Chapter 2

The UK trade policies in the context of globalization

Globalization (North American spelling; also Oxford spelling [UK]) or globalisation (non-Oxford British
spelling; see spelling differences) is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and
governments worldwide. The term globalization first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting an earlier
French term mondialisation), developed its current meaning sometime in the second half of the 20th century,
and came into popular use in the 1990s to describe the unprecedented international connectivity of the post–
Cold War world.[2] Its origins can be traced back to 18th and 19th centuries due to advances
in transportation and communications technology. This increase in global interactions has caused a growth in
international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture. Globalization is primarily an economic
process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects. However, disputes and
international diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern globalization.

Economically, globalization involves goods, services, data, technology, and the economic resources
of capital. The expansion of global markets liberalizes the economic activities of the exchange of goods and
funds. Removal of cross-border trade barriers has made the formation of global markets more
feasible. Advances in transportation, like the steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, and container ships, and
developments in telecommunication infrastructure such as the telegraph, the Internet, mobile phones,
and smartphones, have been major factors in globalization and have generated further interdependence of
economic and cultural activities around the globe.

Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history to long before
the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World, and some even to the third millennium BCE.
[8]
Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, and in the late 19th century and early 20th century drove a
rapid expansion in the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures. The term global city was
subsequently popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her work The Global City: New York, London,
Tokyo (1991).

In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade
and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the
dissemination of knowledge. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization,
economics, sociocultural resources, and the natural environment. Academic literature commonly divides
globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization.

Proponents of globalization point to economic growth and broader societal development as benefits, while
opponents claim globalizing processes are detrimental to social well-being due to ethnocentrism,
environmental consequences, and other potential drawbacks.

Between 1990 and 2010, globalisation progressed rapidly, driven by the information and communication
technology revolution that lowered communication costs, along with trade liberalisation and the shift of
manufacturing operations to emerging economies (particularly China).

Etymology and usage

The word globalization was used in the English language as early as the 1930s, but only in the context of
education, and the term failed to gain traction. Over the next few decades, the term was occasionally used by
other scholars and media, but it was not clearly defined. One of the first usages of the term in the meaning
resembling the later, common usage was by French economist François Perroux in his essays from the early
1960s (in his French works he used the term "mondialisation" (literarly worldization in French), also translated
as mundialization). Theodore Levitt is often credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the
mainstream business audience in the later in the middle of 1980s.

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Though often treated as synonyms, in French, globalization is seen as a stage following mondialisation, a stage
that implies the dissolution of national identities and the abolishment of borders inside the world network of
economic exchanges.

Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations. Its
antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the
15th century onward.

In 1848, Karl Marx noticed the increasing level of national inter-dependence brought on by capitalism, and
predicted the universal character of the modern world society. He states:

The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production
and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of
industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or
are daily being destroyed. . . . In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have
intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.

Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those processes by which the
people of the world are incorporated into a single world society." In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony
Giddens writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which
link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and
vice versa." In 1992, Roland Robertson, professor of sociology at the University of Aberdeen and an early
writer in the field, described globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the
consciousness of the world as a whole."

In Global Transformations, David Held and his co-writers state:

Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global
interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be on a continuum with the
local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which
are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks
which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-
temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking
together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive
spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of
globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.

Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and
impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows" was called "probably the most widely-cited
definition" in the 2014 DHL Global Connectiveness Index.

Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization, states
that globalization:

...is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the
increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody
on the other side of the world.

Paul James defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized emphasis:

Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that world-space in terms of the
historically variable ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through changing world-time.

Manfred Steger, professor of global studies and research leader in the Global Cities Institute at RMIT
University, identifies four main empirical dimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural,
and ecological. A fifth dimension—the ideological—cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension,

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according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon
itself.

James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection of four interrelated
sets of 'communities of practice' (Wenger, 1998): academics, journalists, publishers/editors, and librarians." [2]:
424
They note the term was used "in education to describe the global life of the mind"; in international
relations to describe the extension of the European Common Market, and in journalism to describe how the
"American Negro and his problem are taking on a global significance". [2] They have also argued that four
forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. [27]
[29]
According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of
people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions,
organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the
movement of commodities and other objects of exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images,
knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the
dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how,
today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of refugees and migrants are
increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and
codes are the most deregulated.

The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term "flat world", arguing that globalized
trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and
worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization
and practice would continue to grow.

Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation
of commodity, capital, and labor markets that led toward present neoliberal globalization. He used "political
globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational élite and a phasing out of the nation-state.
Meanwhile, he used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of
his usages included "ideological globalization", "technological globalization", and "social globalization".

Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming connected in
more and different ways.

"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean the fear of balloons.

Archaic
Archaic globalization

The 13th century world-system, as described by Janet

Abu-Lughod

Archaic globalization conventionally refers to a phase

in the history of globalization including globalizing
events and developments from the time of the
earliest civilizations until roughly the 1600s. This term
is used to describe the relationships between
communities and states and how they were created by
the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at
both local and regional levels.[38]

In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for

globalization to occur. The first is the idea of Eastern
Origins, which shows how Western states have
adapted and implemented learned principles from
the East.[38] Without the spread of traditional ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have

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emerged the way it did. The interactions of states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to
Asia, North Africa, the Middle East, and certain parts of Europe. With early globalization, it was difficult for
states to interact with others that were not close. Eventually, technological advances allowed states to learn of
others' existence and thus another phase of globalization can occur. The third has to do with inter-dependency,
stability, and regularity. If a state is not dependent on another, then there is no way for either state to be
mutually affected by the other. This is one of the driving forces behind global connections and trade; without
either, globalization would not have emerged the way it did and states would still be dependent on their
own production and resources to work. This is one of the arguments surrounding the idea of early
globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did not function in a similar manner to modern
globalization because states were not as interdependent on others as they are today.

Also posited is a "multi-polar" nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active participation of non-
Europeans. Because it predated the Great Divergence in the nineteenth century, where Western Europe pulled
ahead of the rest of the world in terms of industrial production and economic output, archaic globalization was
a phenomenon that was driven not only by Europe but also by other economically developed Old
World centers such as Gujarat, Bengal, coastal China, and Japan.

Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th-century Japanese Nanban art

The German historical economist and sociologist Andre Gunder

Frank argues that a form of globalization began with the rise of trade
links between Sumer and the Indus Valley civilization in the third
millennium BCE. This archaic globalization existed during
the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers enveloped the
axis of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain,
including Alexandria and the other Alexandrine cities. Early on, the
geographic position of Greece and the necessity of importing wheat
forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient Greece
was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain.

The Silk Road in the 1st centuryNative New World crops exchanged globally (clockwise): Maize, tomato,
potato, vanilla, rubber, cacao, tobacco

Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of civilizations from China, the Indian
subcontinent, Persia, Europe, and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic interactions between
them. Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, common goods such as salt and sugar were
traded as well; and religions, syncretic philosophies, and various technologies, as well as diseases, also
traveled along the Silk Routes. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road served as a means of carrying out
cultural trade among the civilizations along its network. The movement of people, such as refugees, artists,
craftsmen, missionaries, robbers, and envoys, resulted in the exchange of religions, art, languages, and new
technologies.

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Early modern
Proto-globalization

"Early modern" or "proto-globalization" covers a period of the history of globalization roughly spanning the
years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of "proto-globalization" was first introduced by historians A. G.
Hopkins and Christopher Bayly. The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange
that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high "modern globalization" in the late 19th
century. This phase of globalization was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 15th
and 17th centuries, first the Portuguese Empire (1415) followed by the Spanish Empire (1492), and later
the Dutch and British Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when chartered
companies like the British East India Company (founded in 1600) and the Dutch East India Company (founded
in 1602, often described as the first multinational corporation in which stock was offered) were established.

Lisbon in the 1570s had many Africans due to the Atlantic slave trade.

An alternative view from historians Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giraldez,

postulated that: globalization began with the first circumnavigation of
the globe under the Magellan-Elcano expedition which preluded the
rise of global silver trade.

Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization

on the basis of expansionism, the method of managing global trade,
and the level of information exchange. The period is marked by the shift of hegemony to Western Europe, the
rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Years' War, and demand for
commodities, most particularly slaves. The triangular trade made it possible for Europe to take advantage of
resources within the Western Hemisphere. The transfer of animal stocks, plant crops, and epidemic diseases
associated with Alfred W. Crosby's concept of the Columbian exchange also played a central role in this
process. European, Middle Eastern, Indian, Southeast Asian, and Chinese merchants were all involved in early
modern trade and communications, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.

The 1843 launch of the Great Britain, the revolutionary ship of Isambard Kingdom BrunelDuring the 19th and
early 20th centuries, the United Kingdom was a global superpower.

Modern
According to economic historians Kevin H. O'Rourke, Leandro Prados de la Escosura, and Guillaume Daudin,
several factors promoted globalization in the period 1815–1870:

 The conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars brought in an era of relative peace in Europe.
 Innovations in transportation technology reduced trade costs substantially.
 New industrial military technologies increased the power of European states and the United States, and
allowed these powers to forcibly open up markets across the world and extend their empires.
 A gradual move towards greater liberalization in European countries.

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During the 19th century, globalization approached its form as a direct result of the Industrial
Revolution. Industrialization allowed standardized production of household items using economies of
scale while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. In the 19th century,
steamships reduced the cost of international transportation significantly and railroads made inland
transportation cheaper. The transportation revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850. [37] More
nations embraced international trade.[37] Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-
century imperialism such as in Africa and Asia. The invention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance
the globalization of commerce.

After World War II, work by politicians led to the agreements of the Bretton Woods Conference, in which
major governments laid down the framework for international monetary policy, commerce, and finance, and
the founding of several international institutions intended to facilitate economic growth by lowering trade
barriers. Initially, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) led to a series of agreements to remove
trade restrictions. GATT's successor was the World Trade Organization (WTO), which provided a framework
for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute resolution process. Exports nearly doubled
from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001. [50] The approach of using global agreements
to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the Doha Development Round of trade negotiation. Many
countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011 United States–Korea
Free Trade Agreement.

Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries. Open
skies policies and low-cost carriers have helped to bring competition to the market. In the 1990s, the growth of
low-cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between countries. More work can be
performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting, software development, and
engineering design.

Student exchange programs became popular after World War II, and are intended to increase the participants'
understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as improving their language skills and broadening their
social horizons. Between 1963 and 2006 the number of students studying in a foreign country increased 9
times.

D.H. Comet, the world's first commercial jet airliner, entered service in
1949.

Since the 1980s, modern globalization has spread rapidly through the
expansion of capitalism and neoliberal ideologies. The implementation
of neoliberal policies has allowed for the privatization of public
industry, deregulation of laws or policies that interfered with the free
flow of the market, as well as cut-backs to governmental social
services. These neoliberal policies were introduced to many developing
countries in the form of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) that were implemented by the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These programs required that the country receiving monetary aid
would open its markets to capitalism, privatize public industry, allow free trade, cut social services like
healthcare and education and allow the free movement of giant multinational corporations. These programs
allowed the World Bank and the IMF to become global financial market regulators that would promote
neoliberalism and the creation of free markets for multinational corporations on a global scale.

With a population of 1.4 billion, China is the world's second-largest

economy.

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In the late 19th and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very
quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World Wars and the Cold War, but picked up
again in the 1980s and 1990s. The revolutions of 1989 and subsequent liberalization in many parts of the world
resulted in a significant expansion of global interconnectedness. The migration and movement of people can
also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization process. In the period between 1965 and 1990,
the proportion of the labor force migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between
the developing countries and least developed countries (LDCs). As economic integration intensified workers
moved to areas with higher wages and most of the developing world oriented toward the international market
economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union not only ended the Cold War's division of the world – it also left
the United States its sole policeman and an unfettered advocate of free market. It also resulted in the growing
prominence of attention focused on the movement of diseases, the proliferation of popular culture and
consumer values, the growing prominence of international institutions like the UN, and concerted international
action on such issues as the environment and human rights. Other developments as dramatic were the Internet's
becoming influential in connecting people across the world; As of June 2012, more than 2.4 billion people—
over a third of the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet. Growth of globalization
has never been smooth. One influential event was the late 2000s recession, which was associated with lower
growth (in areas such as cross-border phone calls and Skype usage) or even temporarily negative growth (in
areas such as trade) of global interconnectedness.

The China–United States trade war, starting in 2018, negatively affected trade between the two largest national
economies. The economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic included a massive decline in tourism and
international business travel as many countries temporarily closed borders. The 2021–2022 global supply chain
crisis resulted from temporary shutdowns of manufacturing and transportation facilities, and labor shortages.
Supply problems incentivized some switches to domestic production. [64] The economic impact of the 2022
Russian invasion of Ukraine included a blockade of Ukrainian ports and international sanctions on Russia,
resulting in some de-coupling of the Russian economy with global trade, especially with the European Union
and other Western countries.

Modern consensus for the last 15 years regards globalization as having run its course and gone into decline. A
common argument for this is that trade has dropped since its peak in 2008, and never recovered since the Great
Recession. New opposing views from some economists have argued such trends are a result of price drops and
in actuality, trade volume is increasing, especially with agricultural products, natural resources and refined
petroleum.

Economic globalization
Singapore is the top country in the Enabling Trade Index as of 2016.U.S. Trade Balance and Trade

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Policy (1895–2015) Dividends worth CZK 289 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in
2016.
Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world
through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, services, technology, and capital. Whereas the
globalization of business is centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as tariffs,
taxes, and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is the process of
increasing economic integration between countries, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a
single world market. Depending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed as either a positive or
a negative phenomenon. Economic globalization comprises: globalization of production; which refers to the
obtainment of goods and services from a particular source from locations around the globe to benefit from
difference in cost and quality. Likewise, it also comprises globalization of markets; which is defined as the
union of different and separate markets into a massive global marketplace. Economic globalization also
includes competition, technology, and corporations and industries.

Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed economies integrating with less
developed economies by means of foreign direct investment, the reduction of trade barriers as well as other
economic reforms, and, in many cases, immigration.

International standards have made trade in goods and services more efficient. An example of such standard is
the intermodal container. Containerization dramatically reduced the costs of transportation, supported the post-
war boom in international trade, and was a major element in globalization. International standards are set by
the International Organization for Standardization, which is composed of representatives from various
national standards organizations.

A multinational corporation, or worldwide enterprise, is an organization that owns or controls the production
of goods or services in one or more countries other than their home country. It can also be referred to as an
international corporation, a transnational corporation, or a stateless corporation.

A free-trade area is the region encompassing a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free-
trade agreement (FTA). Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade
barriers – import quotas and tariffs – and to increase trade of goods and services with each other.

If people are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free-trade agreement, it would also be
considered an open border. Arguably, the most significant free-trade area in the world is the European Union,
a politico-economic union of 27 member states that are primarily located in Europe. The EU has
developed European Single Market through a standardized system of laws that apply in all member states. EU
policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market,

Trade facilitation looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of goods across national
borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and maximize efficiency while safeguarding
legitimate regulatory objectives.

Global trade in services is also significant. For example, in India, business process outsourcing has been
described as the "primary engine of the country's development over the next few decades, contributing broadly
to GDP growth, employment growth, and poverty alleviation".

William I. Robinson's theoretical approach to globalization is a critique of Wallerstein's World Systems

Theory. He believes that the global capital experienced today is due to a new and distinct form of globalization
which began in the 1980s. Robinson argues not only are economic activities expanded across national
boundaries but also there is a transnational fragmentation of these activities. One important aspect of
Robinson's globalization theory is that production of goods are increasingly global. This means that one pair of
shoes can be produced by six countries, each contributing to a part of the production process.

Cultural globalization

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 Shakira, a Colombian multilingual singer-songwriter, playing outside her home
country
Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values
around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. This
process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been
diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel. This
has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization which have a
longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the globe. The circulation of
cultures enables individuals to partake in extended social relations that cross
national and regional borders. The creation and expansion of such social
relations is not merely observed on a material level. Cultural globalization
involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people
associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing
interconnectedness among different populations and cultures.

Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds
communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across
cultures. Intercultural communication is a related field of study.

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages etc.
Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts, but may be accompanied by a decrease in the
uniqueness of once-isolated communities. For example, sushi is available in Germany as well as Japan,
but Euro-Disney outdraws the city of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French
pastry. Globalization's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest
compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged by existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert
Camus. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the
Internet and satellite television. The cultural diffusion can create a homogenizing force, where globalization is
seen as synonymous with homogenizing force via connectedness of markets, cultures, politics and the desire
for modernizations through imperial countries sphere of influence.

Religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, being spread by force, migration, evangelists,
imperialists, and traders. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and more recently sects such as Mormonism are
among those religions which have taken root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.

McDonald's is commonly seen as a symbol of globalization, often

called McDonaldization of global society.
Globalization has strongly influenced sports. For example, the
modern Olympic Games has athletes from more than 200 nations
participating in a variety of competitions. The FIFA World Cup is the
most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world,
exceeding even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the entire population of
the planet watched the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final.

The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices

including traditional music can be lost or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of
emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to collect, record, or transcribe
repertoires before melodies are assimilated or modified, while local musicians may struggle
for authenticity and to preserve local musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard
traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.

Music has an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization. Music genres such as
jazz and reggae began locally and later became international phenomena. Globalization gave support to
the world music phenomenon by allowing music from developing countries to reach broader
audiences. Though the term "World Music" was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, globalization is

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now expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world fusion", "global
fusion", "ethnic fusion", and worldbeat.

Use of chili pepper has spread from the Americas to cuisines around
the world, including Thailand, Korea, China, and Italy.
Bourdieu claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as
self-identification and the formation of identity. Musically, this
translates into each individual having their own musical identity based
on likes and tastes. These likes and tastes are greatly influenced by
culture, as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and
behavior. The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of
change due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the
interdependency of political, personal, cultural, and economic factors.

A 2005 UNESCO report showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia, but that
Western countries are still the main exporters of cultural goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter
of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European
Union's shares of cultural exports declined while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America.
Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America .
Americanization is related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's
shops, markets and objects being brought into other countries.

Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As a dominating country's culture is
introduced into a receiving country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local
culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to Westernization or Americanization of culture,
where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and
cause harm to local cultures.

Globalization is a diverse phenomenon that relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of
cultural objects and markets between countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the
impact of cultural globalization.

Transculturalism is defined as "seeing oneself in the other". Transcultural is in turn described as "extending
through all human cultures" or "involving, encompassing, or combining elements of more than
one culture". Children brought up in transcultural backgrounds are sometimes called third-culture kids.

Political globalization

The United Nations headquarters in New York City

Political globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide political system, both in size and complexity. That
system includes national governments, their governmental and intergovernmental organizations as well as
government-independent elements of global civil society such as international non-governmental
organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of the political globalization is the
declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. William R.
Thompson has defined it as "the expansion of a global political system, and its institutions, in which inter-
regional transactions (including, but certainly not limited to trade) are managed". Political globalization is one
of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other
being economic globalization and cultural globalization.

Intergovernmentalism is a term in political science with two meanings. The first refers to a theory of regional
integration originally proposed by Stanley Hoffmann; the second treats states and the national government as
the primary factors for integration. Multi-level governance is an approach in political science and public
administration theory that originated from studies on European integration. Multi-level governance gives
expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emergent global

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political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement between the domestic and international levels of
authority.

Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. Multiple citizenship, also called dual citizenship or multiple
nationality or dual nationality, is a person's citizenship status, in which a person is concurrently regarded as a
citizen of more than one state under the laws of those states.

U.S. military presence around the world in 2007. As of

2015, the U.S. still had many bases and troops stationed
globally.

Increasingly, non-governmental organizations influence public policy across national boundaries,

including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[108] Philanthropic organizations with global missions are
also coming to the forefront of humanitarian efforts; charities such as the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation, Accion International, the Acumen Fund (now Acumen) and the Echoing Green have combined
the business model with philanthropy, giving rise to business organizations such as the Global Philanthropy
Group and new associations of philanthropists such as the Global Philanthropy Forum. The Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation projects include a current multibillion-dollar commitment to funding immunizations in some
of the world's more impoverished but rapidly growing countries. The Hudson Institute estimates total private
philanthropic flows to developing countries at US$59 billion in 2010.
As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced isolationist policies. For example, the North
Korean government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their
activities when they do. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions
the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.

Globalization and gender

Globalization has been a gendered process where giant multinational corporations have outsourced jobs to
low-wage, low skilled, quota free economies like the ready made garment industry in Bangladesh where poor
women make up the majority of labor force. Despite a large proportion of women workers in the garment
industry, women are still heavily underemployed compared to men. Most women that are employed in the
garment industry come from the countryside of Bangladesh triggering migration of women in search of
garment work. It is still unclear as to whether or not access to paid work for women where it did not exist
before has empowered them. The answers varied depending on whether it is the employers perspective or the
workers and how they view their choices. Women workers did not see the garment industry as economically
sustainable for them in the long run due to long hours standing and poor working conditions. Although women
workers did show significant autonomy over their personal lives including their ability to negotiate with
family, more choice in marriage, and being valued as a wage earner in the family. This did not translate into
workers being able to collectively organize themselves in order to negotiate a better deal for themselves at
work.
Another example of outsourcing in manufacturing includes the maquiladora industry in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico
where poor women make up the majority of the labor force. Women in the maquiladora industry have
produced high levels of turnover not staying long enough to be trained compared to men. A gendered two
tiered system within the maquiladora industry has been created that focuses on training and worker loyalty.
Women are seen as being untrainable, placed in un-skilled, low wage jobs, while men are seen as more
trainable with less turnover rates, and placed in more high skilled technical jobs. The idea of training has
become a tool used against women to blame them for their high turnover rates which also benefit the industry
keeping women as temporary workers.

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Other dimensions
Scholars also occasionally discuss other, less common dimensions of globalization, such as environmental
globalization (the internationally coordinated practices and regulations, often in the form of international
treaties, regarding environmental protection) or military globalization (growth in global extent and scope of
security relationships). Those dimensions, however, receive much less attention the three described above, as
academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural
globalization and political globalization.

Movement of people

Scheduled airline traffic in 2009

An essential aspect of globalization is movement of people, and state-
boundary limits on that movement have changed across history. The
movement of tourists and business people opened up over the last
century. As transportation technology improved, travel time and costs
decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. For
example, travel across the Atlantic Ocean used to take up to 5 weeks in
the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days. Today, modern aviation has
made long-distance transportation quick and affordable.

Tourism is travel for pleasure. The developments in technology and transportation infrastructure, such
as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more
affordable. At any given moment half a million people are in the air. [119] International tourist arrivals surpassed
the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012. A visa is a conditional authorization
granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and temporarily remain within, or to leave that
country. Some countries – such as those in the Schengen Area – have agreements with other countries allowing
each other's citizens to travel between them without visas (for example, Switzerland is part of a Schengen
Agreement allowing easy travel for people from countries within the European Union). The World Tourism
Organization announced that the number of tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level
ever in 2015.

Immigration is the international movement of people into a destination country of which they are not natives or
where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle or reside there, especially as permanent
residents or naturalized citizens, or to take-up employment as a migrant worker or temporarily as a foreign
worker. According to the International Labour Organization, as of 2014 there were an estimated 232 million
international migrants in the world (defined as persons outside their country of origin for 12 months or more)
and approximately half of them were estimated to be economically active (i.e. being employed or seeking
employment). International movement of labor is often seen as important to economic development. For
example, freedom of movement for workers in the European Union means that people can move freely
between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country.

2010 London Youth Games opening ceremony. About 69% of children

born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.
Globalization is associated with a dramatic rise in international
education. The development of global cross-cultural competence in the
workforce through ad-hoc training has deserved increasing attention in
recent times. More and more students are seeking higher education in
foreign countries and many international students now consider
overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a
country.[129] The contributions that foreign students make to host nation
economies, both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further initiatives to
facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including substantial amendments to immigration and
visa policies and procedures.

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A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues
arise in marriages between people from different countries, including those related to citizenship and culture,
which add complexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing globalization,
where a growing number of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather than to a
current geographic location, people are increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational
marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of people.

Movement of information
Internet users by region
Region 2005 2010 2017 2023
Africa 2% 10% 21.8% 37%
Americas 36% 49% 65.9% 87%
Arab States 8% 26% 43.7% 69%
Asia and Pacific 9% 23% 43.9% 66%
Commonwealth of
10% 34% 67.7% 89%
Independent States
Europe 46% 67% 79.6% 91%
The global digital divide: Computers per 100 people per 2006
Before electronic communications, long-distance
communications relied on mail. Speed of global
communications was limited by the maximum speed of
courier services (especially horses and ships) until the mid-
19th century. The electric telegraph was the first method of
instant long-distance communication. For example, before
the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe
and the Americas took weeks because ships had to carry mail
across the ocean. The first transatlantic cable reduced
communication time considerably, allowing a message and a
response in the same day. Lasting transatlantic telegraph
connections were achieved in the 1865–1866. The first
wireless telegraphy transmitters were developed in 1895.

The Internet has been instrumental in connecting people across geographical boundaries. For
example, Facebook is a social networking service which has more than 1.65 billion monthly active users as of
31 March 2016.

Globalization can be spread by Global journalism which provides massive information and relies on the
internet to interact, "makes it into an everyday routine to investigate how people and their actions, practices,
problems, life conditions, etc. in different parts of the world are interrelated. possible to assume that global
threats such as climate change precipitate the further establishment of global journalism."

Globalization and disease

In the current era of globalization, the world is more interdependent than at any other time. Efficient and
inexpensive transportation has left few places inaccessible, and increased global trade has brought more and
more people into contact with animal diseases that have subsequently jumped species barriers (see zoonosis).

Coronavirus disease 2019, abbreviated COVID-19, first appeared in Wuhan, China in November 2019. More
than 180 countries have reported cases since then. As of April 6, 2020, the U.S. has the most confirmed active
cases in the world.[135] More than 3.4 million people from the worst-affected countries entered the U.S. in the
first three months since the inception of the COVID-19 pandemic. This has caused a detrimental impact on the

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global economy, particularly for SME's and Microbusinesses with unlimited liability/self-employed, leaving
them vulnerable to financial difficulties, increasing the market share for oligopolistic markets as well as
increasing the barriers of entry.

International cooperation

Barack Obama and Dmitry Medvedev after signing the New

START treaty in Prague, 2010

Military cooperation – Past examples of international cooperation

exist. One example is the security cooperation between the United
States and the former Soviet Union after the end of the Cold War,
which astonished international society. Arms control and disarmament
agreements, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
(see START I, START II, START III, and New START) and the establishment of NATO's Partnership for
Peace, the Russia NATO Council, and the G8 Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials
of Mass Destruction, constitute concrete initiatives of arms control and de-nuclearization. The US–Russian
cooperation was further strengthened by anti-terrorism agreements enacted in the wake of 9/11.

Environmental cooperation – One of the biggest successes of environmental cooperation has been the
agreement to reduce chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions, as specified in the Montreal Protocol, in order to
stop ozone depletion. The most recent debate around nuclear energy and the non-alternative coal-burning
power plants constitutes one more consensus on what not to do. Thirdly, significant achievements in IC can be
observed through development studies.

Economic cooperation – One of the biggest challenges in 2019 with globalization is that many believe the
progress made in the past decades are now back tracking. The back tracking of globalization has coined the
term "Slobalization." Slobalization is a new, slower pattern of globalization.

Anti-globalization movement

Anti-TTIP demonstration in Hannover, Germany, 2016

Anti-globalization, or counter-globalization, consists of a number of

criticisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the
globalization of corporate capitalism. The movement is also commonly
referred to as the alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist
movement, anti-corporate globalization movement, or movement
against neoliberal globalization. Opponents of globalization argue that
power and respect in terms of international trade between the
developed and underdeveloped countries of the world are unequally distributed. The diverse subgroups that
make up this movement include some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, land
rights and indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights and sustainable development,
opponents of privatization, and anti-sweatshop campaigners.

In The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy, Christopher Lasch analyzed the widening gap
between the top and bottom of the social composition in the United States. For him, our epoch is determined
by a social phenomenon: the revolt of the elites, in reference to The Revolt of the Masses (1929) by the Spanish
philosopher José Ortega y Gasset. According to Lasch, the new elites, i.e. those who are in the top 20% in
terms of income, through globalization which allows total mobility of capital, no longer live in the same world
as their fellow-citizens. In this, they oppose the old bourgeoisie of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
which was constrained by its spatial stability to a minimum of rooting and civic obligations. Globalization,
according to the sociologist, has turned elites into tourists in their own countries. The denationalization of

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business enterprise tends to produce a class who see themselves as "world citizens, but without accepting ...
any of the obligations that citizenship in a polity normally implies". Their ties to an international culture of
work, leisure, information – make many of them deeply indifferent to the prospect of national decline. Instead
of financing public services and the public treasury, new elites are investing their money in improving their
voluntary ghettos: private schools in their residential neighborhoods, private police, garbage collection
systems. They have "withdrawn from common life". Composed of those who control the international flows of
capital and information, who preside over philanthropic foundations and institutions of higher education,
manage the instruments of cultural production and thus fix the terms of public debate. So, the political debate
is limited mainly to the dominant classes and political ideologies lose all contact with the concerns of the
ordinary citizen. The result of this is that no one has a likely solution to these problems and that there are
furious ideological battles on related issues. However, they remain protected from the problems affecting the
working classes: the decline of industrial activity, the resulting loss of employment, the decline of the middle
class, increasing the number of the poor, the rising crime rate, growing drug trafficking, the urban crisis.

D.A. Snow et al. contend that the anti-globalization movement is an example of a new social movement, which
uses tactics that are unique and use different resources than previously used before in other social movements.

One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the Battle of Seattle in 1999, where there were protests
against the World Trade Organization's Third Ministerial Meeting. All over the world, the movement has held
protests outside meetings of institutions such as the WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World
Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of Eight (G8). Within the Seattle demonstrations the
protesters that participated used both creative and violent tactics to gain the attention towards the issue of
globalization.

Opposition to capital market integration

World Bank Protester, Jakarta, Indonesia

Capital markets have to do with raising and investing money in

various human enterprises. Increasing integration of these financial
markets between countries leads to the emergence of a global capital
marketplace or a single world market. In the long run, increased
movement of capital between countries tends to favor owners of
capital more than any other group; in the short run, owners and
workers in specific sectors in capital-exporting countries bear much
of the burden of adjusting to increased movement of capital.

Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of human

rights issues are especially disturbed by the various abuses which they think are perpetuated by global and
international institutions that, they say, promote neoliberalism without regard to ethical standards. Common
targets include the World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade treaties like
the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA),
the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). In
light of the economic gap between rich and poor countries, movement adherents claim free trade without
measures in place to protect the under-capitalized will contribute only to the strengthening the power of
industrialized nations (often termed the "North" in opposition to the developing world's "South").

Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism

Corporatist ideology, which privileges the rights of corporations (artificial or juridical persons) over those
of natural persons, is an underlying factor in the recent rapid expansion of global commerce. In recent years,
there have been an increasing number of books (Naomi Klein's 2000 No Logo, for example) and films
(e.g. The Corporation & Surplus) popularizing an anti-corporate ideology to the public.

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A related contemporary ideology, consumerism, which encourages the personal acquisition of goods and
services, also drives globalization. Anti-consumerism is a social movement against equating personal
happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions. Concern over the treatment of
consumers by large corporations has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation of consumer
education into school curricula. Social activists hold materialism is connected to global retail
merchandizing and supplier convergence, war, greed, anomie, crime, environmental degradation, and general
social malaise and discontent. One variation on this topic is activism by postconsumers, with the strategic
emphasis on moving beyond addictive consumerism.

2.1 Three perspectives on globalization

What are the three 3 perspectives in globalization?
It also explores different perspectives on globalization, such as the hyper globalist, skeptical, and
transformationalist perspectives. These theories and perspectives help us understand the complex dynamics of
our interconnected world.
 Hyperglobalists believe: We are living in a truly globalized world, i.e. that all activities are in some
way linked to globalization. Our civilization rests on a global economy and global government
institutions (like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations)
 What is sceptical perspective in globalization?
In short, skeptics reject the idea of global governance. They believe that what is happening in the name
of globalization is internationalism, regionalism, and neo-liberal policies created by the capitalist
order, but nothing else.
 Transformationalists also believe that globalisation can be reversed, especially where it is negative or,
at the very least, that it can be controlled. Examples of supporting evidence for the transformationalist
view of globalisation include increasing cultural hybridity and detraditionalisation.

What are the 3 ideologies of globalization?

'Ideologies of globalization: market globalism, justice globalism, religious globalisms' investigates the
ideologies underlying globalization, which endow it with values and meanings. Market globalism advocates
promise a consumerist, neoliberal, free-market world.
 Market globalism is one aspect of globalization, associated with free market ideology. This involves
the different countries having free trade with each other, without government restrictions. Market
globalism can be complemented by other globalisms, like justice globalism.
 Justice globalism views a future in which laws are integrated across nations despite cultural
differences and the world is subject to laws enforced by international courts. An example of justice
globalism would be the actions or formation of the World Social Forum.
 Religious globalisms strive for a global religious community with superiority over secular structures.
Keywords: civil society, democracy, globalization, justice, market, neoliberalism.

What is the 3 approach to globalization?

Types of globalization: Economic, political, cultural. There are three types of globalization. Economic
globalization. This type of globalization focuses on the integration of international financial markets and the
coordination of financial exchange.

What are the three main theories of globalization?

The three theories of globalization are the world system theory, the world polity theory and the world culture
theory. Each of these theories have pros and cons, but I tend to lean more towards the world polity theory.

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 What is the three 3 types of globalization?
Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, sociocultural
resources, and the natural environment. Academic literature commonly divides globalization into three major
areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization.
 Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the
growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and
wide and rapid spread of technologies.
 Cultural globalization refers to the diffusion of ideas, values, and ways of life, as well as the creation
of a global conscience, through technology, communication mediums, and transportation (Moghadam,
2005).
 Political globalization can be seen in changes such as democratization of the world, creation of the
global civil society, and moving beyond the centrality of the nation-state, particularly as the sole actor
in the field of politics.

What are the perspectives on globalisation?

The perspectives on globalization include the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the
hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective. Proponents of each of these perspectives see
globalization and its processes differently.
What are the 3 conceptual basis of globalization?
These are: 1. 'globalisation' understood as being about transference, 2. 'globalisation' understood as being about
transformation, and 3. 'globalisation' understood as being about transcendence.

What is globalization 3 examples?

Thus, globalization can be defined as the stretching of economic, political, and social relationships in space
and time. A manufacturer assembling a product for a distant market, a country submitting to international law,
and a language adopting a foreign loanword are all examples of globalization.
What are the three 3 main driving forces of globalization?
The three most important forces of globalization are:
 Technology changes.
 Free trade and development of transportation.
 Transnational companies.

What are the three theories of globalization?

The Tripartite Cultural Globalization Models As said above, Jan Nederveen Pieterse (1996) has outlined three
major cultural tendencies in the age of globalization: homogenization, hybridization, and polarization.
What are the three dominant views of globalization?
According to Steger, there are three main types of globalisms (ideologies that endow the concept of
globalization with particular values and meanings): market globalism, justice globalism, and religious
globalisms. Steger defines them as follows:

What are the three alternative perspectives of globalisation?

Understanding Globalization and its Alternative Perspectives. Globalization is a an economic concept, but it
has also political, cultural, technological dimensions.
What is the 3 importance of globalization?
Beyond all the impressive numbers about the extent of globalization, what kind of impact is it having on
national economies? There are at least three fundamental blessings of globalization on nations that embrace
it: faster economic growth, reductions in poverty, and more fertile soil for democracy.
What are the 3 forms of economic globalization?

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 Elements of economic globalization

The growth in cross-border economic activities takes five principal forms: (1) international trade; (2) foreign
direct investment; (3) capital market flows; (4) migration (movement of labor); and (5) diffusion of technology
(Stiglitz, 2003).

What are the three models of globalization?

In the final three models of table 1, we split the Total Globalization independent variable into its three major
components: Social Globalization, Economic Globalization, and Political Globalization.

What are the three eras of globalization?

The World Is Flat
 “Globalization 1.0” occurred from 1492 until about 1800. In this era, globalization was centered around
countries. ...
 “Globalization 2.0” occurred from about 1800 until 2000, interrupted only by the two World Wars. ...
 “Globalization 3.0” is our current era, beginning in the year 2000.

2.2 British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Globalization

How did Tony Blair change Britain?

During his first term as prime minister, Blair raised taxes; introduced a National Minimum Wage and some
new employment rights; introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people in
the Civil Partnership Act 2004; and signed treaties integrating the UK more closely with the EU.

What was Tony Blair known for?

With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister, and the
first person (and the only one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories.

Blair in 1997
Premiership of Tony Blair
2 May 1997 – 27 June 2007
Monarch Elizabeth II

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 Cabinet First Blair ministry
Second Blair ministry
Third Blair ministry
Party Labour
Election 1997
2001
2005
Seat 10 Downing Street

Blair's first term saw an extensive programme of changes to the constitution. The Human Rights Act was
introduced in 1998; a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly were established following referendums held
with a majority voting in favour; most hereditary peers were removed from the House of Lords in 1999;
the Greater London Authority and the position of Mayor of London were established in 2000; and the Freedom
of Information Act was passed later in the same year, with its provisions coming into effect over the following
decade. This last Act disappointed campaigners, whose hopes had been raised by a 1997 White Paper which
had promised more robust legislation.[9] Blair later described the FoIA as one of his "biggest regrets", [10] writing
in his autobiography, "I quake at the imbecility of it." Whether the House of Lords should be fully appointed,
fully elected, or be subject to a combination of the two remains a disputed question to the present day. 2003
saw a series of inconclusive votes on the subject in the House of Commons.

Significant change took place to legislation relating to rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people
during Blair's period in office. During his first term, the age of consent for homosexuals was equalised at
sixteen years of age (see Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000) and the ban on homosexuals in the armed
forces was lifted. Subsequently, in 2005, a Civil Partnership Act came into effect, allowing gay couples to
form legally recognised partnerships with the same rights as a traditional heterosexual marriage. At the end of
September 2006, more than 30,000 Britons had entered into Civil Partnerships as a result of this law.
[12]
Adoption by same-sex couples was legalised, and discrimination in the workplace ( Employment Equality
(Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003), and in relation to the provision of goods and services (Equality Act
(Sexual Orientation) Regulations) were both made illegal. Transgender people were given the right to change
their birth certificate to reflect their new gender as a result of the Gender Recognition Act 2004.

Social policies
During his first term as prime minister, Blair raised taxes; introduced a National Minimum Wage and some
new employment rights; introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people in
the Civil Partnership Act 2004; and signed treaties integrating the UK more closely with the EU. He
introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced student tuition
fees; sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments, and introduced tough anti-terrorism and identity
card legislation. Under Blair's government, the amount of new legislation increased which attracted criticism.
[17]
Blair increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsory DNA
recording and the use of dispersal orders.

Under the years of the Blair ministry, expenditure on social services was increased, while various anti-poverty
measures were introduced. From 2001 to 2005, public spending increased by an average of 4.8% in real terms,
while spending on transport went up by 8.5% per annum, health by 8.2% per annum, and education by 5.4%
per annum. Between 1997 and 2005, child poverty was more than halved in absolute terms as a result of
measures such as the extension of maternity pay, increases in child benefit, and by the growth in the numbers
of people in employment. During that same period, the number of pensioners living in poverty fell by over
75% in absolute terms as a result of initiatives such as the introduction of Winter Fuel Payments, the reduction
of VAT on fuel, and the introduction of a Minimum Income Guarantee. To reduce poverty traps for those
making the transition from welfare to work, a minimum wage was established, together with a Working Tax

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Credit and a Child Tax Credit. Together with various tax credit schemes to supplement low earnings, the Blair
Government's policies significantly increased the earnings of the lowest income decile. In addition, under the
Working Time Regulations of 1998, British workers gained a statutory entitlement to paid holidays.

Between 1997 and 2003, spending on early years education and childcare rose in real terms from £2.0 billion
to £3.6 billion. During Blair's first term in office, 100 "Early Excellence" centres opened, together with new
nurseries, while 500 Sure Start projects began. Although the number of children fell, the amount of state
support to families with children increased, with money paid only to them (child contingent support) going up
by 52% in real terms from 1999 to 2005. The Blair ministry also extended to three-year-olds the right to a free
nursery place for half a day Monday to Friday. Tax credits assisted some 300,000 families (at January 2004)
with childcare costs, while the 2004 budget exempted the first £50 of weekly payments to nannies and
childminders from tax and National Insurance, restricted to couples earning not more than £43,000 per annum.
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 extended a legal right to walk to about 3,200 square miles of
open countryside, mainly in the North of England.

During its first year in office, the Blair Government made the controversial decision of cutting Lone Parent
Benefit, which led to abstentions amongst many Labour MPs. In March 1998, however, Brown responded in
his Budget statement by increasing child benefit by £2.50 a week above the rate of inflation, the largest ever
increase in the benefit. Public expenditure on education, health, and social security rose more rapidly under the
Blair government than it did under previous Labour governments, the latter due to initiatives such as the
introduction of the Working Families Tax Credit and increases in pensions and child benefits. During the Blair
Government's time in office, incomes for the bottom 10% of earners increased as a result of transfers through
the social security system.

New rights for workers were introduced such as extended parental rights, a significant raising of the maximum
compensation figure for unfair dismissal, a restoration of the qualifying period for protection against unfair
dismissal to twelve months, and the right to be accompanied by a trade union official during a disciplinary or
grievance hearing, whether or not a trade union is recognised. In addition, an Employee Relation Act was
passed which introduced for the first time ever, the legal right of employees to trade union representation. In
2003, the Working Families Tax Credit was split into two benefits: a Working Tax Credit which was payable
to all those in work, and a Child Tax Credit which was payable to all families with children, whether in work
or not. During Blair's time in office, over 2,000,000 people had been lifted out of poverty.

A proportional voting system was introduced for the election of Britain's MEPs, while legislation changing
executive structures in local government was passed. Regional Development Agencies were set up in the 8
English regions outside London, and changes were made to the regulation of political parties and referendums,
with the introduction of a new Electoral Commission and stricter spending rules. In addition, voting
experiments resulted in an opening up of postal voting and reform of electoral registration, while the right of
hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords was largely abolished after 700 years. In addition, the Water
Industries Act 1999 ended the right of water companies to disconnect supplies "as a sanction against non-
payment.

Immigration
Non-European immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of
the government's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997. This change made it easier for UK
residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. A former government advisor, Andrew Neather, stated in
the Evening Standard that the deliberate policy of ministers from late-2000 until early-2008 was to open up the
UK to mass migration.

Foreign policy
In 1999, Blair planned and presided over the declaration of the Kosovo War. While in opposition, the Labour
Party had criticised the Conservatives for their perceived weakness during the Bosnian war, and Blair was
among those urging a strong line by NATO against Slobodan Milošević. Blair was criticised both by those on
the left who opposed the war in principle and by some others who believed that the Serbs were fighting a

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legitimate war of self-defence. One month into the war, on 22 April 1999, Blair made a speech in Chicago
setting out his "Doctrine of the International Community". This later became known by the media as the "Blair
doctrine", and played a part in Blair's decision to order the British military intervention in the Sierra Leone
Civil War in May 2000.

Another significant change in 1997 was the creation of the Department for International Development, shifting
global development policy away from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to an independent ministry with
a Cabinet-level minister.

Also in 1999, Blair was awarded the Charlemagne Prize by the German city of Aachen for his contributions to
the European ideal and to peace in Europe.

2.3 The impact of globalization on British trade policies

What is the impact of globalization in the UK?
Some of the costs of globalisation for the UK include high dependence on imports, structural unemployment,
economic inequality and environmental damage. The North-South Divide in the UK is a good example that
highlights the growing inequalities and wealth and income disparities in the UK in recent times.

How did globalization impact trade?

Globalization involves increasing integration of economies around the world, from the national to the most
local levels, thereby promoting international trade in goods and services and cross-border movement of
information, technology, people, and investments.

What is the impact of globalisation on foreign trade?

This technological innovation in global trade has enabled a more efficient environment. Technology empowers
efficiency in global trade and reduces cost and time. In addition, production processes became more efficient
due to globalization as companies want to maintain their competitive advantage.

How did the British Empire contribute to globalization?

The combination of free trade, mass migration, and unprecedented overseas investment propelled large parts of
the British Empire to the forefront of world economic development.

What does globalization mean British?

globalization in British English or globalisation (ˌɡləʊbəlaɪˈzeɪʃən ) noun. 1. the process enabling financial and
investment markets to operate internationally, largely as a result of deregulation and improved
communications.

How has globalization impacted the UK?

Some of the effects of globalisation on the UK economy

Shifting sectors: Globalisation will lead to a shift in the sectors of the economy. For example, the UK no
longer has a comparative advantage in many manufacturing industries. Developing countries now have an
advantage due to lower labour costs.

How have recent changes in UK trade policy post Brexit impacted the globalization of British businesses?
First, the impact of Brexit on aggregate UK trade has been relatively small, at least so far. The introduction of
the TCA has led to a small reduction in goods exports and it has caused many importers to switch from
sourcing goods from the EU to sourcing within the UK or from non-EU countries.

How has globalisation affected the UK sociology?

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Globalisation has led to an increase in outsourcing, where jobs that were once based in the UK have now
moved to countries with lower labour costs.

What happened to UK trade after Brexit?

The UK's trading relationship with the EU changed fundamentally after Brexit. The UK is now outside the EU
single market and customs union. While there are no tariffs on trade in goods with the EU, subject to certain
conditions, other barriers to trade are now higher.

How has globalisation affected educational policies in the UK?

As we have observed, some impacts of globalisation on education can be regarded as positive, such as
the decolonisation of the curriculum and the increased use of technology in schools. However, it is also worth
noting that there are negative impacts, such as increased risks and safeguarding issues.

How does globalisation affect the UK job market?

Are there any positive effects of globalisation on employment? It has led to an increase in the overall number
of job opportunities. Trade liberalisation has allowed business owners and workers to earn more. It has allowed
people to migrate more in search of better jobs.

How is the UK impacted by globalisation?

Globalisation has benefited the UK in many ways. Global trade enables the UK's economy to grow each year,
which increases GNI - as an HIC the UK tends to export higher value manufactured goods, and import mainly
lower value goods, such as food.

How did globalization contribute to the success of London?

Globalisation is changing the nature of the city's employment market and the skills needed in the workforce.
There is an increasing demand for higher level skills that is more significant in London than elsewhere in the
UK. Our population is growing as a result of both in-migration and international migration.

How has globalisation affected employment in the UK?

Globalisation makes it easier for migrants to enter and work in the UK. This free movement of labour can help
the UK to fill job vacancies. This is important in industries such as fruit picking and the NHS where firms
often find labour shortages.

Which of the following is a benefit to UK businesses of globalisation?

Growth – expanding to new international markets allows businesses to grow more easily and quickly, either
providing them with cheaper materials or access to more customers.

How has ICT transformed the UK economy?

It is known to generate high innovation output, which attracts more technology-driven investments. The
country also has high internet penetration, with about 98% of the population having access to the internet. This
favourable tech environment has played a big role in the UK's economic growth.

Why is international trade important to the UK?

International trade is important because countries rely on other countries for the import of goods that can't be
readily found domestically. If a country specialises in the exports of goods, it may have more supply of certain
raw materials than there is demand in its own markets.

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