, psychological
profiling and behavioral analysis may be employed to understand the mindset of the
perpetrators.

EXAMPLES FOR TERRORIST ATTACK INCIDENTS:

1. Mumbai Attacks (2008):

 Location: Mumbai, Maharashtra

 Incident: A series of coordinated terrorist attacks took place across multiple

locations in Mumbai, including prominent landmarks such as the Taj Mahal
Palace Hotel, Oberoi Trident Hotel, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway
station, and Nariman House, a Jewish community center. The attackers,
belonging to the Pakistan-based militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba, carried out
shootings, bombings, and hostage-taking, resulting in over 160 deaths and
hundreds of injuries.
  Impact: The Mumbai Attacks shocked the nation and drew international
condemnation. They exposed significant gaps in India's security infrastructure
and led to calls for improved counter-terrorism measures and intelligence
sharing.

2. Pulwama Attack (2019):

 Location: Pulwama district, Jammu and Kashmir

 Incident: A suicide bombing targeted a convoy of Indian paramilitary

personnel on the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway. A vehicle laden with
explosives rammed into one of the convoy buses, resulting in a massive
explosion. The attack, carried out by the Pakistan-based militant group Jaish-
e-Mohammed, claimed the lives of 40 Indian security personnel and injured
many others.

 Impact: The Pulwama Attack escalated tensions between India and Pakistan,
leading to military confrontations and diplomatic fallout. It reignited debates
on counter-terrorism strategies, cross-border militancy, and the security
situation in Jammu and Kashmir.

3. 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings:

 Location: Mumbai, Maharashtra

 Incident: Seven coordinated bombings targeted the suburban railway network

in Mumbai during the evening rush hour. Explosive devices placed on trains
and at railway stations detonated almost simultaneously, causing mass
casualties and chaos. The attacks, attributed to the Pakistan-based militant
group Lashkar-e-Taiba, resulted in over 200 deaths and hundreds of injuries.

 Impact: The 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings highlighted vulnerabilities in

public transportation systems and raised concerns about the spread of
terrorism across India. It spurred efforts to enhance railway security and
intelligence coordination.

4. Pathankot Attack (2016):

  Location: Pathankot, Punjab

 Incident: Armed militants launched a pre-dawn attack on the Pathankot Air

Force Station, a key military installation near the India-Pakistan border. The
attackers, believed to be affiliated with the Pakistan-based Jaish-e-Mohammed
group, engaged security forces in a prolonged gun battle. Several Indian
security personnel were killed, and the operation to neutralize the militants
lasted for days.

 Impact: The Pathankot Attack underscored the challenges of defending

military installations against terrorist infiltration and raised questions about
security lapses along the border. It renewed calls for stronger counter-
terrorism cooperation between India and Pakistan.

GEOLOGICAL CRIME

Geological scenes involve crimes or incidents that occur in natural settings, such as outdoor
environments, caves, bodies of water, or remote wilderness areas. These scenes pose unique
challenges due to factors such as weather, terrain, wildlife, and decomposition. Forensic
geologists and investigators use geological techniques to analyze soil, rock, water, and other
geological features associated with crime scenes. This may include sediment analysis,
mineral identification, topographic mapping, and the study of erosion patterns to gather
evidence and reconstruct events.

EXAMPLES FOR GEOLOGICAL SCENE INCIDENTS:

1. Uttarakhand Flash Floods (2021):

 Location: Chamoli district, Uttarakhand

 Incident: A glacier burst triggered flash floods in the Chamoli district of

Uttarakhand, resulting in widespread destruction and loss of life. The
floodwaters inundated villages, washed away bridges, and damaged
hydroelectric power projects. The incident was attributed to the collapse of a
portion of the Nanda Devi glacier, releasing a large volume of water and
debris downstream.
  Impact: The Uttarakhand flash floods caused numerous casualties and
highlighted the vulnerability of mountainous regions to glacial hazards and
climate change-induced events. It underscored the importance of early
warning systems, disaster preparedness, and sustainable development practices
in high-risk areas.

2. Bhuj Earthquake (2001):

 Location: Bhuj, Gujarat

 Incident: A massive earthquake with a magnitude of 7.7 struck the Kutch

region of Gujarat, causing widespread devastation and loss of life. Thousands
of buildings, including homes, schools, and government offices, collapsed or
were severely damaged. The earthquake also disrupted infrastructure,
communications, and essential services.

 Impact: The Bhuj Earthquake was one of the deadliest earthquakes in India's
recent history, resulting in over 20,000 deaths and extensive damage to
property and infrastructure. It prompted large-scale relief and reconstruction
efforts, as well as initiatives to strengthen earthquake resilience and building
codes in the region.

3. Landslides in Malin Village (2014):

 Location: Malin village, Pune district, Maharashtra

 Incident: Heavy rainfall triggered a massive landslide in the village of Malin,

burying dozens of homes under debris and mud. The landslide, which
occurred during the monsoon season, caught residents by surprise and resulted
in significant loss of life. Rescue operations were hampered by difficult terrain
and adverse weather conditions.

 Impact: The landslide in Malin village highlighted the risks of living in

landslide-prone areas and the need for proactive measures to mitigate hazards,
such as land use planning, slope stabilization, and early warning systems. It
also underscored the importance of community preparedness and emergency
response in the face of natural disasters.
 QUESTION BANK

5 MARKS

1. What is Crime scene investigation.

2. Explain types of crime scene in detail.

10 MARKS

1. Elaborate physical evidence and write classification of physical evidence in detail.

2. Explain ethics and arguments in crime scene investigation.

UNIT III

BASICS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

Forensic science is the application of scientific principles and techniques to solve crimes and
support the legal system. It encompasses a wide range of disciplines that aim to uncover
factual evidence, providing crucial insights into criminal investigations and legal
proceedings.Forensic science involves the collection, preservation, analysis, and
interpretation of physical evidence from crime scenes. This scientific analysis helps in
establishing facts that can be presented in a court of law, aiding in the administration of
justice.

Global History

 Ancient Origins: The earliest known use of forensic techniques dates back to ancient
China, where the text "Xi Yuan Lu" (The Washing Away of Wrongs) written in 1248
AD by Song Ci described methods for distinguishing between different causes of
death. Similarly, ancient Roman and Greek texts mention rudimentary forensic
methods.
 Middle Ages: During the medieval period, rudimentary forensic practices were used
in Europe. For example, in the 13th century, medical experts were sometimes called
upon to provide evidence in criminal cases.
 Renaissance and Enlightenment: The period saw significant advancements in medical
and scientific knowledge, leading to more systematic forensic practices. For example,
in the 16th century, Italian surgeon Fortunato Fidelis and French army surgeon
Ambroise Paré laid the groundwork for modern forensic pathology by studying
changes in the body after death.
 19th Century: The modern era of forensic science began in the 19th century. In 1835,
Henry Goddard became the first person to use bullet comparison to catch a murderer.
The introduction of fingerprinting by Sir Francis Galton in the 1890s and the
development of blood typing by Karl Landsteiner further advanced the field.
 20th Century to Present: The 20th century saw rapid advancements in forensic
techniques, including the development of DNA profiling in the 1980s, which
revolutionized the field. Today, forensic science is a sophisticated, interdisciplinary
field that plays a crucial role in the criminal justice system worldwide.

Scope

 Criminal Investigations: Forensic scientists analyze physical evidence to solve crimes,

identify suspects, and support legal proceedings.
 Civil Cases: Forensic techniques are also used in civil litigation, such as in cases of
fraud, forgery, and malpractice.
 Disaster Victim Identification: Forensic experts assist in identifying victims of natural
disasters, accidents, and terrorist attacks.
  National Security: Forensic science contributes to counter-terrorism efforts and the
investigation of war crimes.
 Research and Development: Ongoing research in forensic science leads to the
development of new techniques and technologies, enhancing the field‟s capabilities.

Need

 Objective Evidence: Forensic science offers impartial, scientifically-based evidence

that can corroborate or refute testimony and other forms of evidence.
 Crime Solving: It plays a crucial role in solving crimes by identifying suspects,
establishing links between individuals and crime scenes, and reconstructing criminal
events.
 Justice and Fairness: Forensic science helps ensure that justice is served by
exonerating the innocent and convicting the guilty.
 Public Safety: It aids in identifying and apprehending criminals, thereby enhancing
public safety and security.
 Accountability: Forensic evidence can hold perpetrators accountable and deter future
crimes.

Development Principles

1. Law of Individuality

This principle asserts that every object, substance, or individual has unique characteristics
that differentiate it from all others. In forensic science, this means that no two sets of
fingerprints, DNA profiles, or tool marks are identical. This uniqueness is crucial for
identifying and linking evidence to specific individuals or objects.

2. Principle of Exchange (Locard's Exchange Principle)

Formulated by Dr. Edmond Locard, this principle states that "every contact leaves a trace."
Whenever two objects come into contact, there is a transfer of material between them. This
principle underpins the collection of trace evidence, such as hair, fibers, and soil, which can
link a suspect to a crime scene.

3. Principle of Divisible Matter

This principle states that matter, when broken, divided, or fragmented, retains characteristics
of the original whole. This is applied in forensic science when analyzing fragments of
materials like glass, paint, or bones, allowing forensic scientists to piece together these
fragments to understand the original object and its significance in the crime.

4. Principle of Comparison

The principle of comparison involves comparing evidence from a crime scene with known
standards or controls to establish a match. For example, comparing a bullet recovered from a
crime scene with a test-fired bullet from a suspect's firearm to determine if they were fired
from the same gun.

5. Principle of Analysis

This principle emphasizes the use of systematic and scientific methods to analyze evidence. It
involves the careful examination, testing, and interpretation of physical evidence using
validated techniques to draw conclusions about its origin, composition, and relevance to the
crime.

6. Principle of Probability

Forensic science often deals with probabilities rather than certainties. This principle
recognizes that the conclusions drawn from forensic analysis are based on statistical
probabilities. For example, the likelihood of a DNA match is expressed in terms of
probabilities, such as "one in a billion.

7. Principle of Reconstruction

This principle involves reconstructing the sequence of events in a crime based on the analysis
of physical evidence and the application of scientific methods. By interpreting evidence such
as blood spatter patterns, ballistic trajectories, and scene reconstructions, forensic scientists
can piece together how a crime occurred.

SPECIFIC CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENTISTS IN THE FIELD OF FORENSIC

SCIENCE

Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911)

 Contribution: Galton pioneered the field of fingerprint analysis. His research

demonstrated that fingerprints are unique to each individual and can be used for
identification purposes.
  Impact: Galton's work laid the foundation for modern fingerprinting techniques,
which are now a fundamental tool in forensic investigations worldwide.

Edmond Locard (1877–1966)

 Contribution: Locard formulated the Exchange Principle, which states that "every
contact leaves a trace." He emphasized the importance of collecting and analyzing
trace evidence to link individuals to crime scenes.
 Impact: Locard's Exchange Principle revolutionized forensic science by highlighting
the significance of trace evidence in criminal investigations, shaping how crime
scenes are processed and evidence is collected.

Albert S. Osborn (1858–1946)

 Contribution: Osborn is considered the "father of document examination." He

developed systematic methods for analyzing handwriting, ink, paper, and other
document features to determine authenticity and detect forgery.
 Impact: Osborn's contributions established document examination as a specialized
field within forensic science, providing valuable expertise in legal proceedings
involving questioned documents.

Calvin Goddard (1891–1955)

 Contribution: Goddard pioneered the use of ballistics analysis in forensic

investigations. He developed techniques for comparing bullets and cartridge casings
to determine their source.
 Impact: Goddard's work significantly advanced firearm examination, enabling
forensic scientists to link bullets and firearms to specific crimes and suspects with
greater accuracy.

Alec Jeffreys (born 1950)

 Contribution: Jeffreys is credited with the discovery of DNA fingerprinting. In 1984,

he developed the technique of DNA profiling, which allows for the identification of
individuals based on their unique DNA profiles.
  Impact: Jeffreys' groundbreaking discovery revolutionized forensic science, providing
an incredibly powerful tool for identifying suspects, exonerating the innocent, and
solving cold cases.

Frances Glessner Lee (1878–1962)

 Contribution: Lee is often referred to as the "mother of forensic science." She

pioneered the development of forensic science education and training and is best
known for creating the Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death, intricate dollhouse
crime scenes used for training purposes.
 Impact: Lee's contributions to forensic education and training have had a lasting
impact, ensuring that future generations of forensic scientists receive comprehensive
training in crime scene investigation and analysis.

Michael Baden (born 1934)

 Contribution: Baden is a prominent forensic pathologist known for his work in

forensic pathology and medicolegal investigations. He has conducted autopsies in
high-profile cases and provided expert testimony in numerous trials.
 Impact: Baden's expertise in forensic pathology has been instrumental in determining
causes of death, identifying victims, and providing crucial evidence in criminal
investigations and legal proceedings.

QUESTION BANK

5 MARKS

1. What is meant by Forensic Science? Explain in detail.

2. Briefly explain the need and scope of Forensic science in legal investigation.

10 MARKS

1. Explain the contributions ofscientists in the field of Forensic science.

2. Explain 7 principles of Forensic Science.

UNIT IV

DOMAINS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

BRANCHES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

 Forensic Biology: Also known as biological or DNA forensics, this branch involves
the analysis of biological materials like blood, saliva, hair, and DNA to identify
individuals, establish relationships, and determine biological characteristics.
 Forensic Chemistry: This branch involves the analysis of chemicals, drugs, toxins,
and other substances found at crime scenes. Forensic chemists analyze substances to
identify their composition, origin, and potential link to criminal activity.
 Forensic Toxicology: Toxicology focuses on the analysis of bodily fluids and tissues
to determine the presence of drugs, alcohol, poisons, or other toxic substances. This
information is crucial in cases involving drug-related deaths, poisoning, or impaired
driving.
 Forensic Pathology: Forensic pathologists investigate the cause, manner, and
circumstances of death by performing autopsies and examining medical evidence.
They play a vital role in determining whether deaths are natural, accidental, suicidal,
or homicidal.
 Forensic Anthropology: Anthropologists study human skeletal remains to determine
the identity, age, sex, ancestry, and any trauma or pathology associated with the
remains. This branch is particularly useful in cases of mass disasters, missing persons,
or historical investigations.
 Forensic Entomology: Entomologists study insects found at crime scenes to estimate
the time of death (postmortem interval) and gather evidence related to decomposition
and environmental conditions.
 Forensic Odontology: Dentists analyse dental evidence, such as bite marks and
dental records, to identify individuals and provide evidence in criminal investigations
and mass disaster victim identification.
 Digital Forensics: Also known as computer or cyber forensics, this branch deals with
the retrieval, analysis, and preservation of digital evidence from computers, mobile
devices, and other electronic media.
 Forensic Psychiatry/Psychology: Forensic psychiatrists and psychologists assess the
mental state and behaviour of individuals involved in legal proceedings, such as
defendants, witnesses, or victims, to determine competency, sanity, or the presence of
psychological disorders.
  Forensic Engineering: Engineers apply principles of physics, mechanics, and
materials science to investigate accidents, structural failures, and other incidents
involving engineering or architectural components.

POLICE OFFICER

Police officers are law enforcement officials responsible for maintaining public order,
preventing and investigating crimes, and ensuring the safety and security of communities.
Their duties can vary depending on their specific role, jurisdiction, and department policies,
but common tasks include patrolling designated areas, responding to emergency calls,
conducting investigations, making arrests, issuing citations, and providing assistance to the
public.

To become a police officer, individuals typically need to meet certain requirements, which
may include completing a training program at a police academy, passing physical and
psychological exams, and undergoing background checks. Many departments also require
candidates to have a high school diploma or equivalent, although some may prefer or require
college education.

Once hired, police officers often undergo additional on-the-job training and may specialize in
areas such as narcotics, homicide investigations, traffic enforcement, or community policing.
They must also stay up-to-date on laws and procedures, as well as techniques for handling
various situations, including crisis intervention and de-escalation.

Police officers work in a variety of environments, including urban, suburban, and rural areas,
and may face risks and challenges in the line of duty. The profession requires strong
communication skills, problem-solving abilities, physical fitness, and a commitment to
serving and protecting the public while upholding the law.

HIERARCHY OF POLICE OFFICER:

The hierarchy within a police department typically follows a structured chain of command,
with various ranks and positions that denote levels of authority and responsibility.

Director-General of Police (DGP)

 Additional Director General of Police (ADG)

Inspector-General of Police (IG)

Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG)

Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP)

Superintendent of Police (SP)

Additional Superintendent of Police (ASP)

Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP)

Deputy Superintendent of Police (Dy. SP)

Inspector

Sub-Inspector (SI)

Head Constable/Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI)

Constable

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES:

 Crime Scene Management: Police officers are responsible for securing and
preserving the crime scene to prevent contamination and ensure the integrity of
evidence. They establish perimeters, control access, and document the scene through
photographs and sketches.
 Evidence Collection: Police officers collect physical evidence from the crime scene,
such as fingerprints, DNA samples, weapons, and other forensic materials. They use
proper techniques and equipment to preserve and package evidence for analysis.
 Witness Interviews: Police officers interview witnesses to obtain information about
the crime, including descriptions of suspects, vehicles, and events leading up to the
incident. They document witness statements and assess their credibility.
 Suspect Identification: Police officers use investigative techniques, such as
surveillance footage, eyewitness accounts, and forensic evidence, to identify potential
suspects. They compile information and develop leads to narrow down the list of
suspects.
  Interrogation and Interviewing: Police officers interrogate suspects to obtain
confessions or gather information relevant to the investigation. They use questioning
techniques, such as rapport-building and confrontation, while adhering to legal
standards and procedures.
 Search Warrants: Police officers obtain search warrants when necessary to search
premises, vehicles, or electronic devices for evidence related to the crime. They
present evidence to a judge or magistrate to establish probable cause for the search.
 Evidence Analysis: Police officers submit collected evidence to forensic laboratories
for analysis, including DNA testing, ballistics analysis, and fingerprint comparison.
They interpret forensic results and incorporate findings into the investigation.
 Case Documentation: Police officers document all aspects of the investigation,
including evidence collected, interviews conducted, and actions taken. They prepare
detailed reports that summarize findings and support the prosecution of the case.

PROSECUTION

 Legal Representation: The prosecution represents the state or government in

criminal proceedings. Prosecutors are responsible for presenting evidence, examining
witnesses, and arguing the case against the defendant.
 Charging Decisions: Prosecutors review evidence gathered by law enforcement
agencies to determine whether to file criminal charges against a suspect. They assess
the strength of the case and decide which charges to pursue.
 Trial Preparation: Prosecutors prepare for trials by organizing evidence, identifying
witnesses, and developing legal strategies. They may also negotiate plea bargains with
defense attorneys to resolve cases without going to trial.
 Courtroom Advocacy: Prosecutors present the case before judges and juries during
trials, presenting evidence, questioning witnesses, and delivering closing arguments.
They advocate for the conviction of the defendant based on the evidence and
applicable laws.
 Legal Research and Analysis: Prosecutors conduct legal research to interpret
statutes, case law, and legal precedents relevant to their cases. They analyze complex
legal issues and develop arguments to support their positions.

JUDICIAL OFFICERS
  Judges: Judges preside over court proceedings, ensuring that trials are conducted
fairly and according to the law. They rule on legal motions, admit evidence, and
provide instructions to juries. Judges also impose sentences on convicted defendants.
 Magistrates: Magistrates handle preliminary stages of criminal cases, such as
arraignments, bail hearings, and pretrial conferences. They may also issue search
warrants and arrest warrants based on probable cause.
 Justices: Justices serve on appellate courts and review decisions made by lower
courts. They evaluate legal arguments, review trial records, and issue opinions on the
validity of lower court rulings. Justices may uphold, reverse, or modify lower court
decisions.

MEDICO-LEGAL EXPERTS

 Forensic Pathologists: Forensic pathologists perform autopsies to determine the

cause and manner of death in cases of suspicious or violent deaths. They analyze
medical records, collect evidence from the body, and testify in court as expert
witnesses.
 Forensic Scientists: Forensic scientists analyze physical evidence, such as DNA,
fingerprints, and trace materials, to link suspects to crimes or exonerate the innocent.
They use specialized techniques and equipment to conduct analyses and interpret
results.
 Forensic Psychiatrists/Psychologists: Forensic psychiatrists and psychologists
evaluate defendants to assess their mental state and competency to stand trial. They
may also provide expert testimony regarding a defendant's mental health at the time of
the offense.
 Forensic Engineers: Forensic engineers investigate accidents, fires, and other
disasters to determine their causes and contributing factors. They apply principles of
engineering and physics to reconstruct events and provide expert opinions in legal
proceedings.

ROLE AND QUALIFICATIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENTISTS

Forensic scientists play a critical role in the criminal justice system by applying scientific
principles and techniques to the analysis of physical evidence collected from crime scenes.
Their work helps to establish facts and provide objective information that can be used in legal
proceedings. Here are some key roles and responsibilities of forensic scientists:

 Evidence Collection and Preservation:

Forensic scientists often assist in collecting physical evidence from crime scenes, ensuring
that it is properly documented, handled, and preserved to maintain its integrity for analysis
and court presentation.

 Laboratory Analysis:

They analyze various types of evidence, such as DNA, blood, hair, fibers, drugs, firearms,
and digital data, using a range of scientific methods and technologies.This analysis can
involve chemical, biological, physical, and digital forensic techniques.

 Interpretation of Results:

Forensic scientists interpret the results of their analyses to determine the significance of the
evidence in the context of the investigation.They can link a suspect to a crime scene, establish
timelines, and provide insights into how a crime was committed.

 Report Writing:

They document their findings in detailed reports that explain the methods used, the results
obtained, and the conclusions drawn.These reports must be clear, precise, and
comprehensible to non-scientists, including law enforcement officials, lawyers, and juries.

 Expert Testimony:

Forensic scientists often serve as expert witnesses in court, where they present their findings
and explain the scientific basis of their analyses to the judge and jury.They must be able to
convey complex scientific concepts in a way that is understandable and convincing.

 Quality Assurance and Standards Compliance:

Ensuring that all procedures adhere to strict quality control standards and are in compliance
with legal and regulatory requirements.Forensic laboratories often undergo accreditation
processes to maintain the credibility and reliability of their work.

 Research and Development:

Some forensic scientists engage in research to develop new methods and technologies for
evidence analysis.They contribute to the advancement of the field by improving existing
techniques and discovering innovative approaches to forensic investigation.

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR FORENSIC SCIENTISTS

Forensic scientists operate under strict codes of conduct, ethical guidelines, and professional
standards to ensure the integrity and reliability of their work. Here is an overview of these
aspects:

 Integrity and Honesty:

Forensic scientists must conduct their work with honesty, integrity, and impartiality.They
should report findings accurately and truthfully, without distortion or bias.

 Objectivity:

They must remain objective and refrain from becoming advocates for either the prosecution
or the defense.Decisions and conclusions should be based solely on the evidence and
scientific principles.

 Confidentiality:

Maintain the confidentiality of sensitive information related to cases and evidence.Disclose

information only to authorized individuals and within the constraints of the law.

 Competence:

Perform duties only within the limits of their expertise.Engage in continuous education and
training to stay updated with advancements in forensic science.
  Impartiality:

Avoid conflicts of interest that could compromise their impartiality.Disclose any potential
conflicts of interest to relevant parties.

 Accuracy and Precision:

Ensure the accuracy and reliability of all scientific analyses and conclusions.Use validated
methods and follow established protocols and standards.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

 Bias and Subjectivity:

Confirmation bias, where an examiner may unintentionally influence the outcome based on
preconceived notions or external pressure.Ensuring objectivity and avoiding personal or
institutional biases.

 Misrepresentation of Evidence:

Overstating the certainty of forensic findings or misrepresenting the limitations of the

analysis.Pressure from law enforcement or legal teams to produce favourable results.

 Chain of Custody:

Maintaining a proper chain of custody to ensure evidence integrity.Risks of contamination or

tampering if protocols are not followed.

 Professional Competence:

Inadequate training or lack of expertise leading to erroneous conclusions.Ensuring all

forensic practitioners are adequately trained and qualified.

 Use of Unvalidated Methods:

Employing techniques or technologies that have not been scientifically validated.Relying on

methods without a solid basis in scientific research.
PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE PRACTICE OF CRIMINALISTICS

 Accreditation and Certification:

Laboratories and forensic practitioners should seek accreditation from recognized bodies
(e.g., ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board).Certification through professional
organizations such as the American Board of Criminalistics (ABC).

 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs):

Adherence to established SOPs to ensure consistency, reliability, and reproducibility of

forensic analyses.Regular review and updates of SOPs to incorporate new developments and
best practices.

 Quality Assurance and Control:

Implementation of robust quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) measures.Regular
audits and proficiency testing to verify the accuracy and reliability of forensic analyses.

 Documentation and Reporting:

Comprehensive documentation of all procedures, analyses, and findings. Clear, concise, and
accurate reporting that can withstand legal scrutiny.

 Ethical Training and Education:

Ongoing ethical training to reinforce the importance of ethical behaviour and decision-
making.Promoting a culture of integrity and ethical awareness within the forensic
community.

SANCTIONS AGAINST EXPERTS FOR UNETHICAL CONDUCT

  Disciplinary Actions:

Professional organizations and accrediting bodies can impose sanctions for unethical conduct,
including suspension or revocation of certification.Internal disciplinary actions by employers,
such as termination of employment.

 Legal Consequences:

Criminal charges for gross misconduct, fraud, or tampering with evidence.Civil lawsuits for
negligence or malpractice.

 Professional Repercussions:

Loss of reputation and professional standing.Barred from testifying in court as an expert

witness.

 Regulatory Actions:

Regulatory agencies can impose fines, sanctions, or other penalties.Mandatory retraining or

supervision requirements.

QUESTION BANK

5 MARKS

1. Explain branches of Forensic Science in detail.

2. Briefly explain the role and responsibilities of Police officer in Criminal Investigation.

10 MARKS

1. Explain the professional standards for the practice of criminalistics

2. Explain code of conduct for forensic scientists.
 UNIT V

FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY

Forensic science laboratories are specialized facilities dedicated to the application of

scientific principles and techniques to analyze evidence collected from crime scenes. These
laboratories play a crucial role in the criminal justice system, helping to solve crimes, identify
perpetrators, and exonerate the innocent through meticulous examination and interpretation
of physical evidence.The primary purpose of forensic science laboratories is to assist in the
investigation and resolution of criminal cases by providing objective, scientifically valid
analysis of evidence.

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The primary purpose of forensic science laboratories is to assist in the investigation and
resolution of criminal cases by providing objective, scientifically valid analysis of evidence.
They serve several critical functions:

 Evidence Analysis: Conduct detailed examinations of physical, chemical, biological,

and digital evidence. Employ a variety of scientific disciplines and methodologies to
extract and interpret data.
 Support Law Enforcement: Aid police and investigative agencies in the collection,
preservation, and analysis of evidence. Provide expert consultation and support during
investigations and court proceedings.
  Quality Control and Assurance: Implement stringent quality control measures to
ensure the accuracy and reliability of results. Regularly participate in proficiency
testing and adhere to standardized protocols.
 Research and Development: Engage in ongoing research to develop new forensic
techniques and improve existing methods. Stay at the forefront of technological
advancements in forensic science.

STATE AND REGIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY:

1. Structure:
o State and regional forensic science laboratories are typically established by
state governments to serve the forensic needs of their respective regions.
o These laboratories are usually equipped with various departments specializing
in different forensic disciplines such as biology, chemistry, toxicology,
ballistics, document examination, etc.
o They may have multiple branches or units located strategically across the
region to ensure efficient service delivery.
2. Functions:
o Examination of physical evidence collected from crime scenes or submitted by
law enforcement agencies for analysis.
o Providing expert testimony in courts based on the findings of forensic
analyses.
o Training and education of law enforcement personnel, forensic scientists, and
other stakeholders.
o Research and development to enhance forensic techniques and methodologies.
o Collaboration with law enforcement agencies, legal authorities, and other
forensic laboratories for effective crime investigation and resolution.

CENTRAL FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY:

1. Structure:
 o Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) is typically operated by the
central government and serves as a national-level forensic facility.
o It is usually larger and more comprehensive in terms of infrastructure,
resources, and expertise compared to state or regional laboratories.
o CFSL may have specialized departments catering to various forensic
disciplines and advanced forensic technologies.
2. Facilities Provided:
o Advanced instrumentation and equipment for forensic analysis, including
DNA profiling, chemical analysis, spectroscopy, microscopy, etc.
o Specialized units for crime scene reconstruction, digital forensics, cybercrime
investigation, etc.
o Quality assurance and control systems to ensure the accuracy and reliability of
forensic analyses.
o Collaboration with international forensic agencies and organizations for
capacity building and knowledge exchange.

MOBILE FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY:

1. Structure:
o Mobile forensic science laboratories are designed to be portable and can be
deployed to crime scenes or disaster areas for on-site forensic analysis.
o They are usually housed in specially equipped vehicles or trailers fitted with
necessary equipment and facilities for forensic examination.
o These units may include basic laboratory equipment, evidence collection kits,
computers, and communication systems.
2. Functions:
o Rapid response to crime scenes or incidents requiring immediate forensic
examination.
o Preliminary analysis of evidence to gather crucial information or intelligence
for ongoing investigations.
o Collection and preservation of evidence in a controlled environment to
maintain its integrity.
o Collaboration with other forensic units or agencies to support comprehensive
crime investigation efforts.
DIRECTORATE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE SERVICE

The Directorate of Forensic Science Services (DFSS) is an organization dedicated to

providing scientific support to law enforcement agencies and the criminal justice system. Its
primary focus is on the application of various scientific disciplines to aid in the investigation
of crimes and the administration of justice. This can include analyzing evidence such as
fingerprints, DNA, ballistics, toxicology, and other types of physical and chemical evidence
found at crime scenes.

Forensic science plays a crucial role in modern criminal investigations, helping to establish
facts, identify suspects, and ensure the integrity of evidence presented in court. The DFSS
typically employs a team of forensic scientists, technicians, and other experts who work
together to analyze evidence and provide expert testimony when needed.

The specific structure and functions of the DFSS can vary depending on the country or
jurisdiction, but its overall mission is to use science to assist in the resolution of criminal
cases and contribute to the pursuit of justice.

Functions and responsibilities of a Directorate of Forensic Science Services:

 Evidence Analysis: The DFSS conducts analyses on various types of evidence

collected from crime scenes, such as DNA, fingerprints, firearms, drugs, and digital
evidence. This involves employing specialized forensic techniques and technologies
to identify, analyze, and interpret evidence.
 Crime Scene Investigation (CSI): DFSS personnel may assist law enforcement
agencies in processing and documenting crime scenes. They help collect, preserve,
and analyze physical evidence, as well as reconstruct events to provide insights into
criminal activities.
 Laboratory Operations: Many DFSS entities operate forensic laboratories equipped
with state-of-the-art equipment and staffed by skilled forensic scientists and
technicians. These laboratories serve as hubs for conducting detailed examinations
and analyses of evidence in a controlled environment.
 Expert Testimony: Forensic experts from the DFSS often testify in court as expert
witnesses. They provide objective opinions based on their scientific analyses to help
 judges and juries understand complex forensic evidence and its significance in
criminal cases.
 Quality Assurance: Ensuring the accuracy and reliability of forensic analyses is
paramount. The DFSS implements rigorous quality assurance measures, including
proficiency testing, accreditation, and adherence to international standards, to
maintain the integrity of its findings.
 Research and Development: To stay abreast of advancements in forensic science
and technology, the DFSS may engage in research and development activities. This
includes developing new forensic techniques, improving existing methodologies, and
collaborating with academic institutions and industry partners.
 Training and Education: The DFSS provides training and educational programs for
law enforcement personnel, forensic practitioners, and other stakeholders. These
programs cover topics such as evidence collection, forensic analysis, courtroom
procedures, and ethical standards.
 Interagency Collaboration: Collaboration with other law enforcement agencies,
forensic laboratories, legal professionals, and academic institutions is essential for the
DFSS. By sharing resources, expertise, and best practices, these partnerships enhance
the effectiveness and efficiency of forensic investigations.

IMPORTANCE OF FSL

Forensic Science Laboratories (FSLs) play a critical role in the criminal justice system by
providing scientific analysis and evidence to support investigations and prosecutions. Their
importance, the current national and international scenario, and the facilities they provide are
discussed below:Importance of Forensic Science Laboratories (FSLs)

 Evidence Analysis: FSLs analyze physical evidence collected from crime scenes,
helping to establish facts in criminal cases. This includes DNA profiling, fingerprint
analysis, drug testing, toxicology, ballistics, and more.
 Crime Solving: By providing accurate and reliable scientific data, FSLs assist in
solving crimes, identifying suspects, and exonerating the innocent.
 Legal Support: FSLs provide expert testimony in court, explaining the scientific basis
of evidence and its implications for the case.
  Technological Advancements: FSLs contribute to the development and application of
new forensic technologies and methodologies, improving the efficiency and accuracy
of criminal investigations.
 Deterrence and Prevention: The ability of FSLs to provide conclusive evidence acts as
a deterrent to criminal activities, contributing to public safety and security.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO OF FSLS

National Scenario

In many countries, including India, the network of FSLs is growing to meet the increasing
demand for forensic services:

 India: India has a well-established network of FSLs at both central and state levels.
The Central Forensic Science Laboratories (CFSLs) operate under the Ministry of
Home Affairs, while State Forensic Science Laboratories (SFSLs) operate under
respective state governments. Additionally, there are specialized forensic facilities
such as DNA labs, narcotic testing labs, and cyber forensics labs.
 United States: The U.S. has an extensive network of federal, state, and local forensic
laboratories, including the FBI Laboratory, which is one of the largest and most
comprehensive forensic laboratories in the world.
 United Kingdom: The UK has centralized forensic services provided by private
companies and the government-run Forensic Science Service until its closure in 2012.
Currently, forensic services are provided by various private and public entities.

International Scenario

Internationally, forensic science laboratories are crucial in combating cross-border crimes and
terrorism. Collaborative efforts and standardization are key focuses:

 Interpol: Interpol facilitates international cooperation among forensic scientists and

laboratories, offering training and support to enhance global forensic capabilities.
 United Nations: The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) provides technical
assistance to countries to strengthen their forensic science capabilities, particularly in
the areas of drug control, crime prevention, and counter-terrorism.
  Global Standards: Organizations like the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) develop standards to ensure the quality and reliability of
forensic laboratory processes globally.

Forensic Science Laboratories (FSLs) offer a wide range of specialized facilities to handle
various types of forensic analysis. Here‟s a detailed overview of the key facilities provided in
forensic laboratories:

Biology/DNA Section

 DNA Extraction and Quantification: Facilities equipped with automated DNA

extraction systems and real-time PCR instruments for DNA quantification.
 PCR Amplification: Thermal cyclers for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify
DNA samples.
 DNA Sequencing and Profiling: Capillary electrophoresis instruments for DNA
sequencing and profiling to match suspects with crime scene evidence.
 Biological Fluid Analysis: Equipment for identifying and analyzing biological fluids
such as blood, semen, saliva, and others.

Chemistry Section

 Drug Analysis: Gas chromatographs (GC), mass spectrometers (MS), and high-
performance liquid chromatographs (HPLC) for identifying and quantifying
controlled substances.
 Toxicology: Instruments for detecting and measuring drugs, alcohol, and poisons in
biological samples like blood, urine, and tissue.
 Explosives and Fire Debris Analysis: Specialized equipment for analyzing residues
from explosives and fire scenes.

Toxicology Section

 Immunoassay Analysers: Equipment for screening biological samples for drugs and
other toxic substances.
 Confirmatory Testing: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for confirming the presence
of toxic substances.
Ballistics Section

 Firearms Examination: Microscopes and comparison equipment for examining

firearms and ammunition to determine if a specific weapon was used in a crime.
 Tool Mark Analysis: Comparison microscopes for analyzing tool marks left at crime
scenes.

Fingerprint Section

 Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS): Databases and software for

storing, searching, and matching fingerprint records.
 Chemical Development: Equipment for developing latent fingerprints using chemical
methods such as ninhydrin, cyanoacrylate fuming, and others.
 Digital Imaging: High-resolution scanners and cameras for capturing and enhancing
fingerprint images.

Digital Forensics Section

 Data Recovery: Tools and software for recovering deleted or encrypted data from
electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and storage media.
 Analysis Software: Specialized forensic software for analyzing digital evidence,
including network traffic, emails, and social media activity.
 Mobile Forensics: Equipment for extracting and analyzing data from mobile devices.

Trace Evidence Section

 Microscopy: Various types of microscopes, including stereomicroscopes, polarized

light microscopes, and scanning electron microscopes (SEM) for analyzing trace
evidence such as hair, fibers, glass, and paint.
 Spectroscopy: Infrared (IR) and Raman spectrometers for identifying the chemical
composition of trace materials.

Questioned Documents Section

 Handwriting Analysis: Tools for examining handwriting, signatures, and alterations in

documents.
  Ink and Paper Analysis: Equipment for analysing the chemical composition of inks
and papers.
 Digital Document Examination: Software for analysing digital documents for forgery
and alterations.

Forensic Anthropology and Odontology

 Skeletal Analysis: Facilities equipped with X-ray machines and 3D imaging systems
for examining skeletal remains.
 Dental Examination: Tools for analysing dental evidence, including bite mark
analysis and dental record comparison.

Other Specialized Facilities

 Forensic Entomology: Facilities for studying insects found on decomposing bodies to

estimate the time of death.
 Forensic Pathology: Autopsy rooms equipped with necessary tools and instruments
for conducting post-mortem examinations.
 Crime Scene Investigation Units: Mobile units equipped with tools and equipment for
on-site forensic analysis and evidence collection.

Support and Ancillary Facilities

 Evidence Storage: Secure storage areas for preserving collected evidence under
controlled conditions.
 Quality Control Laboratories: Facilities for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of
forensic analyses through regular calibration and maintenance of equipment.
 Training and Research: Dedicated areas for training forensic scientists and conducting
research to develop new forensic methods and technologies.

QUESTION BANK

5 MARKS

Explain the State and Central Forensic Science laboratories.

Briefly explain the role of FSL in Criminal Investigation.

10 MARKS

Explain types of Forensic science laboratories and its functions.

Explain importance of FSL in detail.