Heat & Mass

Transfer

Bikram Kumar
Heat & Mass Transfer

Author

Bikram Kumar
 Index
Lesson Page No
Module 1: Conduction heat transfer
Lesson 1. Conduction. 5-7
Lesson 2. Conduction through a plane wall. 8-11
Lesson 3. Problems on heat conduction through plane/composite walls
12-18
having variable thermal conductivity.
Lesson 4. Conduction through a cylindrical wall (homogeneous,
19-21
composite) temperature curve in a cylindrical wall.
Lesson 5. Problems on conduction through homogenous/composite wall,
having variable thermal conductivity, Conduction through a hollow 22-29
sphere.
Lesson 6. Assignments 30-31
Module 2: Convection heat transfer
Lesson 7. Heat transfer by convection. 32-35
Lesson 8. Shape and size of heat transfer surfaces, heat transfer co-efficient
36-37
and its interpretations.
Lesson 9. Differential equations of Heat Transfer: Discussion on various
38-40
forms.
Lesson 10. Derivations of equation of flow. 41-43
Module 3: Dimensional analysis and heat transfer
Lesson 11. Similarity of heat-transfer process. 44-47
Lesson 12. Conditions of Hydro mechanical similarity: dimensionless
48-50
numbers.
Lesson 13. Thermal similarity: dimensionless numbers. 51-52
Lesson 14. Treatment and generalization of test data, Logarithmic mean
53-55
temperature Difference, Reference dimensions, Reference temperature.
Lesson 15. Heat transfer by free convection. 56-57
Lesson 16. Problems on free convection. 58-59
Lesson 17. Heat transfer by forced convection. 60-61
Lesson 18. Problems on forced convection. 62-63
Lesson 19. Problems on forced convection (continued). 64-67
Lesson 20. Assignments 68-68
Lesson 21. Thermal radiation. 69-71
Lesson 22: Basic laws of thermal radiation, Plank's law 72-73
Lesson 23. Stefan-Boltzmann law, Kirchoff’s law, Lambert’s cosine law. 74-77
Lesson 24. Radiant interchange between solids. 78-79
Module 5: Heat exchangers
Lesson 25. Design of heat exchange equipment. 80-84
Lesson 26. Mean temperature difference, calculating the outlet
85-89
temperature of working fluids.
Lesson 27. Parallel flow, Counter flow. 90-94
Module 6: Unsteady state heat transfer
Lesson 28. Intensification of heat transfer. 95-99
Lesson 29. Assignments 100-100
Module 7: Mass transfer
Lesson 30. Mass transfer, diffusion process, Fick’s law, Concept of
101-103
permeability, Diffusion co- efficient.
Lesson 31. Problems based on heat and mass transfer. 104-106
Lesson 32. Assignments 107-108
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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 1
CONDUCTION

1.1 Basic Law of Conduction

The concept of heat conduction embraces the process of heat propagation through direct contact between the
particles of the substance. In gases, heat conduction occurs by molecular and atomic interaction. In fluids and
solid dielectrics the process occurs by elastic molecular collision. In metals the flow of energy is mainly due to the
diffusion of free electron. The process of heat propagation in general and that of heat conduction in particular is
inseparably linked with the distribution of temperature, therefore it is necessary to define what is temperature field
and temperature gradient.

1) Temperature field
Temperature is a property of substance characterizing the degree to which it is heated or the degree of its
heat. Generally, temperature is a function of co-ordinates say X, Y, Z and time τ
t = f (x, y, z, τ)
The temperature field is the whole complex of temperatures of all space points at a given moment. The
above equation is a mathematical expression of such a field. The temperature field can be transient or
non-stationary if it depends on time.
If the temperature does not vary with time it is termed as steady state and stationary
t = f (x, y, z)
Two dimensional steady state temperature field is:
t = f (x, y)
Two dimensional unsteady state temperature field is:
t = f (x,y,τ)
One dimensional unsteady state temperature field is:
t = f (x, τ)
One dimensional steady state temperature field is:
t = f(x)
1.1.1 Isothermal surface

It is the locus of equal temperatures. Since one and the same space point cannot have two different
temperatures, therefore, isothermal surfaces of different temperature do not intersect, so they either form a loop
or end at the boundaries of a substance. The temperature in a substance varies only in the direction crossing the
isothermal surfaces (Fig. 1.1). The most abrupt change in temperature occurs in direction normal to the
isothermal surface. The rate of change in temperature ∆t in a substance with a normal distance ∆n in the
isothermal surfaces is called temperature gradient. Mathematically, temperature gradient can be defined as

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(Measured in °c/m)
The temperature gradient is a vector normal to the isothermal surface. This vector is positive in the direction of
increasing temperature. The value of temperature gradient taken with negative sign is termed as temperature
drop.
1.1.2 Heat flow
Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature to one with lower temperature. The amount of
transferred heat is termed as rate of heat flow (Q). This value usually refers to energy flow per unit time (hour).
The rate of heat flow per unit area is called the specific rate of heat flow or sometimes thermal load of heating
surface (q). Therefore, in technical systems of units “Q” has units kcal/hr, but in case of ‘q’ units are kcal/m2 hr.
The value of Q as well as ‘q’ is a vector whose direction coincides with that in which heat propagates and runs in
a direction opposite to that of temperature gradient.

1.1.3 Fourier’s law

Fourier discovered that the amount of transferred heat is proportional to the drop in temperature, time and area
perpendicular to the direction in which heat flows. The relation of amount of heat transferred per unit area and
per unit time can be written as

q = -λ grad.t (kcal/m2-hr)

This expression is the basic law of heat transfer i.e., Fourier’s law. The proportionality factor ‘λ’ in equation is
termed as thermal conductivity, if is a physical property of a substance which characterizes the ability of
substance to transfer heat therefore λ can be written as

Unit: kcal/m-hr-°C (F-area)

Therefore, the value of thermal conductivity determines the amount of heat passing per unit time, per unit area at
a temperature drop of 1°C per unit length.
Thermal conductivity differs with each substance and in each case depends on structure, volume, weight,
humidity, pressure and temperature. All these parameters hamper the correct choice of thermal conductivity.

Since temperature in the substance varies in the course of heat propagation, therefore, it is especially important to
find out that how much thermal conductivity depends on temperature. So, experiments have shown that for most
of the materials this dependence is linear i.e. λ = λ0 (1+b.t)

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Where “λo” is value of thermal conductivity at 0°C and “b” is constant which is determined experimentally.

Thermal conductivity of gases ranges from 0.005 to 0.5 kcal/m-hr-°C. It increases with increase in temperatures
and practically does not depend on pressure.

For gas mixtures the values of thermal conductivity may be determined only experimentally because the additivity
law is inapplicable for thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity of liquids ranges from 0.08 to 0.6 kcal/m-hr-°C. For most liquids thermal conductivity
decreases with rise in temperature, the only exceptions are water & glycerine.

Thermal conductivity of heat insulating materials ranges from 0.02 -2.5 kcal/m-hr-°C. Thermal conductivity
increases with increase in temperature. As a rule, materials of high volume weight posses greater thermal
conductivity. It also depends on the structure of the material, its porosity & humidity. Thermal conductivity of a
damped material is considerably higher than thermal conductivity of the dry material and water taken separately.
For instance, for dry brick λ = 0.3 and for water λ = 0.5 but damp brick soaked in water λ = 0.9. This
phenomenon makes it necessary to proceed with special care while determining the thermal conductivity of a
substance in heat transfer calculations.
Materials with low thermal conductivity i.e. less than 0.2 kcal/m-hr-°C are usually employed as heat insulating
materials. Thermal conductivity of metals ranges from 2 to 360 kcal/m-hr-°C. The best conductor of heat is
silver whose λ = 360 followed by red copper λ = 340 then gold (λ = 260), the aluminium (λ = 180). For most
metals, thermal conductivity decreases with rise in temperature since the thermal & electric conductivity of the
metal is because of diffusion of free electrons, for pure metal the two properties are proportional to each other.
The thermal conductivity of a pure metal drops abruptly in presence of various elements & compounds. For
example, “λ” for pure copper is 340 but if it contains traces of arsenic, the value is dropped to 122 kcal/m-hr-
°C. The “λ” of steel containing 0.1% carbon is 45 kcal/m-hr-°C, 1% carbon is 34 kcal/m-hr-°C and 1.5%
carbon is 31 kcal/m-hr-°C. The thermal conductivity of hardened carbon steel is 10-25% below that of soft
steel.

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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 2
CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

2.1 Conduction through a Plane Homogeneous Wall

Let us consider a plane homogenous wall of thickness “δ” with a constant having thermal conductivity “λ”.

Let us suppose constant temperature t1 & t2 are maintained on the surface of walls and temperature varies only
in the direction of the x-axis which is perpendicular to the wall, therefore the temperature field is one dimensional
and the flat isothermal surfaces are arranged perpendicular to the x-axis. Let us consider inside the wall a layer of
thickness dx, located at a distance “x” from origin outer (surface) and limited by two isothermal surfaces. Based

on Fourier’s law, we can write that (Specific Rate of heat flow). (Fig. 2.1)
We can solve this differential equation by separating the variables

Where the integration constant “C” can be determined by the boundary condition i.e. when x = 0, t = t1, C = t1​

Similarly when we put x = δ, t = t2, therefore we write

On re-arranging we can write that

Hence the amount of heat transferred through 1sqm per hr is directly proportional to thermal conductivity and the
difference in temperature of boundary surface i.e. ∆t and is inversely proportional to wall thickness “δ”. This
equation is also referred as design formula for conduction through a plane wall.
- The ratio (kcal/m2-hr-°C) is known as thermal conductance of the wall and its reciprocal is known as
‘thermal resistance’ of the wall. Thermal resistance is used to determine the drop in temperature when
the rate of heat flow through unit area of wall is unity.
Now it is easy to calculate the total amount of heat transferred (Q) through a plane wall of surface area F (m2)
for time τ (hr)

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Equation of the temperature curve at any location

The equation of temperature curve is the equation of a straight line. Thus we can say when thermal conductivity is
constant, variation in temperature through a homogeneous wall is linear.

When (thermal conductivity) is not constant

Due to the dependence on temperature thermal conductivity is variable for most of the material, this temperature
dependence is linear.

Let us apply Fourier’s law

At x = 0, t = t1, we get

At x = δ, t = t2, we get

On subtraction we get:

This is the specific rate of heat flow through a homogeneous wall when λ is a linear function of temperature:
The equation of temperature curve, that is temperature distribution in the wall, can be obtained by solving the
quadratic equation

Insert the value of C.

Rearrange the quadratic in ‘t’. Then apply the quadratic formula and on solving we get

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This equation indicates that the temperature inside the wall actually changes along a curved line (Fig. 2.2).
If the factor b is +ve the convexity of the curve faces upward and if b is -ve the convexity of the curve faces
downward.

2.2 Conduction through a Composite Plane Wall

Walls of several heterogeneous layers are called composite wall. Also, the wall of dwelling houses in which
bricks are covered with a layer of plaster on the inside and on the outside also. Further, the walls of furnace,
boiler, cold storages, milk storage tank, vats etc usually are made up of several layers which may include special
layer of heat insulation.
Let us derive calculation formula of conduction for composite wall.
Let us assume that the wall consists of 3-hetrogeneous layers. Let us consider walls are in close contact of each
other [Fig. 2.3 (a)].

The thicknesses of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd layer are δ1, δ2, δ3 respectively. Thermal conductivities of these layers
are λ1, λ2 and λ3. Let us assume temperature t1 and t4 of outer faces of composite wall are known. Owing to
the perfect contact between the layers, adjacent surfaces have one and the same temperature. But value of
temperature of adjacent layer is not known. Let’s assume t2 and t3.

Under steady state condition the rate of heat flow per unit area is constant and it is same for all layers. Therefore,
we can write.

Rewriting, we get

Adding vertically we get

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By analogy, the calculations formula for a composite wall of n layers can be written as

Each term in the denominator represent, thermal resistance of respective layer, which mean that total thermal
resistance of composite wall is sum of individual resistance. Unknown temperature t2 and t3 can be calculated as:

The temperature curve inside each layer is a straight line but for the composite wall it is customary to represent
temperature distribution by broken line.
Sometimes to simplify calculation a composite layer is considered a homogeneous plane wall of thickness ∆ and
calculations are performed with the aid of the so called ‘Equivalent Thermal Conductivity’

Where ∆ = δ1 + δ 2 + δ 3
For an n-layer composite wall

The values Equivalent thermal conductivity depends only on the thermal resistance and thickness of the individual
layer. Graphical method for determining intermediate temperatures t2 and t3 is as under: [Fig 2.3 (b)]

of the thermal resistances; ; are plotted along the x-axis to any scale, but in order in which layer of the
composite wall are arranged and perpendiculars are erected. Temperatures t1 and t4 are plotted on extreme
perpendiculars to an arbitrary but similar scale. A straight line is plotted by joining t1 and t4. The points at which
this straight line crosses the middle perpendiculars represents the temperatures t2 and t3.

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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 3
PROBLEMS ON HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE/COMPOSITE WALLS HAVING
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Q. 1: Determine the hourly loss of heat through a brick wall 5 m long, 3 m high and 250 mm thick. If
wall surface temperature. t1 =20°C and t2 = -30°C. The λbrick = 0.6 kcal/m-hr-°C.

Solution:

Conductivity, λ = 0.6 kcal/m-hr-°C.

Thickness, δ = 250 mm = 250 × 10-3 m = 0.25 m

q = 120 [kcal/m2-hr]

q = loss of heat through 15 m2 area of brick = q x A = 120 x 15 = 1800 kcal/hr

Q = 1800 kcal/hr.

Q. 2: Determine , thermal conductivity of a wall if q = 100 kcal/m2 -hr at thickness, = 30 mm and

∆ t = 30°C.

Solution:

Heat transferred, q = 100 kcal/m2-hr

Thickness, =30 mm = 30 x 10-3m = 0.03 m

∆t = 30°C

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= 0.1 [kcal/m-hr-oC]
Q. 3: Determine the rate of heat flow through a flat fire clay wall = 0.5 m & also find true
distribution of temperature. If t1 = 1000°C & t2 = 0°C, =1.0 x (1+0.001t).

Solution:

q = rate of heat flow, λm = mean conductivity, tm = mean temperature.

λm = 1.0[1+0.001×500) = 1.5 [kcal/m-hr- o C]

For true distribution of temperature:

b = 0.001, t1 = 1000, x0 = 1.

Equations of the temperature curve at any location =

So, for different values of x; x = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5

True distribution of temperature Equation of temperature

curve
x

0 1000 1000
0.1 844 800
0.2 673.3 600
0.3 488.2 400

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0.4 264.9 200

0.5 0 0

Q. 4: Determine the quantity of heat passing per hour through 1 m2 area of a boiler wall, if it is 20 mm
thick and the thermal conductivity of its material is 50 kcal/m-hr-°C. The inner surface of the wall is
covered by a layer of scale of thickness 2 mm whose thermal conductivity is 1.0 kcal/m-hr-°C. The
temperature of the outer surface is 250°C and of the inner surface is 200°C.
Solution:

Thermal resistance =

δ = Thickness
λ = Thermal conductivity

Thermal resistance of outer surface =

δ1, (Thickness)= 20 mm = 0.02 m

λ1, Thermal conductivity of outer Surface = 50 kcal/m-hr-°C

Thermal resistance of outer surface = 0.02/50 = 4x 10-4 [m2-hr-°C/kcal]

Thermal resistance of inner surface =

δ2, Thickness = 2 mm = 0.002 m

λ2, Thermal conductivity of inner surface = 1.0 kcal/m-hr-°C

Thermal resistance of inner surface = = 0.002/1 = 20x 10-4 [m2-hr-°C/kcal]

Quantity of heat passing,

t1 = temperature of outer surface, t2 = temperature of inner surface

t2 = 250°C, t1 = 200°C

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PLT
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= 2.08 x 104 [kcal/m2-hr] = 20800 [kcal/m2-hr]

t = t1 – q = Temperature of contact = 250-20,800 x 4x10-4

t = 241.7°C

Q. 5: The rate of heat flow (q) through a plane wall of thickness δ = 50 mm is70 watt/m2 . Determine
the difference between the temperatures of wall surfaces and the numerical values of the temperature
gradient through the wall if it is made from
(a) Brass whose λ = 70 watt/m-°C
(b) If wall is made of red brick whose λ = 0.7 watt/m-°C
Solution:

Temperature gradient = ∆t/δ

q = Rate of heat flow

λ = Thermal conductivity
δ = Thickness
∆t = Difference between temperature of wall surfaces.
(a) Brass

q = 70 watt/m2

δ = 50 mm = 50 x 10-3 = .05 m

λ = for brass = 70 watt/m-°C

Temperature Gradient = 0.05/0.05 = 1°C/m

(b) For Red Brick

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QLT
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λ for red brick = 0.7 watt/m- °C

5°C = ∆t
Temperature Gradient = 5/0.05 = 100°C/m
(c) For cork

λ for cork = 0.07 watt/m-°C

∆t = 50 C
Temperature Gradient = ∆t /δ = 50/0.05 = 1000°C/m

Q. 6: Determine the loss of heat Q (watts) through a wall laid of lead brick of length 5 m, height 4 m
and thickness 0.25 m, if the temperature of the surfaces of the wall are maintained at 110°C & 40°C.
Assume λbrick = 0.7 watt/m-°C.

Solution:

λ, thermal conductivity = 0.7 watt/m-°C

δ = thickness = 0.25 m
∆t, temperature difference of surfaces = (110-40) = 70°C

= 196 watt/m2

Q, loss of heat through 20 m2 area of wall = q x A= 196 x 20 = 3920 watt

Q = 3920 watt
Q. 7: It is necessary to insulate a flat surface such that the loss of heat from unit area of this surface
per unit time will not exceed 450 watt/m2 . The temperature of the surface underneath the layer of
insulation is the 450°C and the layer temperature of the external surface of the insulating layer is

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RLT
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50°C. Determine the thickness of insulation for the following two cases

(a) The insulation is made from sobelite for which, λ = [0.09 + 0.0000874 t] watt/m°C.
(b) The insulation is made from Asbestos cement for which λ = [0.09 + 0.000146 t] watt/m°C.
Solution, Case a:

λ = [0.09 + 0.0000874 t] watt/m-°C

t = 50°C

λ1 = [0.09 + 0.0000874 x 50] = 0.09437 watt/m-°C.

t = 450°C

λ2 = [0.09+0.0000874×450] = 0.12933 watt/m-oC

q, loss of heat from surfaces = 450 watt/m2

∆t, Temperatures differences = (450-50) = 400°C

Δ = 100 mm
Case b:

λ = [0.0109 + 0.000146t]
t = 50°C

λ1 = (0.109 + 0.000146 x 50) = 0.1163 watt/m-°C.

t = 450°C

λ2 = [0.109 + 0.000146 x 450] = 0.1747 watt/m-°C

q, loss of heat from surfaces = 450 watt/m2

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SLT
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∆t, Temperatures differences = (450 - 50) = 400°C

δ, thickness of insulation = 129.3 mm

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TLT
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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 4
CONDUCTION THROUGH A CYLINDRICAL WALL (HOMOGENOUS, COMPOSITE)
TEMPERATURE CURVE IN A CYLINDRICAL WALL

4.1 Conduction through a Homogeneous Cylindrical Wall (Tube/Pipe)

Let us consider a cylindrical wall of l m long with inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. Let us assume λ of the
material is constant. The inner and outer faces are held at constant temperatures t1 and t2 under the condition that
t1>t2. Therefore temperature varies only radially and we can assume that this radial direction is x-direction. Thus
temperature field is one dimensional and the isothermal surfaces are cylindrical surfaces possessing a common
axis with the tube. (Fig. 4.1 (a))
Let us consider an annular layer of radius r and thickness dr inside the wall limited by two cylindrical isothermal
surfaces. Let us apply Fourier’s law:

Let us subject this solution to boundary conditions [r = r1, t = t1] and [r = r2, t = t2]

Hence the amount of heat flowing through the wall of the tube per hour is directly proportional to λ, l (length of
the tube) and the ∆t (temperature difference = t1-t2) and inversely proportional to the natural logarithm of the
ratio of outer radius to inner radius and the radii ratio can be replaced by that of diameters. This equation is the
calculation formula for conduction through a homogeneous cylindrical wall. It remains true for the case if t1<t2. In
that case, the flow of heat is directed from the outer surface to the inner.

By inserting the value of the constant C

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By readjustment, and inserting the value of Q

This temperature distribution curve is a logarithmic curve which means that the temperature inside a
homogeneous cylindrical wall varies along a logarithmic curve provided thermal conductivity is constant.

If λ is not constant:
If we take into consideration, the dependence of λ on temperature assuming that
λ = λ0 (1 + bt)

Then the equation of temperature distribution curve into cylindrical wall will acquire the form

The amount of heat passing through the wall of the tube per hour is applicable either to 1 m of length or a unit of
inner or outer surface area.

4.2 Composite Cylindrical Wall

Let us consider a composite cylindrical wall of three heterogeneous layers. The adjacent surfaces are of the same
temperature due to the assumption that there is perfect contact between them. The diameter and thermal
conductivities of individual layers are known.
The temperatures t1 and t4 of the inner and outer surfaces of the composite wall are also known. The contact

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temperatures t2 and t3 are unknown. (Fig. 4.1 (b))

Under steady state conditions, the amount of heat passing through each layer is the same and constant. Therefore
we can write the following equations, i.e.

Rewriting, we get

Adding vertically

By analogy, for a composite wall of ‘n’ layers

By inserting the value of x we can obtain the unknown temperatures

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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 5
PROBLEMS ON CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENOUS/COMPOSITE WALL, HAVING
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW SPHERE
5.1 Problems

Q. 1: The brick work of a terrace is built up of layers laid of fire clay and red brick and the space between the
two layers of brick work is filled with crushed diatomite brick. The fire clay is 120 mm thick. The thickness of
the diatomite filling is 50 mm and thickness of the red brick layer is 250 mm. The thermal conduction of these
three materials are 0.93, 0.13, 0.7 W/m°C. What should be the thickness of red brick layer of the brick work
which is to be laid without the diatomite filling between the two layers so that the heat flux through the brick work
remain constant.

Solution:

Heat conduction with diatomite filling

Heat flux without diatomite filling

q1 = q2

0.385 + 0.357 =

x = 0.5194 m
or x = 519.4 mm

Q. 2: The wall of a steam boiler furnace which is not fitted with waterfalls is made up of a layer of foamed fire
clay of thickness 125 mm and a layer of red brick 500 mm thick. The two layers fit each other tightly. The wall
temperature inside boiler furnace is 1100°C and outside is 50°C. The thermal conductivity of foamed fire clay is
(0.28 + 0.00025 t) and that of red brick is 0.7W/m°C. Calculate the amount of heat lost from 1 m2 of the
furnace wall by conductance. Also find the temperature of in furnace layer.
Solution:

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NLU
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= 575°C

= 0.412 W/m°C

Amount of heat lost q

q = 1032.45 kj/m2

t2 = 1100 – 11032.45 x 0.303

t2 = 787.17°C

Q. 3: The thickness of the layer of red brick in the wall of boiler furnace setting, considered in previous problem,
is to be reduced by 2 times. The space between the two layers of the setting is filled with crushed diatomite
whose thermal conductivity λ = 0.113 + 0.0002 W/m°C. What should be the thickness of diatomite filling to
ensure the same loss of heat with inside and outside wall temperature remaining same as in previous problem.

Solution:

= 0.245 W/m°C

q is same

∴ q 1st case = q 2nd case

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x = 0.874 m or x = 87.4 mm
Q. 4: A steam pipe line of diameter d1/d2 = 100/110 mm with λ1 = 50 W/m°C is covered with two layer of
insulation of equal thickness i.e. 50 mm. Temperature of inner surface is t1 = 250°C and temperature of outside
surface is t4 = 50°C. Determine loss of heat through insulation from length of 1 m of pipeline and interface
temperature.
Solution:
λ2 = 0.06 W/m°C λ3 = 0.12 W/m°C

d1 = 100 mm d2 = 110 mm

d3 = 210 mm d4 = 310 mm

t2 = 249.9°C

If the layers are interchanged:

Q. 5: A steam pipe line with 160/170 mm in diameter covered with layer of insulation of δ = 100 mm with
thermal conductivity depending on temperature in following way - λins = 0.062 (1+0.36 × 10-2t) W/m°C.

Determine amount of heat loss from length of 1 m of pipeline and temperature of its inner surface if temperature
of outer is 300°C. Temperature of outer surface of insulation should not exceed 50°C. λ for pipe line is 50 W/m
°C.
Solution:

= 175°C
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q1 = 204.59 kcal/m-hr

λinst = 0.062 {1 + 3.63 x 10-2(1.75)}

= 0.062 (1.635)
= 0.10137 W/°C

Q. 6: A steam pipe line of 170/160 mm in diameter covered with layer of insulation thickness of 1st layer is 30
mm and that of 2nd is 50 mm. Thermal conductivity of pipe insulating are 50, 8.15 and 0.008 respectively. Inner
temperature is 300°C outer temperature is 50°C. Determine quantity of heat lost per unit length and also find
layer contact temperature.
Solution:
δ1 = 30 mm δ2 = 50 mm

d2 = 170 x 10-3 d1 = 160 x 10-3

d3 = d2 + 60 mm d4 = d3 + 100 mm

= 230 x 10-3 = 330 x 10-3 m

λ1 = 50 kcal/m-hr-°C

λ2 = 0.15 kcal/m-hr-°C

λ3 = 0.008 kcal/m-hr-°C

= 240 kcal/m-hr

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Then

= 222.8
Q. 7: A steam pipe line of 150/160 mm in diameter is covered with layer of heat insulating material of thickness
100 mm. Thermal conductivity of tube is 50 W/m°C or kcal/m-hr-°C and λins,mat = 0.09 kcal/m-hr-°C.
Temperature of pipeline inside surface is 400°C and temperature of the outside surface of insulating surface is
50°C. Find loss of heat from length of 1m of pipeline and temperature at interface of insulation.
Solution:

d1 = 150 x 10-3 m d2 = 160 x 10-3 m

d3 = 360 x 10-3 m

Q. 8: A reinforced concrete smoke stack with an inner diameter d2 = 800 mm, outer diameter d3 = 1300 mm
must be lined with a refractory on the inside. Determine the thickness of the refractory lining and the temperature
of outer surface of the smoke stake (tw3) under the conditions that the loss of heat from length of 1 m of the
smoke stack must not exceed 2000 W/m and the temperature of the inner surface of the reinforced concrete
smoke stack (twr) should not exceed 200°C. The temperature of the inner surface of lining is tw1 = 425°C. The
thermal conductivity of the lining material λ1 = 0.5W/m°C and of concrete λ2 = 1.1W/m°C.

Solution:
For lining,
d2 = 800 mm

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Q = 2000 W/m
t1 = 425°C t2 = 200°C

λ1 = 0.5 W/m°C

Thickness of lining = δ =

t2 = 200°C
d2 = 800 mm

d3 = 1300 mm

q = 2000 W/m
λ2 = 1.1 W/m°C

t3 = temperature of outer surface of smoke stack.

5.2 Conduction through a Hollow Sphere

Let us consider the flow of heat through wall of hollow sphere with inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. The
sphere is made up of homogeneous material of constant thermal conductivity (λ).

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The inner and outer surfaces are kept at constant temperatures t1 and t2. Let us assume that t1 > t2.

Temperature varies only in the direction of radius. The wall is limited by concentric spherical isothermal surfaces.
Let us take a thin layer between two spherical surfaces with a radius r and let us assume that thickness of surface
is infinitesimally small = dr.
The surface of this layer is thermal. Now let us apply Fourier’s law. The amount of heat flowing through that

layer per hour Q = -λF

= - λ (4πr2) kcal/hr.
(Fig 5.1: Homogeneous spherical wall)

This is the governing differential equation.

On separating the variables and integrating, we can have the solution.

Subjecting this general solution to the boundary conditions.

r = r1, t = t1 and r = r2 t = t2

We get the particular solutions,

On subtracting

From this solution, we can determine Q

Where δ = thickness of wall =

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These equations can be used to calculate heat conduction through a hollow spherical wall. Inserting the value of
C and the value of Q, we can obtain the temperature distribution curve.

tx = temperature at any location in a spherical wall.

This equation of temperature curve is that of hyperbola. Therefore, the distribution of temperature in a spherical
wall is represented by a hyperbola.

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Module 1. Conduction heat transfer

Lesson 6
ASSIGNMENTS

6.1 Assignments
1. The wall of a cold store is laid from (chamotte) brick, and wall thickness = 250 mm. The temperatures of
wall surface tw1 = 1350°C and tw2 = 50°C. The thermal conductive of brick is a function of temperature, λ
= 0.838(1+0.0007t) W/m-°C. Calculate and represent graphically the distribution of temperature through
the wall.
ANSWER

x, mm... 0 50 100 125 150 200 225 250

t, °C….. 1350 1145 920 800 670 390 230 50

2. The brickwork of a furnace is built up of layers laid of fireclay and red brick and the space between the two
layers of brickwork is filled with crushed diatomite brick. The fireclay is 120 mm thick (δ1); the thickness of
the diatomite filling δ2 = 50 mm, and the thickness of the red brick layer δ3 = 250 mm. The thermal
conductivity of the three materials are equal respectively λ1 = 0.93, λ2 =0.13 and λ3 = 0.7 W/m-°C. What
should be the thickness of the red brick layer d3, if the brickwork is to be laid without the diatomite filling
between the two layers, so that the heat flux through the brickwork remains constant?

ANSWER

The layer of red brick must be 500 mm thick.

3. A steam pipeline, 150/160 mm in diameter, is covered with a layer of heat-insulating materials of thickness
tins = 100 mm; the thermal conductivity of tube λ1 = 50 W/m-°C and that of the insulating material λ2 =
0.08 W/m-°C. The temperature of the pipeline inside surface tw1 = 400°C and the temperature of the
outside surface of the insulating layer tw3 = 50°C.
Find the loss of heat from length of 1m of the pipeline and the temperature at the interface between the tube
and insulation.
ANSWER
The loss of heat from length of 1m of the steam pipeline ql = 216 W/m. The temperature at the interface between
the wall of the pipeline and the insulation tw2 = 400°C.

4. A steel pipeline of a diameter d1/d2 = 100/110 mm with a thermal conductivity λ1 = 50 W/m-°C is covered
with two layers of insulation of equal thickness δ2 = δ3 = 50 mm. The temperature of the tube inside surface

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tw1 = 250°C and the temperature of the outside surface of insulation tw4 = 50°C. Determine the loss of heat
through the insulation from length of 1 m of the pipeline and the temperature at the interface between the
two layers of insulation, if the first layer of insulation, applied on the surface of the tube is made from a
material with a thermal conductivity λ2 = 0.06 W/m-°C and the second layer from an insulating material with
a thermal conductivity λ3 = 0.12 W/m-°C.

ANSWER
The loss of heat from length of 1 m of the pipeline ql = 89.5 W/m. The temperature at the interface between the
two layers of insulation tw3 = 97°C.

5. A steam pipeline d1/d2 = 160/170 mm in diameter is covered with a layer of insulation of thickness = 100

mm with a thermal conductivity depending on the temperature is {0.062 (1 + 0.363×10-2t)} W/m-°C.

Determine the amount of heat loss from length of 1m of pipeline and the temperature of its inner surface, if
the temperature of the outer pipeline surface tw2 = 300°C and the temperature of the outer surface of the
insulation should not exceed 50°C.
ANSWER

The loss of heat from length of 1m of the steam pipeline qt = 250 W/m. The inner pipeline surface temperature
tw1 = 300°C

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Module 2. Convection heat transfer

Lesson 7
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

7.1 Introduction
The concept of heat transfer by convection embraces the process of transfer of heat from a liquid or gas to a
solid through direct contact. The heat is transferred by conduction and convection simultaneously and this
combined phenomenon is known as ‘heat transfer by convection’. As in case of solids, heat conduction in liquids
and gases are fully determined by thermal conductivity and temperature gradient, it is different with convection,
the second elementary mode of heat propagation because here the process of heat transfer is inseparably bound
to the transfer of the environment itself. Convection therefore is possible only in liquids and gases because their
particles can be easily displaced.
The displacement of fluids particles i.e. convection process depends on many factors and particularly on origin
and condition of the flow. Kind and physical properties of the fluid, the shape and the size of surface of solid,
therefore heat transfer by convection is a very complex process.

7.2 Main Factors Which Influence, Convection Mode of Heat Transfer

7.2.1 Origin of convection

There are two types of convection by origin

(a) Natural (free) convection
(b) Forced convection

In natural convection, the free motion of fluid is due to difference in the densities of the heated and cold particles
of the fluid. The origin and intensity of free convection are fully determined by the thermal condition of the
process and depend on the kind of the fluid, temperature potential and volume of the space where the process
takes place.
Forced motion of fluid or forced convection occurs under the influence of some external agency such as wind,
pump and agitation fan etc. Forced convection depends on the kind and physical properties of the fluid, its
temperature, flow, velocity, the shape and size of the passage in which forced flow of liquid occurs. In general,
forced convection is accompanied by free convection and relative influence of free convection increases with
difference in temperature of individual particle of the fluid. The influence of free convection decreases with
increase in velocity of forced flow. Therefore the influence of natural convection is insignificant at high velocities
of flow.

7.2.2 Types of fluid flow

Hydrodynamics shows that there are two types of fluid flow:
(a) Laminar flow
(b) Turbulent flow

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In the first case, particles of the fluid move in a direction parallel to the wall of passage, where as in case of
turbulent flow particles move at random. (Fig. 7.1)

The change in laminar to turbulent flow occurs, when fluid velocity is equal to or exceeds critical velocity. Critical
velocity is not constant. It is different for different fluids and also depends on geometry of flow. In turbulent flow,
not all the particles of the fluid move irregularly. At the wall, limiting the flow, there is always a thin layer of fluid
where the flow remains laminar due to viscosity of fluid. This layer is defined as boundary layer. The thickness of
boundary layer depends on mean velocity of flow and decreases with increase in velocity of flow. Therefore,
type of flow, play significant role in process of heat transfer because it determines its mechanism. In laminar flow,
heat is transferred in direction normal to the wall mainly by conduction. Therefore, its rate is determined by
thermal conductivity. In turbulent flow, heat is transferred by intensive intermixing of particles. In such conditions
of flow, the intensity of heat transfer for certain heat transfer agents such as gas, water, alcohol are various oils is
determined mainly by thermal resistance of boundary layer because thermal resistance of fluid in turbulent flow is
of secondary importance. Greatest variation in temperature occurs within the boundary layer of the wall.
7.2.3 Physical properties of liquid

The most diverse substance such as air, water, gases, oil, crude oil, benzene, gasoline, kerosene, alcohol,
mercury, molten matters etc are now employed as heat transfer agent. The process of heat transfer depends on
physical properties of fluid/substance. These properties directly affect the process are:
· Thermal Conductivity
· Specific heat
· Density
· Thermal Diffusivity
· Viscosity
These properties have different magnitudes for each substance and are usually function of temperature and some
of them of pressure. The physical properties of water, air, stream and certain other substance, employed in
engineering design are given in Appendices.

7.2.3.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity characterizes the ability of a substance to conduct heat and its value determines the
quantity of heat passing per unit time per unit area at a temperature difference of 1o C per unit length.

7.2.3.2 Specific heat

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of substance by 1o C. The unit of specific heat is
kcal/kgo C.
· Heat capacity at constant pressure is denoted by Cp (kcal/kg- o C)

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· Heat capacity at constant volume is denoted by Cv (kcal/kg- o C)

7.2.3.3 Specific gravity

It is the weight of unit volume of substance. Its unit is kg/m3. It is denoted by

The reciprocal of specific gravity is specific volume

7.2.3.4 Density
Density of a substance is its mass per unit volume

7.2.3.5 Thermal diffusivity

Sometimes, the above listed physical properties of substance do not effect heat transmission individually but they
do so as a complex of properties. One of such is thermal diffusivity.
Thermal diffusivity characterizes the rate of change in temperature in transient heat transfer processes. The higher
the thermal diffusivity of a substance, the higher is the rate of temperature propagation.

7.2.3.6 Viscosity
All real liquids are viscous; a force of internal friction offering resistance to flow always arises between the
particles or layers of fluid moving past one another at different velocities. According to Newton’s law, this force,
applied to unit area, is proportional to the velocity gradient, namely,

The factor µ of this equation is called the internal friction factor or the viscosity factor; its unit is kg-sec/ m2 . At

; hence the viscosity factor is the friction force per unit contact area between two layers of liquid
sliding past one another, provided flow velocity changes one unit per unit length of the normal to the sliding
surface.
Equations of hydrodynamics and heat transfer often contain the ratio of the viscosity factor µ to the density ϱ and
the product of the viscosity factor by the acceleration of gravity g. The first ratio is called the hydrodynamic
kinematic viscosity and is denoted by ν:

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The second value is defined as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity and is denoted by η

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Module 2. Convection heat transfer

Lesson 8
SHAPE AND SIZE OF HEAT TRANSFER SURFACES, HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT AND
ITS INTERPRETATIONS

8.1 Shape and Size of Heat Transfer Surfaces

A large number of diverse heat transfer surfaces may be composed of bodies of the simplest shape i.e. a plate or
a tube, further a plate may possess one or two heat transfer surfaces. Plates may be arranged vertically,
horizontally or in an inclined position. In the case of horizontally arranged plate with only one heat transfer surface
the later may be turned up or down, further heat transfer surfaces may consist of several plates. A similar variety
of heat transfer surfaces may be composed of tubes. Each such surface offers specific condition for flow and
heat transfers. Therefore the shape and size of heat transfer surfaces substantially affect heat transfer. It is also
important whether the fluid moves inside an enclosed space or washes all the sides of heating surface.

8.1.1 Heat transfer co-efficient

According to Fourier’s Law the relationship between the rate of heat transfer through contact and the conditions
in which heat transfer occurs can be expressed by the following equation:

This relationship, however, cannot be used in practical calculations. Because to solve this equation one must
know the temperature gradient at the wall and its variation over the entire heat transfer surface (F), which is
impossible. Therefore for the sake of facilitating calculation, Newtonian formula is considered Q = αF (tF – tW)
[kcal/hr]

According to this relationship, the amount of heat transferred from the fluid to the wall or vice versa, is
proportional to the heat transfer surface F and temperature difference (t F – t W). The conditions of heat transfer
between the fluid and solid are characterized by the factor of proportionality α, which is called heat transfer co-
efficient. The co-efficient ‘α’ determines intensity of heat transfer and is expressed in kcal/m2-hr-°C units.
8.1.2 Interpretations

Numerically heat transfer co-efficient is equal to amount of heat transferred in unit time through unit area at a
temperature difference of 1°C between the solid and fluid.
Newtonian formula does not mean any fundamental simplification because the complexity of heat transfer and
difficulties in calculation in this case are all embodied in a single value heat transfer co-efficient.
The accepted method of calculating is usually employed to study the phenomenon as well; attention is
concentrated only on the determination of the heat-transfer coefficient and on the establishment of its dependence
on different factors. Earlier treatises analysed only the influence of the most important factors, primarily the

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temperature difference and velocity of fluid flow. Subsequent studies have shown, however, that the heat transfer
coefficient is a complex function of many variables upon which the process as a whole depends. In general, the
heat transfer coefficient is a function of shape ∅, dimension l1 , l2 , l3 and temperature t w of the heating surface,
fluid flow velocity ν, fluid temperature t f and physical properties of the fluids, such as thermal conductivity λ; heat
capacity cp , density ϱ, viscosity μ and other factors. Thus

In general the heat transfer co-efficient

The process of heat transfer is being studied both theoretically and experimentally. In the first case, the problems
are solved analytically, in the second, by direct experiment.
8.2 Differential Equations of Heat Transfer

To study any phenomenon means to establish the relationship between the variables characterizing the
phenomenon. In the case of complex phenomena whose defining properties vary both in time and space. It is
very difficult to determine the relationship between the variables. The general laws of physics enable us only to
establish the relationship between variables i.e. between co-ordinates, time and physical properties and the
relation developed covers a brief time interval and that two only on elementary volume of the entire space: In
doing so we ignore some values or replace a complex relationship by a simpler one.
The relationship thus obtained is the general differential equation of the process considered. Integrating this
equation we obtain the analytical relationship between the values over the entire range of integration and for the
entire time interval under consideration. Such differential equations can be worked out for any process and
notably here, the process of heat transfer. Since heat transfer involves both thermal and hydrodynamic
phenomena, there should be a whole series of differential equations developed for the aggregate process:

i. Equation of heat transfer

ii. Equation of Conduction
iii. Equation of flow
iv. Continuity Equation

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Module 2. Convection heat transfer

Lesson 9
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER: DISCUSSION ON VARIOUS FORMS

9.1 Heat Transfer Equation

As discussed earlier heat transfer calculations are based on Newtonian formula. However, in using this formula to
determine Q one must know the value of Heat Transfer Coefficient ‘α’

Q = α F (∆t)
The relationship between the heat transfer coefficient and the conditions of the process may be established by
analyzing the boundary conditions. Since heat is transferred through the laminar boundary layer of the fluid only
by conduction. Therefore, according to Fourier’s law we have the differential amount of heat transfer, given by

On the other hand according to Newtonian law, the amount of heat transferred dQ shall also be equal to:

On equating the two equations, we get

In this form it is known as differential equation of heat transfer which describes the heating and cooling process at
the boundaries of a substance. (Fig. 9.1 )

9.1.1 Differential equation of conduction

To find the heat transfer coefficient one must know the temperature gradient and consequently temperature
distribution in the fluid. The temperature distribution in the fluid can be obtained from the differential equation of
conduction which is based on the energy conservation law.
Now let us consider in the flow of fluid an elementary parallelopiped limited by dx, dy and dz and we can write
the heat balance equation for this.

Let us assume that the physical properties of the parallelopiped

1. i.e. λ, Cp and r are constant
2. Ignoring the variation in pressure, the amount of imparted heat will be equal to the change in heat content or
enthalpy of the substance in accordance with fundamental laws of thermodynamics.(Fig. 9.2)

Let us first calculate the amount of heat imparted to the body by conduction through the sides of element.
Therefore, according to Fourier’s law is the amount of heat flowing per unit time dτ in direction of X-axis
through the side ABCD

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Through the face EFGH whose temperature is:

t + temperature gradient x dx

Therefore amount of heat flowing through the face EFGH

Now by subtracting we get:

Similarly,

Total amount of heat remaining in the element of volume dx dy dz per unit time dτ

This amount of heat imparted to the element will raise its temperature by-
And, we know that its enthalpy will be

Equating this equation and rewriting it per unit volume per unit time

So,

This is Fourier-Kirchhoff’s Differential Equation of Conduction.

It establishes the relation between time and space variation in temperature at any point of a moving medium.
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In this form the equation is employed in investigating heat conduction in moving fluids. If it is applied to the solids
then the equation becomes:

In this form it is known as the Fourier’s differential equation. It assumes the simplest form in case of steady state

one-dimensional conduction, namely, On solving this equation, we get the calculation formula for a plane
well.

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Module 2. Convection heat transfer

Lesson 10
DERIVATION OF EQUATION OF FLOW

10.1 Equation of Flow

The equation of heat conduction in moving fluids includes, in addition to temperature, the three variables wx, wy
and wz. This means that in a moving fluid the temperature field depends on the distribution of velocity. The latter
is described by the differential equation of flow derived on the basis of the second Newton law: force equals
mass by acceleration.

Consider in the flow of fluid an elementary parallelepiped with sides dx, dy and dz. Three forces act on the
particle: inertia force, pressure force and friction force. Let us find the projection of these forces upon the x-axis.

a) The inertia force is applied at the centre of gravity of the element d . The component of the force along the
x-axis is equal to the product of the component of acceleration due to gravity gx[m/sec2] by the mass of the
element m = ϱ d
gx ϱ d = gx ϱ dx dy dz

.........
(a)

b) The pressure force is determined on the basis of the following consideration. If the specific pressure of fluid
exerted upon the upper face of the element is p [kg/m2], then a force p dy dz acts upon the area dy dz. The

lower face of the element is subjected to a specific pressure and a force

acts on this face. Here, the minus sign indicates that this force acts in a direction opposite to that of fluid
flow. The resultant force is equal to the algebraic sum of two applied forces.

......... (b)
c) The flow of fluid is always accompanied by the appearance of a friction force. The equation of the friction
force may be derived by considering the flat laminar flow, in which the velocity components wx changes only
in the direction of y-axis. In this event the friction force appears only on the side faces of the element
considered. The velocity of particles at the left face of the element is less than that of the particles within the
element; therefore, in the cross-section y the friction force is directed against the flow of fluid and is equal to
( ̶s dx dz). The opposite is true of the right face of the element. Here, the particles move at a velocity

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exceeding that of the particles within the element: therefore, in the cross-section y + dy the friction force acts
in the direction of flow and is equal to

The resultant of these forces is equal to their algebraic sum

......... (c)

Here s is the friction force per unit area,

according to Newton’s law. Substituting this expression of s
into equation (c), we get

......... (d)
This comparatively simple expression, however, applies only to one-dimentional flow, while generally, when wx
varies along the three directions, the components of the friction force along the x-axis is determined by the
following expression

......... (e)
Adding up expression (a), (b) and (e), we get the x-axis components of the resultant of all the forces acting upon
the considered elementary particle of volume dv

......... (f)
According to the second law of machines, this resultant force is the product of the mass of the element ϱ dυ by

its acceleration

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......... (g)

Equating (f) and (g) and cancelling dυ, we finally get:

......... (h)

All the terms of this equation have the units of force referred to unit volume, kg/m3.
The components of the resultant force along the y-and and z-axes can be obtained in a similar way, namely,

......... (hʼ)

......... (hʼʼ)

This system of three equations (h, hʹ, hʹʹ) is known as the Navier-Stoke’s differential equation for incompressible
viscous liquids. The equation applies both to laminar and turbulent flow.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 11
SIMILARITY OF HEAT-TRANSFER PROCESSES

11.1 Introduction
One of the major means facilitating the solution of heat transfer problem is theory of similarity which is essentially
the theory of experimentation.
11.2 Conditions of Unambiguity

Differential equations express things in a most general way because they are based on the general laws of
physics. There is an infinite number of heat transfer processes expressed by the equation mentioned, but these
processes at the same time differ from each other by certain peculiarities. To limit the problem, isolate the
process considered from the infinite number and determine it unambiguously, i.e. to give it a comprehensive
mathematical expression, the system of differential equations must be supplemented with a mathematical
expression of all individual peculiarities which are defined as conditions of unambiguity.
The condition of unambiguity consists of
1) Geometric conditions which characterise the shape and size of the body in which the process occurs;
2) Physical conditions which characterise the physical properties of the environment and body;
3) Boundary conditions which characterize the peculiarities of the process taking place at the boundaries of
the body;
4) Time condition which characterise the peculiarities of the process in terms of time.

The condition of unambiguity may be given in numerical values in the form of functional dependence or in the
form of a differential equation. By way of illustration, let us consider heat transfer (heating and cooling) in a flow
inside the tube. In this case the following conditions of unambiguity may be given

1. Tube, round, smooth, d in diameter and l long.

2. The working body, i.e. the heat transfer agent, is water, which is incompressible, and its physical
parameters are λ (t), c (t), μ (t) and γ (t). If the problem permits neglecting the dependence of the
physical parameters on temperature, then the physical properties of water are given in the numerical
values of λ, c, μ and γ. If the heat transfer agent is a compressible fluid (gas), then the equation of state
must be written for the fluid involved.
3. Fluid inlet temperature is , and that at the surface of the tube t w. Inlet velocity is w and at the wall w=0.
4. For steady-state processes the conditions characterizing the process in time are immaterial.
Thus, the mathematical expression of a heat-transfer process consists of

1) Equation of heat-transfer
2) Equation of conduction

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3) Equation of flow
4) Continuity equation
5) Condition of unambiguity
The application of mathematical analysis to problem in convection heat transfer is in most cases confined to
formulation of the problem, i.e. to the composition of the differential equations and statement of the conditions of
unambiguity. These equations, however, can be solved only in certain particular cases, provided a number of
simplifying assumptions are made; such solutions exist. For example, in solving the problem of heat transfer in a
fluid flowing inside a tube, the following simplification are assumed: the tube is considered absolutely smooth, of
round cross section; the fluid is incompressible; the motion is steady and laminar, and velocity distribution is
parabolic; the fluid inlet temperature is constant; the physical parameters of the fluid are constant and do not
depend on temperature. The solution obtained poorly agrees with experiment, because the enumerated
assumptions do not satisfy the actual conditions in which the considered process of heat transfer develops. That
is why theoretical methods are still of no decisive importance in heat-transfer studies.
11.3 Fundamentals of Theory of Similarity

Theory of similarity is the doctorine of similarity of different phenomenon. Concept of similarity is first
encountered in geometry. As we know for geometrically similar triangles there is

Where, l1’, l2’, l3’ are some linear dimension of one geometrical figure, and l1”, l2”, l3” are corresponding linear
dimension of other figure, but similar to first where c is similarity constant. It is possible to solve a number of
practical problems if condition of similarity is known.
Therefore, concept of similarity can be applied to any physical process.
For example
· Similarity of two streams of fluid is called kinematic similarity.
· Similarity of forces giving origin to similar flows is called dynamic similarity.
· Similarity of temperature and heat flows is called heat similarity.
To utilize these concepts, it is necessary to know condition of similarity of considered processes.
1. Concept of similarity is applicable only to physical phenomenon of one and same kind equal qualitatively
and described analytically by equations which are similar both in form and content.
Those phenomenon whose analytical equations are similar in form but not in content such phenomenon
are defined as Analogous.
For example: Analogy exists between phenomenon of heat conduction and diffusivity.
2. Another necessary pre-requisite for similarity of physical phenomenon is geometrical similarity, which
means that similar physical phenomenon should occur in a geometrically similar system.
3. In analyzing similar phenomenon one may compare only homogenous values and only at corresponding

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space points and corresponding moments of time. Homogenous values are those values which are
expressed in equal units.
4. Finally, two physical phenomena are similar if all the values characterizing the phenomena considered are
similar.
This means that at corresponding space point and corresponding moment of time any value ∅’ of first
phenomenon is proportional to ∅” of second phenomenon in such a way that
∅"= CP ∅’

where, CP = similarity constant or factor of similarity transformation.

Factor of similarity transformation depends neither on space-coordinates nor time. Many physical values such as
velocity and temperature, as well as physical properties say ρ0, λ, μ etc. may be different at different points of
flow. The similarity of processes requires all these values to be similar in entire space of systems considered.
Further, thermal similarity of two streams of fluid requires the streams to be limited by walls of geometrically
similar configuration and other physical properties characterizing phenomenon to be similar over entire surface.
By analogy, we can write

In this case of complex processes determined by many physical properties, the similarity constants of these
properties are related in a definite way and cannot be chosen arbitrarily. A more profound study reveals that,
apart from the constancy of the ratios of similar additional conditions. We shall expound these conditions by
considering the following particular examples.
Consider the following case of fluid flow. By definition, velocity w is the ratio of the path l travelled by particle in
a period of time τ to this period of time, i.e.

Applying this formula to the corresponding particles of two similar streams of fluid which have travelled similar

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distances, we have:

Dividing the two equations term-wise, we get

Proceeding from the definition of similarity we may write the following relationships for our case:

Replacing the ratios in equation by their similarity constants from equation we get:

That is exactly sought-for condition of similarity which limits the arbitrary choice of the similarity constant cw, ct,
and cτ.

This condition may be presented in a more convenient form. If the constant cφ are replaced by their values from
the relationship and if all terms indexed (‘) are grouped in the left side of the equation and the terms indexed (“)
in the right side, we get

This illustrates the main property of similar system. The criteria of similarity are dimensionless terms
composed of values characterizing the phenomenon. The main property of the criteria of similarity is their
zero dimensionality, which makes it possible to verify the proper composition of the terms.

It is customary to name criteria of similarity or dimensionless terms after the scientists engaged in respective fields
of science, and denote them by the first two letters of their names, for instance, Ne (Newton), Re (Reynolds), Eu
(Euler), Nu (Nusselt) or simply by capital K.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 12
CONDITIONS OF HYDROMECHANICAL SIMILARITY: DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS

12.1 Conditions of Hydro-mechanical Similarity

Hydro-mechanical similarity determines the conditions in which similar flows occur in geometrically similar
systems. Let us examine these conditions for the incompressible fluid flow.
Equation of continuity

Equation of flow

And for the second system, respectively

As the considered processes are similar, from the definition of similarity we have

These relationships are used to express all the variables of the second system by the variables of the first system
in the following manner:

Substituting the values in equation of second system

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Both systems are now expressed by the variables of the first system. These variables from both systems must be
determined in a similar manner. The latter stipulation is possible only if the equations are identical, and they
require the dimensionless groups made up of the similarity constant to be cancelled from the system.

From the continuity equation it follows that

This relationship does not limit the choice of similarity constant. Because the equation remain identical for any

values of the ratio .

From the equation of flow

Investigating the members in pairs, we have

Such re-arrangement gives

Where
Ho = the homochronocity number
Fr = the Froude number
Eu = the Euler number
Re = the Reynolds number

The hydro-mechanical similarity of two or several systems, therefore, requires the numerical values of the Ho,

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Fr, Eu and Re numbers to be equal at any corresponding points of the systems.

In practical consideration these dimensionless numbers are modified with a view to give them a more convenient
form easy to understand and interpret. So we have,

Where Ga = Gallilian number

Where Ar = Archimedes Number

ρ, ρ 0= fluid density at two different point of system.

If difference in density depend upon temperature difference then,

β = Fluid Expansion Factor

Substituting these values, we get

Where Gr = Grashoff Number

It should be clearly understood that all these dimensionless terms Fr, Ga, Ar, Gr are identical because these
numbers are four different forms of one and same criteria.
Similarly Euler Number is also modified. The pressure term in Euler Number is replaced by difference in pressure
at any two points in system.

The drop in pressure in pipe is most often sought for value in engineering study in which fluid is flowing.
Therefore, the interdependence of dimensionless groups which may characterize a particular flow (say forced
flow), then
Eu = f [Re]. This functional relationship holds for all similar steady-state processes but function itself is
to be determined experimentally.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 13
THERMAL SIMILARITY: DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS

13.1 Conditions of Thermal Similarity

Thermal similarity determines the condition in which geometrically and hydromechanically similar system are
similar thermal as well.
Thermal similarity implies similarity of temperature fields and heat fluxes.

Let us consider two similar systems and express it by equation:

13.2 Equation of Heat Transfer

This is applicable to boundary of substance for heating & cooling process.

Writing these equation for IInd phenomenon,

Let us transform the equation of second phenomenon into first phenomenon with help of similarity constant.

This is under unsteady state condition,

Thus thermal similarity of two or several system requires the Fourier, Peclet, Nusseltt number to be numerically
equal at any corresponding point of system.
Further, various modification are carried out for practical application.

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Where Pr = Prandtle Number

Such replacement is very convenient for practical application. Reynold Number characterizes hydromechanical
similarity and Prandtle number is made up of only physical parameter of fluid.
Prandtle Number characterizes the mechanism of heat exchanged and also made of heat propagation in liquid
medium.

The goal of any experimental study of heat flow is usually to find out heat transfer coefficient α. Therefore, the
criterial equation of heat transfer by convection is presented in the form that Nusselt Number = f(Fo, Pe) or
f(Fo, Re, Pr), since thermal similarity is impossible without hydro mechanical similarity. Therefore, the
dimensionless group Reynold and Grashoff must be introduced into the criterial equation as independent variable.
Therefore final criterial equation of heat transfer can have following form
Nu = f (Fo, Re, Pe, Gr)

The general criterial equation can be simplified when applied to any individual problem for example- Fourier’s
number is omitted in the case of steady state flow, in forced turbulent flow the influence of free convection can be
ignored, therefore, Grasshoff number is eliminated. Hence in the case of steady state forced flow the criterial
equation is of the form-

Nu = f (Re, Pr)
Conversely in case of free flow of fluid or free convection, Reynolds’s number can be eliminated and criterial
equation will be-

Nu = f (Gr, Pr)
Finally for gases of equal valency, whose Prandle number is equal and constant, the criterial equation will be

Nu = f(Re)…..for forced flow

Nu = f(Gr)…..for free flow

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 14
TREATMENT AND GENERALIZATION OF TEST DATA, LOGARITHMIC MEAN
TEMPERATURE, DIFFERENCE REFERENCE DIMENSIONS, REFERENCE TEMPERATURE
14.1 Treatment & Generalization of Test Data

14.1.1 Averaging fluid temperature

In the process of heating and cooling fluid temperature differ at different temperature points. It varies both over
the cross section and along the length of the conduit. In engineering calculation we usually deal with mean fluid
temperature and the average is calculated by a definite way, for specific problems.
14.1.1.1 Averaging over the cross section

Where = Total heat carried by the fluid

= Heat capacity of the fluid.

If the dependence on r and cp on the temperature is ignored, the formula can be simplified:

Where v = volumetric rate of flow (m3/sec)

Further if the velocity of the fluid does not change over the cross section. The formula can be further simplified:

Now,
- In the first case averaging is based on enthalpy of fluid.

- In the 2nd case it is based on the volumetric flow rate of the fluid.

- In 3rd case, averaging is based on the cross section of the conduct.

14.1.1.2 Averaging based along the length of the conduit

In the process of heating and cooling the temperature of the fluid also varies along the length of the conduit. The
mean temperature of the fluid along the length of the fluid can be determined as the arithmetic mean of the two

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extreme values.

But this averaging method is confined to those cases where the temperature varies but little along the length of the
conduit. Therefore, in other cases averaging is done by:

Where,

tw = Wall temperature

∆t = Logarithmic mean temperature difference.

This is defined as:-

Where

= Temperature difference for cold fluid

= Temperature difference for hot fluid.

14.1.2 Reference temperature
Since the temperature of the fluid changes in the process of heat transfer, its physical property also changes.
Therefore, it is very important for the investigator either to average the physical properties or to choose the
temperature which may be referred as reference temperature. Therefore, in heating test data on heat transfer and
pressure drop one should regard as reference temperature either the temperature given for engineering
calculation or the temperature which can be easily determined.
14.1.3 Reference dimension
The reference dimension is also of great importance for the generalization of experimental data on heat transfer.
For the presentation of the data in dimension less form, the reference dimension of a round tube is its diameter
and for conduits of irregular and complex cross section, the reference dimension is the equivalent diameter which
is equal to four times the cross sectional area of the conduit divided by wetted perimeter. In case of a plate,

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reference dimension is the length of the plate in direction of flow of heat in fluid.
14.1.4 Empirical formulas in the dimensionless forms
To extend the result of any individual experiment to the similar processes, the test data may be treated in
dimensionless terms.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 15
HEAT TRANSFER BY FREE CONVECTION

15.1 Introduction

The relationship between dimensionless groups are usually presented as power functions e.g. Nu = CRen × Prm,
where c, n and m are abstract constants. Relationships of this type are purely empirical. They are employed only
within the limits of independent variable fixed by experiment. They are not to be extrapolated for larger or smaller
values of the argument.
Let us see how such relationships are practically found.

Consider Nu = CRen , Graphically this function can be expressed as a straight line on a log – log paper. (Fig.
15.1)
i.e. log Nu = Log C + n × log Re
Y = A + nx, denoting log Nu by Y, log Re by X and log c by A
n = tan φ, where φ is the angle the straight line makes with x – axis.
The constant ‘c’ is found from the relationship

holds for any point of the curve, if the test data is a curve, replace it by broken lines. Find c and n for different
regions of broken line.

Experimental studies of heat transfer in the air moving within a tube have made possible the establishment of the
following generalized relationship.

Nuf = 0.018 Re0.80

Heat transfer by free convection from different solids to fluid.

Relationship between the dimensionless groups can be represented by following power function.

Num = where m stand for mean

The vales of C and n are different for different conditions and are functions of independent variable (Gr ×Pr).
Table 15.1

C n Flow Conditions
1 × 10-3 to 5 × 10+2 1.18 1/8 Transient conditions

5 × 10+2 - 2 × 107 0.54 ¼ Flow in laminar

0.135 1/3 Flow becomes turbulent

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2 × 107 - 1 × 1013

When (Gr ×Pr)m < 1, Num = 0.5 and remains constant, which means i.e. process of heating or cooling
is fully determined by the thermal conductivity of the surroundings. This holds true only for heat transfer in film
type conditions.
The above formula is applicable to any liquids and gases at Pr ≥ 0.7 and to bodies of any shape and size.

If the liquids and gases are free flow in horizontal tubes, we can use

For air, formula is simplified as , this is convenient for practical calculations.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 16
PROBLEMS ON FREE CONVECTION

Example 16.1 Determine the hourly loss of heat from a bare vertical steam pipe whose diameter d = 100 mm
and the length h = 4 m, if the wall temperature tω = 170°C and the temperature of the surroundings (air) t f =
30°C.

First we determine the mean temperature

We then proceed to find the values of physical properties (from Table A-1) on and the dimensionless terms:

From Table 15.1 we find c = 0.54 and n =1/4.

Substituting these values into equation, we get:

Whence

The hourly heat loss

Example 16.2 Determine the equivalent thermal conductivity of a flat air layer δ = 25 mm. The temperature of the
hot surface tω1 = 150°C and of the cold surface tω2 = 50°C.

λf = kcal/m-hr-°C

vf = 2.31 . 10-5 m2/s and Prf = 0.69

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λeq = εc λ = 2.74 × 0.0276 = 0.0755 kcal/m-hr- o C

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 17
HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION
17.1 Heat Transfer by Forced Convection

17.1.1 Heat transfer in turbulent flow

In turbulent flow, heat transfer within the fluid is caused mainly by mixing. The process of mixing is of such
intensity that the fluid temperature remains practically constant over the cross – section of the core. Sharp
variation in the temperature is observed only within the boundary layer. Such distribution of temperature makes
free flow i.e., natural convection impossible. This heat transfer is fully explained by forced flow i.e., forced
convection factors. Nusselt was the first to conduct a detailed investigation in the conditions of turbulent flow of
gases.

For straight smooths tubes and fluids of widely varying main parameters:

Here the Reference temperature is mean temperature of the fluid and Reference. Dimension is equivalent

diameter = irrespective of the fraction of perimeter participating in the

process of heat exchange. Formula is applicable for any shape – round, square, rectangular, triangular or annular.

For gases, Pr ≈ constant and the formula is simplified.

∴ for air Pr ≈ 0.70

17.1.2 Heat transfer in laminar flow

Heat transfer in fluids in laminar flow may be calculated by many different formulas. None of them, however,
should be given preference. For this class, the following is recommended.

This formula gives the mean heat transfer co–efficient at 1/d > 50. It is applicable to any fluid. Mean fluid
temperature, t f and equivalent diameter are taken as reference temperature and dimension for 1/d > 50, apply
correction.
Table 17.1 Correction factor

1/d 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50

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E1 1.90 1.70 1.44 1.28 1.18 1.13 1.105 1.02 1

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 18
PROBLEMS ON FORCED CONVECTION

Example 18.1 Air flows inside a tube 60 mm in diameter (d) and 2.1 m long (l) at a velocity w = 5 m/sec. Find
the heat-transfer coefficient α if the mean air temperature t f = 100o C.

At t f = 100°C, λf = 0.0276 kcal/m-hr-°C; ν f = 23.13 × 10-6 m2/sec

Substituting these values in equation, we get

whence

kcal/m-hr-°C

Since , it is necessary to introduce the correction factor εi ; we find = 1.04 (Table 17.2)

We finally have α = α’ = 16.2 × 1.04 = 16.8 kcal/m2-hr-°C.

Example 18.2 Water flows inside a tube 50 mm in diameter (d) and 3 m long (l) at a velocity ω = 0.8 m/sec.
Determine the heat-transfer coefficient if the mean water temperature tf = 50°C and wall temperature tω = 70°C

At tf = 50°C, λf = 0.557 kcal/m2-hr-°C; ν = 5.56 × 10-7 m2/sec and Prf = 3.54

At tω = 70°C, Prω = 2.55

Substituting these values in formula, we get

From which

Since = 60, the correction factor for the length of the tube = 1.
Example 18.3 Determine the mean heat-transfer coefficient and the quantity of heat transferred in water flowing

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in a horizontal tube 3 mm in diameter (d) and 2 m long (l), if ω = 0.3 m/sec; t f = 60°C and t ω = 20°C.

We will solve the problem with the aid of formula

At t f = 60°C, λf = 0.567 kcal/m-hr-°C; νf = 0.478 × 10-6 m2/sec

β = 5.11 × 10-4 1/°C and Prf = 2.98. At t ω = 20°C, Pr = 7.02

Employing the above values, we have

The temperature difference Δt = 60 – 20 = 40°C

We find

From which

Since the ratio it is not necessary to introduce the correction factor accounting for the length of the tube.
The quantity of transferred heat:

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 19
PROBLEM ON FORCED CONVECTION (CONTINUED)
Q. 1. A thin plate of length l0 = 2 m and width α = 1.5 m is exposed to a flow of air parallel to its surface. The
velocity and temperature of the free-stream flow of air are respectively w0 = 3 m/s and t 0 = 20°C. The
temperature at the surface of the plate t w = 90°C. Determine the lengthwise mean local coefficient of heat
transfer from the plate to the air and the amount of heat transferred.
Solution:

For the air at a temperature t 0 = 20°C, ν = 15.06×10-6 m2/s, λ = 2.59×10-2 W/m-°C, Pr = 0.703. The
Reynolds number

Consequently, in the boundary layer the pattern of flow is laminar. Under these conditions the lengthwise mean
local coefficient of heat transfer from the plate to the air can be calculated from formula

Where

And the physical properties are selected for the temperature of the free-stream flow t 0.

In the case considered

And the local heat-transfer coefficient

The amount of heat transferred from the both sides of the plate

Q. 2. A flat plate of length l=1 m is exposed to air flow parallel to its surface. The velocity and temperature of
the free steam air flow ω0 = 80 m/s and t0 = 10°C. A turbulizing grid is placed upstream of the plate, resulting in
that the fluid is in turbulent flow in the boundary layer over the whole length of the plate.
Calculate the mean local coefficient of heat transfer from the surface of the plate and the value of the local heat

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transfer coefficient on the back edge. Also calculate the hydrodynamic boundary layer on the back edge of the
plate.

Solution:

With a temperature of the free-steam flow t0 = 10°C the physical properties of air are: ν = 14.16×10-6 m2/s, λ =

2.51×10-2 W /m-°C

Reynold’s number

The pattern of flow in the boundary layer on the plate is turbulent

With the plate exposed to air flow the mean heat-transfer coefficient for the turbulent boundary layer can be
calculated from the following formula

Nu = 0.032 Re0.8

Substituting the obtained value of the Reynold’s number into

For the plate in a longitudinal air flow with a turbulent boundary layer the local heat-transfer coefficient can be
calculated from the following formula

where .
The value of the local coefficient of heat transfer on the back edge of the plate can be found, assuming x = l0;

then Re = 5.65 × 106, Nu = 0.255(5.65 × 106)0.8 = 6280 and

The local thickness of the turbulent hydrodynamic boundary layer can be calculated from the formula

Substituting the value of the known quantities, we obtain at x = l0:

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Q. 3. Water flows along a tube of diameter d = 6 mm with a velocity w = 0.4 m/s. The temperature of the tube
wall tw = 50°C. What should the length of the tube be to ensure a water outlet temperature tf2 = 20°C at a water
inlet temperature tw1 = 10°C?

Solution
The lengthwise mean temperature of water

The kinematic viscosity of water v f = 1.16 × 10-6 m2 /s the Reynold’s number

and

The pattern of water flow is laminar. At a reference temperature

Consequently, the water is in viscous flow and to determine the local coefficient of heat transfer let us use
formula. Since the relative length of the tube is not known, the problem must be solved by the method of
successive approximations.

Let us assume a relative length of the tube l/d = 100 and consequently,

The physical properties of water are as follows:

Peclet number at the reference temperature

The correction for the section of hydrodynamic stabilization

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Nusselt number at the reference temperature

The heat-transfer coefficient

The amount of heat transferred through the wall

Where cpf is taken based on the mean temperature of the fluid the cpf = 15°C. On the other hand, the amount of
heat transferred

Thus, after the first approximation we find

For the second approximation we select l=0.75 m, repeat the calculation and obtain:

After the second approximation we get:

Since the assumed length of the tube coincides with a sufficient accuracy with the result obtained after the second
approximation, there is no need of the third approximation, and we may assume a length of the tube l = 0.76 m.

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Module 3. Dimensional analysis and heat transfer

Lesson 20
ASSIGNMENTS

Q. 1. Water flows with a velocity w = 0.2 m/s in a tube of diameter d = 4 mm and length l = 200 mm. The
temperature of the tube wall tw=70°C. What will the temperature at the tube outlet be, if water inlet temperature
tf1=10°C?

Answer

tf2= 27°C.

Q. 2. Oil, of the MK grade, flows in a tube with a diameter d = 10 mm. Oil temperature at the tube inlet tf1 =
80°C; the rate of oil flow = 120 kg/h. What should the length of the tube be, if it is desired that at a tube wall
temperature tw = 30°C the temperature of oil at the tube outlet tf2 be equal to 76°C?

Answer

l = 1.66 m.

Q. 3. Determine the pressure drop across a tube in which oil flows under condition assumed for problem 2.
Compare the calculated pressure drop with that, taking place when oil is in isothermal flow at the same tube inlet
temperature.

Answer

The pressure drop across the tube ∆p = 2.55 × 104. In the event of isothermal flow ∆pi = 1.05 × 104 Pa which
is about 2.5 times smaller.

Q. 4. Determine the hourly loss of heat from a bare vertical steam pipe whose diameter d = 60 mm and the
length h = 6 m, if the wall temperature = 170°C and temperature of the surroundings = 35°C

Q. 5. Air flows inside a tube 50 mm in diameter and 2.4 m long at a velocity = 5m/sec. Find the heat-transfer
co-efficient, if the mean air temperature = 110°C.
Q.6. Water flows inside a tube 40mm in diameter and 5 m long at a velocity = 0.8 m/sec. Determine the heat-
transfer coefficient if the mean water temperature = 50°C and wall temperature = 70°C
Q.7. Determine the mean heat-transfer co-efficient and the quality of heat transferred in water flowing in a
horizontal tube 3.2 mm in diameter and 2.5 m long. If w = 0.36 m/sec, tf = 60°C and tw =20°C

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Module 4. Radiation heat transfer

Lesson 21
THERMAL RADIATION

21.1 General Conceptions and Definitions

Radiant energy is the result of complicated molecular and atomic disturbances and occurs at the expense of other
kinds of energy, mostly thermal. In a heated body, therefore, part of the thermal energy inevitably transforms into
radiant energy. Since the temperature of the body is the original cause of interatomic disturbances, the quantity of
generated radiant energy is determined by and essentially depends on temperature only.
Radiant energy is propagated by electromagnetic waves of a length ranging from fractions of a micron to many
kilometers. Such waves are called Roentgen, ultraviolet, visible-light, infrared rays and electromagnetic waves.
The properties of these rays are different. We are interested most in rays which are absorbed by the substances
and the energy of which turns into heat energy in the course of absorption. Visible light and infrared rays, i.e.,
rays of a wavelength ranging approximately from 0.4 to 40 microns, possess such properties in the greatest
measure. These rays are known as heat rays and the process of their propagation as thermal radiation or
radiation. (Fig. 21.1)

Since the nature of heat and visible- light-rays is one and the same, their physical properties are essentially similar
too. The only difference is their wavelength: the wavelength of visible rays is 0.4-0.8 microns and that of heat
rays ranges from 0.8 to 40 microns. The laws of propagation, reflection and refraction of visible rays also hold
for heat rays. Therefore, in order to conceive better any complicated phenomena of thermal radiation, it is always
justifiable to draw an analogy with visible-light radiation of which we know more and which is directly
observable.

Radiation is the property of all substances, and each continuously emits energy. The incident energy is partly
absorbed, partly reflected, and a fraction of it passes through the body. The fraction of the incident radiant
energy absorbed by the body again transforms into thermal energy. The reflected energy impinges upon other
(surrounding) bodies and is absorbed by the latter. This also happens to the incident radiant energy passing
through the body. Thus, after a series of absorption, radiant energy is fully distributed among the surrounding
bodies. Hence, each body not only emits radiant energy continuously but also absorbs it continuously.
The process of radiant heat exchange is the result of these phenomena, linked with the double reciprocal
transformation of energy (thermal-radiant-thermal). The amount of heat lost or absorbed is determined by the
difference between the thermal energy radiated and absorbed by the substance. This difference is not zero if the
bodies participating in the interchange of radiant energy are at different temperatures.

At equal temperature, the entire system is in the so-called mobile thermal equilibrium. In this case, all the
bodies in the system also emit and absorb, but the amount of the energy absorbed is equal to that emitted in each
given case.

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The unit of radiant energy is the amount equivalent to one large calorie. The amount of energy Q emitted by the
body per unit time is expressed in Kcal/hr. The amount of energy emitted by unit area per unit time is called the
radiant power of a body and is denoted by E, hence,

E = Q / F[kcal/m2-hr]
Assuming that of all the incident energy Qo , the fraction QA is absorbed, QR reflected and QD passes through
the body,
QA + QR + QD =
Qo
….…..(a)

Dividing both sides of equation (a) by Qo , we have

…..
….(b)
The first term of the relationship (b) characterizes absorptivity A of the body, the second, reflectivity R and the
third, trasmissivity D. Hence,
A + R + D =
1
………(c)
These values are dimensionless and vary from 0 to 1.
If A = 1 then R = 0 and D = 0; this means that incident energy entirely absorbed by the body. Such body is
defined as a black body.
If R = 1, A = 0 and D = 0; this means that all the incident radiant energy is reflected, and if the reflection is
correct, the body is called specular, and an absolutely white body in case of diffused reflection.
If D = 1, A = 0 and R = 0; this means that the entire incident radiant energy passes through the body. Such
bodies are called absolutely transparent or diathermanous.
There are no absolutely black, white and transparent bodies in nature, and these conceptions are conditional
when applied to real bodies. The value A, R and D depend on the nature of the body, its temperature and
radiation wavelength. Air, for example, is transparent to heat rays, but the presence of water vapour or carbon
dioxide makes air semitransparent to heat rays.
Solids and liquids are practically nontransparent (athermanous) to heat rays, i.e. D = 0; in this case
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A + R = 1

………. (d)
From relationship (d) it follows that a body of good reflectivity possesses poor absorptivity, and vice versa.

There are bodies, however, which are diathermanous (transparent) only to waves of a certain length. For
example, quartz is athermanous (semi transparent) to heat rays of a wavelength λ > 4 microns and diathermanous
to visible-light and ultraviolet rays. Rock salt, on the contrary, is diathermanous to heat rays and athermanous to
ultraviolet rays. Window glass is transparent to visible-light and almost nontransparent to ultraviolet and heat
rays.
This goes for absorption and reflection too. A white surface is a good reflector only for visible light. This
property is made wide use of in everyday life- white summer cloth, white-painted refrigerator cars, tanks and
other facilities where insolation is undesirable. On the other hand, white cloth and paint absorb invisible heat rays
just as well as black cloth and paint. The absorption and reflection of heat rays depend greatly on the state of the
surface and not its colour. The reflectivity of smooth and polished surfaces is many times higher than that of rough
surfaces, irrespective of their colour.
The absorptivity of bodies is increased by coating surfaces with a layer of dark, rough paint, with oil black
usually employed for this purpose. But even oil black absorbs only 90-96 per cent; it is not an absolutely black
body. There is no such thing in nature, but it can be created artificially.
A hole in the wall of a hollow body possesses the property of a black body. For such a hole A =1 because it
may be assumed that the ray penetrating that hole is absorbed entirely inside the hollow body. All values
pertaining to an absolutely black body shall hereafter be denoted by (0).

If the radiant powder of a body is E1, it means the body emits E1 [kcal/m2-hr]; this is the emission of the body
proper and it depends only on the temperature of the body and its physical properties. At the same time, the
considered body is affected by radiation E2 [kcal/sq m-hr] from the surroundings; this is defined as incident
radiation. A fraction of incident radiation equal to A1E2 is absorbed by the body-it is absorbed radiation; the
rest (1-A1) E2 is reflected- it is reflected radiation. Radiation of the body proper plus reflected radiation is
known as the effective radiation of the body. Eeff = E1 + (1-A1) E2. This effective radiation of the body we
can perceive or measure with the aid of instruments; it exceeds the radiation of the body proper by (1-A1) E2.

The physical properties of proper and reflected radiation differ and their spectra differ too for incident radiation
E2 depends on temperature and the properties of surrounding bodies. This, however, is immaterial for practical
calculations which consider only the energy- transport phenomena of the process.

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Module 4. Radiation heat transfer

Lesson 22
BASIC LAWS OF THERMAL RADIATION, PLANK’S LAW

22.1 Basic Laws of Thermal Radiation

22.1.1 Plank’s law

The radiant power of a body E is defined as the amount of energy emitted by unit area per unit time for
electromagnetic waves of a length ranging from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. However, for a detailed study of a phenomenon
it is also important to know the law of radiant energy distribution in respect to wavelengths at different
temperatures, Eλ = f( λ,T). The value Eλ is the radiant power of the body for wavelengths ranging from λ to λ+d
λ referred to the interval of wavelength d λ under consideration. Hence,

and this value is called spectral intensity or simply radiation intensity, expressed in kcal/m2-hr-micron or
kcal/m3-hr.

Plank has succeeded in determining theoretically the law governing the change in radiation intensity as a function
of wavelength for a black body:

Where λ = wavelength, m;
T = absolute temperature of body, o K;
e = natural logarithm base;
c1 = constant, equal to 3.17 x 10-16 kcal/m2-hr;

c2 = constant, equal to 1.44 x 10-2 m- o K.

Plank’s law illustrates that at λ = 0 radiation energy is zero. E0λ first increases with λ and reaches its maximum at
a certain λm, then diminishes and drops again to zero at λ = ∞. With the increase in temperature, the maximum of
radiant energy shifts towards the shorter waves. Wien’s law relates T and λm by the following expression:

λmT= 2.9 [mm-°K].

The total amount of energy emitted by waves of all lengths is obviously

The value E0 is called integrated or total radiation, though it is nothing but the radiant power of a black

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body.

Further at temperatures common in engineering the energy of visible radiation (λ = 0.4-0.8) is negligible
compared with infrared radiation (λ = 0.8-40.0).
For real bodies, the variation in radiation intensity with the wavelength and temperature can be determined only
by an experimental study of their spectra. Bodies whose radiation spectrum is continuous and the curve Eλ = f(λ)

is similar to the corresponding curve of a black body at the same temperature, i.e. = const for all
wavelengths, are called gray bodies. Experiments reveal that most technical materials are gray bodies.

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Module 4. Radiation heat transfer

Lesson 23
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW, KIRCHOFF’S LAW, LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

23.1 Stefan-Boltzmann law

The full amount of energy emitted per square meter of a black body per hour is

Integrating equation

[Kcal/m2-hr]
Here is the radiation constant of a black body, equal to 4.9 x 10-8 kcal/m2-hr-°K4, according to latest
data. The equation is the mathematical expression of the Stefan- Boltzmann law. In engineering calculations, this
law is used in the following, more convenient, form:

Where C0 is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant; C0 = 0 × 108 = 4.9 kcal/m2-hr-°K4. Hence, radiation
energy is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature. The Stefan- Boltzmann law strictly applies
only to an ideal radiator-a black body. Stefan and other investigators, however, have shown by experiment that
this law is applicable to gray bodies as well. In this case, it acquires the following form:

The radiation factor C is different for different bodies. It depends on the nature of the body, the state of its
surface and temperature; C is always smaller than C0 and may range from 0 to 4.9.

Comparing the radiation energy of a gray body with that of a black body at the same temperature, we get
another characteristic of the body called the relative radiant power or emissivity ε:

.
23.2 Kirchhoff’s law

Kirchhoff’s law establishes the relationship between the emissivity and the absorptivity of a body. This
relationship may be obtained by studying radiant interchange between two surfaces.
Consider two surfaces, one gray and the other absolutely black. The surfaces are arranged parallel to each other

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and so close that the radiation of each impinges upon the other. The temperature, emissive power and
absorptivity of the surfaces are, respectively, T, E, A and T0, Eo , Ao ; A0 = 1 and T>T0. Let us write the energy
balance for the gray surface. A unit area of the gray surfaces emits per unit time a certain amount of energy E
[kcal/m2-hr]. The energy impinging upon the black surface is fully absorbed by it. In its turn, the black surface
emits E0 [kcal/m2-hr]. A portion AE0 of this energy is absorbed by the gray body, and the remaining portion,
equal to (1-A) E0, is reflected and fully absorbed by the black surface. Thus, for the gray surface the energy
input is AE and expenditure E. Consequently, the balance of radiant interchange is

Eres = q= E-AE0 [kcal/m2-hr].

Radiant interchange between two surfaces also takes place when T = T0. In this case, the system is in mobile
thermal equilibrium and q = 0. Then, from equation we have

The relationship is applicable to any body and therefore may be rewritten as follows:

.
In this form, Kirchhoff’s law is formulated thus: For all bodies the ratio of the emissive power to absorptivity
is the same and is equal to the emissive power of a black body at the same temperature, and depends
only on the temperature.
From Kirchhoff’s law it also follows that the emissive power of bodies increases along with their absorptivity. If
the absorptivity A of a body is low, its emissive power E is low too. Therefore, good reflectors are poor
emitters; for instance, the emissive power of an absolutely white body is zero.

23.3 Lambert’s law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law determines the energy emitted by a body in all directions. Each direction is
determined by the angle which the emitted rays form with the normal to the surface. Lambert’s law defines the
variation of radiation in individual directions. According to this law, the rate of radiation from surface element
dF1 , in the direction of surface element dF2 is proportional to the rate of radiation along the normal dQn
multiplied by the solid angle d and cos i.e. (Fig. 23.1)

d cos [kcal/hr]
Or
d cos [kcal/hr]

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Module 4. Radiation heat transfer

Lesson 24
RADIANT INTERCHANGE BETWEEN SOLIDS

24.1 Radiant Interchange Between Solids

Knowing the laws of radiation, absorption and reflection, and also the dependence of radiation on direction, it is
possible to derive calculation formulas for radiant interchange between solids. The problem may be approached
in different ways. For a body taken by itself, the thing is to determine the rate of heat radiation into the
surrounding medium. Writing the heat balance, we get

q1= E1eff – E2eff = E1-A1 E2eff [kcal/m2-hr]

………(1)

where E1= radiation of the body proper , kcal/m2-hr;

E1eff = E1 + (1-A1) E2eff is the effective radiation of the solid, kcal/m2-hr;

E2eff = impinging effective radiation emitted from surrounding bodies, kcal/m2-hr.

The impinging radiant heat can be determined only by measurement with the aid of special instruments- radiation
meters or actinometers.

This method of calculation is employed in cases where the temperature and the emissive power of the
surrounding bodies are not known. In heat engineering, it is usually required to calculate the radiant interchange
between bodies whose state of surface, size and temperature are known. These data permit determination of the
quantity of heat emitted from both bodies by means of the Stefan Boltzmann law. In this case the essential thing is
to take into account the effect of the shape and size of the bodies, relative position, distance between the
bodies and their emissivity. (Fig. 24.1)
Radiant interchange is a complex process of multiple attenuated absorptions and reflections. Part of the emitted
heat returns again to the emitter, thereby slowing down the process of radiant-heat interchange. By way of
illustration, let us consider the turnover of radiant heat in the simplest case of radiant-heat interchange between
two parallel surfaces. The temperature, emissive power and absorptivity of the surfaces are, respectively, T1, E1,
A1 and T2, E2, A2.

The first surface emits

E1.
………(a)
Of the emitted heat E1 the second surface absorbs

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E1A2

……… (b)
And reflects E1 (1-
A2)
……… (c)
Of this, the first surface absorbs
E1 (1-A2)
A1
……… (d)
And reflects
E1(1-A2)(1-A1).

……… (e)
The second surface again absorbs
E1(1-A2)(1-
A1)A2.
……… (f)
And reflects
E1(1-A2)2​
(1-
A1),
……… (g)
of which the first surface again absorbs
E1(1-A2)2​
(1-A1)A1….

……… (h)
and so on ad-infinitum.
The same reasoning is applicable to the radiation of the second surface, namely, the second surface emits E2; of
this quantity of heat emitted, the first surface absorbs E2A1 and reflects E2(1-A1), etc. The considered process
of radiant-heat interchange is graphically shown.
In order to determine the quantity of heat q12 transferred by the first surface to the second by radiation, one has
to subtract from the initially emitted heat E1, first, the portion of heat reflected by the second surface and
absorbed again by the first surface and, secondly, the portion of heat absorbed of the heat emitted by the second

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surface. The first subtrahend may be found by summation of the expressions (d), (h), etc.

E1(1+p+p2+…) (1-
A2)A1,
……… (i)
where (1-A2) (1-A1) is assumed equal to p for convenience sake.
Since p<1, the sum of the infinitely decreasing geometric progression

1+p+p2+…=
Substituting this value in expression (e), we get

……….(j)

The second subtrahend may be written as follows:

……… (k)

From these expressions we find

……… (l)
Reducing to the common denominator and taking into account that

,
we finally get

The same result is obtained if the effective radiation of surfaces is considered. According to equation no.1

……… (m)
where

and

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Solving the system (n) in respect to E1eff and E2eff we get

……… (o)

……… (p)

Substituting the equation (o) and (p) in equation (m), we have:

S B Law
According to equation,

and .
Substituting these values and rearranging the expression, we finally get

[kcal/m2-hr],
where

and

This is the calculation formula for radiant-heat interchange between two parallel surfaces. The factors An and Cn
are called the reduced absorption and radiation factors of radiant-heat interchange between a system of
bodies. Since A is numerically equal to ε, it may be replaced by ε.

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ÉÅç ì êëÉëKåÇêáKêÉëKáåLã ç ç ÇäÉLÑáäÉKéÜéLQMLi Éëëç å| ORKÜíã

Module 5. Heat exchangers

Lesson 25
DESIGN OF HEAT-EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT
25.1 Design Fundamentals
25.1.1 Classification of heat exchangers

Ah eatexc hang eri

sa nap parat
us,i
nwh i
chthepr oce
sse
sofhea
ti
ngorcool
in
goc c
ur,i.
e.heati
str
ans
fer
redf
rom
ones ubstancet oa no t
he r
.Th er
ea real a
rgen umberofdi
ff
eren
theat
-exch
angea ppar
atu
s e
svary
ingbot
hin
appli
cati
ona n d design.I nr es
pectt ot hepr i
nci
pl
e ofoper
ati
on he
ate xc
hangersma y bediv
idedint
o
recuperative, regenerative a
nddirect-contact.

I
nhe
ate
xchang
ersoft
here
cuper
ati
vev
ari
et
y,col
dandh
otfl
u i
dsf
lowsi
mul
t
aneou
slyt
hrought
hehea
texch
anger
a
ndt
hehea
tistr
ans
fer
redt
hro
ughawalls
epar
ati
ngt
hef
lui
ds.Thi
sgrou
puni
t
essuchhe
a t
-t
ran
sfe
requi
pmenta
s
s
tea
mboi
l
ers
,he
ate
rs,c
ond
ens
ers
,et
c.
Are
genera
ti
veh eatex
changeri
sanappar
a t
usi
nwh i
c honeandthesamehea
ti
ngs ur
faceisal
ter
nate
lyexposed
t
oth
eh otandco l
dfl
uids.Thehea
tcar
ri
edbyt hehotli
qui
distakenawayanda c
cumu l
atedinth
ewa l
lsofthe
a
ppar
atus
,andi sthe
nt r
ansf
err
edtoth
ec ol
dflui
dflowin
gthrou
g hth
eheatexc
h a
nger.Re g
enera
tor
sofope n-
h
ear
thandglas
s-me l
t
ingfur
nace
s,ai
rheat
ersofbl
astfur
nace
s,aresomeofth
es peci
me nsofreg
enerat
i
veh e
at-
e
xch
angeequipment.
Thepr
ocessof
heatt
ran
sferi
nre
cupe
rat
iveandr egenerat
i
veh ea
tex
cha
nge
rsi
sin
evi
t
abl
ybou
ndwi
t
hth
esu
rfa
ce
ofasol
i
d.That
iswhythe
ya r
eknownassurface exchangers.

I
nhea
t-t
ran
sfe
requi
pmen
tofdi
rect
-con
tactt
ypetheproces
sofheattr
ans
feroccu
rst
hroughdi
rec
tcont
acta
nd
t
hemi
xin
go fhota
ndcoldf
lui
ds.Int
hiscas
e ,he
attran
sfe
risaccompani
edbyma s
st r
ansf
er.Wat
er-
cool
in
g
t
ower
sandscru
bber
sar
etwoofthespe
cimensoft
hiski
ndofhea
t-e
x c
hangeequ
ipmen
t.

Thespec
ialn
amesgiv
ent oheat
-ex
changeappa
rat
use
sa r
eu su
all
ydete
rmine
d bythei
rappl
i
cat
ionand
de
sig
nat
i
on–f orex
amp l
e,st
eam boi
l
ers
,fur
nace
s,waterhea
ter
s,eva
porat
ors
,supe
rhe
ater
s,c
ondens
ers
,
d
ear
ators
,et
c.Inspi
teoft
hegre
atvar
ie
tyofs
hapes
,la
you
ts,pr
in
cipl
esofoper
ati
onan
dwor ki
ngmedi
a,hea
t-
e
xch
an g
ea ppa
rat
use
sult
imat
el
ys e
rveonean
dt h
es a
mepu r
pose–t r
ansf
erofhea
tfrom on
e,ho
tflui
d,to
a
not
her
,col
dfl
ui
d.Th
ede
sig
nfu
nda
men
tal
sar
eth
ere
for
ecommont
oal
l
.
Thed e si
gno fan ewa pparatusisa i
meda tdetermining the heating surface, or
,ift
helat
te
risknown,the
operating conditions and outlet temperature of the working fluids. Th
efoll
owingca
lcu
lat
i
onfor
mu l
asare
e
mpl
oye
dinb
othc
ase
s:
He
at-
tr
ans
fere
qua
ti
on
Q=k
F(t
1–t
2)kc
al/
hr

An
deq
uat
i
onofh
eatba
lan
ce

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Her
ea n
db el
owthesubs
cri
pt1i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
heva
lue
sper
tai
ntotheh
otfl
ui
dandt
hesu
bscr
ipt2t
othec
old.
Th
es u
pers
cri
p ʼ)i
t( n
dic
atest
hei
nl
ett
emper
atu
rea
ndthes
uper
scri
pt( )t
heout
l
ett
empe
rat
ureoft
hewor
king
f
l
uid.
ϝi
scr
osss
ect
i
ona
lar
eaa
ndω i
sfl
ui
dve
loc
it
y.
I
nder
ivi
ngt
hecal
cul
ati
onhea
t-t
ran
sferf
ormul
asi
twa sas
sumedt
hatth
etempera
tur
eofthewor
kingf
lui
dremai
ns
c
ons
tant
atanypoi
ntoft
heheat
-t
ransf
erappa
rat
us.Thi
sassu
mpt
ion,howeve
r,i
stru
eonlyf
orboi
li
ngli
qui
dsand
c
onde
nsi
ngvapou
rs.I
ng e
ner
alcas
es,th
etemper
atur
eofthewor
kingfl
ui
dinheate
xcha
nger
svari
es,
thehotf
l
uid
c
ool
san
dth
ecol
dfl
ui
dhe
ats
.Th
ete
mpe
rat
ur
edr
ope
xis
ti
ngbe
twe
ent
hei
nt
era
cti
ngf
l
uidsΔt
i=(
t1–t
2)
ich
ang
es
wi
tht
hetemper
at
ure
s.Insu
chcondi
t
ion
she
at-
tr
ans
fere
qua
ti
onma
ybea
ppl
i
edt
oane
leme
ntoft
hes
urf
acedF
on
lyi
nth
ed i
f
fer
ent
ia
lfor
m,namel
y,

dQ =kΔt
idFi (
kca
l/
hr)

Thetot
ala
mou
ntofh
eatt
ra
nsf
er
redt
hrou
ght
hee
nti
res
urf
aceF ma
ybede
ter
min
ed byi
nt
egr
ati
ngt
hi
s
ex
pre
ssi
on:

Th
isi
sth
eca
lcu
lat
i
onf
ormu
laf
orh
eatt
ran
sfe
r.He
re∆ti
sth
eme
ant
empe
rat
uredr
opov
ert
hee
nti
reh
eat
i
ng
s
urf
ace
.
Th
econ
ceptof
thes
o-c
all
edwater equivalent of the heat carrier W i
sofg
rea
timpor
tan
cei
nhe
atc
alc
ula
ti
ons
.
Th
enu
mer
ic
alv
alu
eoft
hee
qui
val
entW d
ete
rmi
nest
hea
mou
ntofwa
terwh
oseh
eatc
apa
cit
yise
qui
val
entt
oth
e
h
eatc
apa
cit
yoft
heh
our
lyf
l
uxof
thec
ons
ide
redf
l
uid,i
.
e.
W =ωγ
ƒcp=Vγ
cp=Gc
p[kc
al/
hr-
°C]
,
Wh
ereω=h
our
lyv
eloc
it
yoft
hec
ons
ide
redf
l
uid;
V=h
our
lyv
olu
met
ri
cra
teoff
l
uidf
l
ow;
G=h
our
lyma
ssr
ateof
fl
ui
dfl
ow.
Th
ein
tro
duc
ti
onoft
hewa
tere
qui
val
enti
nt
oth
ehe
at-
bal
anc
eequ
ati
ong
ive
sth
ela
tt
ert
hef
ol
lowi
ngf
orm:

Fr
omwh
ich

Th
ela
tt
erf
ormu
lame
anst
hatthe ratio of temperature differences of the working fluids is inversely
proportional to the ratio of their water equivalents. Su
char
el
at
ion
shi
phol
dsbot
hfort
hee
nti
reh
eat
i
ng
surf
aceFa ndf oreache l
e me ntdF o ft
hissurfac
e ,i
.e.
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 Heat and Mass Transfer
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wh
eredt 1 a
nddt 2 a
ret
hec
han
gesi
nth
ete
mpe
rat
ureoft
hewor
kin
gfl
ui
dsa
cros
sane
leme
ntoft
heh
eat
i
ng
s
urf
ace
.
Th
ema
nne
rinwh
icht
het
empe
rat
ureoft
hewor
kin
gfl
ui
dsv
ari
esa
lon
gth
ehe
ati
ngs
urf
acede
pen
dsont
he
d
ire
cti
ono
fth
etwof
l
owsa
ndont
her
ati
ooft
hewa
tere
qui
val
ent
soft
hec
ons
ide
redf
l
uids
.Wh
enbot
hfl
ui
ds
f
lowp as ttheh e
ati
ngsur
fac
eofth
eheate
xchan
geri
nth
esamedi
rec
ti
onan
dparal
l
elt
oe a
chothe
r,th
isi
scal
l
ed
parallel flow. I
na not
hergr
oupofh
eatexc
hange
rst
hetwofl
ui
dsfl
owpar
al
le
ltoeachoth
er,buti
noppos
it
e
d
ire
cti
on.Th
isa
rra
nge
men
tisc
all
edcounterflow. Fi
nal
l
y,h
eate
xch
ang
ersi
nwh
icht
het
wol
i
qui
dsa
redi
re
cte
d
a
tri
ghta
ngl
est
oe a
chot
herar
ecal
le
dcrossflow exc
hange
r s
.Besi
dest
hes
es i
mplef
l
owa r
ran
gement
s,t
her
eare
i
nin
dust
ri
alpr
act
i
cehea
te x
chan
gersf
eat
u r
ingc omple
xflow a
rran
gemen
ts:combi
nedpar
all
ela
ndc r
oss
fl
ow,
mu
lt
i-
pas
scr
ossf
l
ow(
Fig
.25.
1).

Fig. 25.1 Typical arrangements of fluid flow in heat exchangers

Thefou
rpai
rsofc
urv
espl
ot
tedc
har
act
eri
zeth
etempe
rat
uretr
endsofbot
hli
qui
dsast
heyf
l
owa l
ongth
eheat
i
ng
su
rfa
ce,de
pendi
ngonwh
ethe
rth
efl
owisp a
ral
le
lorc
ount
e rf
l
ow,a ndonwhet
herW1isl
arg
erorsmal
le
rth
an

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 Heat and Mass Transfer
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W2.I
nth
efi
gur
est
heh
eat
i
ngs
urf
aceFi
spl
ot
te
dal
ongt
hea
bsc
iss
aan
dth
ete
mpe
rat
ureoft
hewor
kin
gfl
ui
ds

a
lon
gtheor
din
ate
.Th eg
raphss
how t
hatt
hebi
gges
tc h
angei
nthete
mpe r
atu
r '
et "=δto
–t c
cur
sint
hef
l
uid
p
osses
si
ngt
hesmal
le
rwatere
qui
val
ent
ofth
etwoconsi
dere
dfl
ui
ds(Fi
g.25.
2).

Fig. 25.2 Variation in fluid temperature in parallel-flow & counter flow heat exchangers

An
aly
zin
gth
egr
aph
s,wes
eet
hati
npa
ral
l
elf
l
ow t
hef
i
nalou
tl
ett
empe
rat
ureoft
hec
oldf
l
uid i
sal
way
sle
ss
t
hant
heou
tl
ett
empe
rat
ure oft
heh
otf
l
uid.Ont
heot
herh
and,i
ncou
nte
rfl
owt
heou
tl
ett
empe
rat
ure oft
he
c
oldf
l
uidma
yex
cee
dth
eou
tl
ett
empe
rat
ure oft
heh
otf
l
uid.He
nce
,ac
oldf
l
uidofon
ean
dth
esa
mei
nl
et
t
emper
atu
remayb
ehe
ate
dinc
oun
terf
l
ow t
oah
igh
ert
empe
rat
uret
hani
nth
eca
seofapa
ral
l
elf
l
ow
a
rra
ngement
.
I
npar
al
le
lfl
ow,th
etempe
rat
uredi
f
fer
enc
ea l
ongt
hehe
ati
ngsu
rfa
ce,c
hange
stoagr
eat
erext
entt
hani
nc oun
ter
f
l
ow.Atthesa
met i
met
hetemper
atu
redi
ff
ere
ncei
ncount
erf
lowisl
arg
ertha
ninapar
al
le
l-f
l
owa r
ran
ge men
t,
a
ndbecau
seofth
isfac
toral
oneac oun
terf
lowh e
atexc
han
gerismorecompact
.If,howev
er,th
etemperat
ureof
e
venoneoft
hewo r
kingfl
ui
dsi
sc ons
tan
t,t
h emeante
mperat
uredi
ff
eren
ceisonea n
dthesame,notwi
ths
tan
ding
t
hef
lowarr
ang
eme n
t.Thi
sisexa
ctl
ywh ath
a ppe
nsint
hecaseofboi
l
ingli
qui
dsandc on
dens
ingvapour
sorinthe
c
asewh
eret
her
ateoff
l
owofon
eof
thewo
rki
ngl
i
qui
dsi
ssoh
ight
hati
t
ste
mpe
rat
urec
han
gesv
eryl
i
tt
le
.
Ha
vin
gex
ami
nedt
heg
ene
ral
equ
ati
onspe
rt
ai
ni
ngt
oth
ede
sig
nofh
eat
-ex
cha
ngea
ppa
rat
use
san
dsi
zedu
pth
e
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 Heat and Mass Transfer
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t
empe
rat
ur
ed u
tyo
fhe
at-
exc
han
gee
qui
pme
nt,l
etu
snowpr
oce
edt
oamor
ede
tai
l
edi
nve
sti
gat
i
onoft
hev
alu
es
o
fequ
ati
on.

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Module 5. Heat exchangers

Lesson 26
MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, CALCULATING THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF
WORKING FLUIDS
26.1 Mean Temperature Difference

In deriving the formula for the mean temperature difference, consider a parallel-flow heat exchanger of
elementary design. The amount of heat transferred from the hot fluid to the cold fluid per hour through a surface
element dF is determined from the following equation:

dQ = k(t1 – t2)x dF (kcal/hr).

………(a)
In the course of heat transfer the temperature of the hot fluid will decrease by dt1 and the temperature of the cold
fluid increase by dt2.

Hence

dQ = -G1cp1dt1 = G2cp2dt2,

……… (b)

From which

………(c)

………(d)

and the change in the temperature difference is equal to

………(e)
Where

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Substituting the value of dQ from equation (a) into equation (e), we get

d(t1 – t2) = – mk(t1 – t2)x dF.

………(f)
Denoting the difference (t1 – t2)x by Δtx and separating the variables, we get

………(g)

If m and k are constant, integration of equation (g) gives

Or

………(h)

From which
=

………(i)
From equation (i) it is seen that along the heating surface the temperature difference or potential changes in
accordance with the exponential law. Knowing this law, it is easy to determine the mean temperature difference
∆t. The theorem of the mean permits the following expression (at k = const) to be written:

………(j)

Substituting the values of mkF and e-mkF from equations (h) and (i) into equation (j) and bearing in mind that,
according to the graph, ∆tx = Δt” at the end of the heating surface, we finally have

Or

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For a counter flow heat exchange, the only difference being that the right side of equation (d) must be taken with
a minus sign and, consequently,

The final formula for the mean temperature difference of a counter flow arrangement has the following
appearance:

The arithmetic mean is always larger than the logarithmic mean. But at the difference between the two
means is less than 3 per cent. Such an error is fully admissible in engineering calculations.

Example. A chilled water tank is designed to cool hourly 250 l of hot liquid of gravity γ1 = 1,100 kg/m3 and

heat capacity cp1 = 0.727 kcal/kg-°C, t’ = 120°C to t1" = 50°C. 1,000 l of water per hour is available for

cooling purposes at a temperature t2’ = 10°C. Determine the required heating surface of parallel flow and

counterflow apparatus, if k = 1,000 kcal/m2-hr-°C.

Solution: First let us determine the water equivalents W1 and W2:

W1 = 0.250 X 1,000 X 0.727 = 200 kcal/hr-°C.

W2 = 1 X 1000 X 1 = 1,000 kcal/hr-°C.

Δtʹʹ = 50-24 = 26°C;

For counterflow
;

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The quantity of transferred heat is determined by formula

Q = G1cp1 ( ) = W1 = 200 X (120-50) = 14,000 kcal/hr

Knowing Q and ∆t, it is easy to find the product kF by equation.

For parallel flow

For counter flow

Hence for parallel flow F = 240/1,000 = 0.24 m2 and for counter flow F = 218/1,000 = 0.22 m2.
26.2 Calculating the Outlet Temperature of Working Fluids
The goal of the calculations studied above was to determine the heating surface and principal dimensions of the
heat exchanger for designing the apparatus in the future. Now consider a heat exchanger which already exists or
has at least been designed. In this case, calculations aim at determining the outlet temperatures of the working
fluids. Calculations of this kind are referred as checking calculations.
In a problem of this kind the following data are known: heating surface F, overall heat-transfer coefficient k,
water equivalents W1 and W2 and inlet temperatures and . The outlet temperatures and and the
amount of transferred heat must be determined.
In approximate calculations one may depart from the following. The amount of heat lost by the hot fluid is equal
to
Q = W1 ( ) (kcal/hr),

From which the outlet temperature of the fluid is determined by the relationship

………(a)
And correspondingly for the cold fluid
Q = W2 ( ) (kcal/hr),

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And

………(b)
Assuming the variation in the temperatures of the working fluids linear,

………(c)
Replacing the unknowns and by their values from equations (a) and (b), we obtain

………(d)
Further rearrangement of the equation gives

………(e)
From which we finally get

Knowing the amount of transferred heat Q, it is very simple to determine the outlet temperatures of the working
fluids and by formulas (a) and (b).
Although simple, this method of calculation is used only for approximate calculations and in cases of slight
changes in the temperature of the working fluids. In general cases, the final outlet temperature depends on flow
arrangement. Given below, therefore, is a method of deriving more precise formulas for parallel-flow and counter
flow arrangements.

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Module 5. Heat exchangers

Lesson 27
PARALLEL FLOW, COUNTER FLOW

27.1 Parallel Flow

It has been shown above that the change in the temperature difference follows the exponential law

Δt” = Δt’ e-mkF

Knowing that

And that at the end of the heating surface Δt” = , we substitute these values

This equation, however, shows only the temperature differences. It may be used to determine the individual outlet
temperatures by subtracting both members of the equation from unity:

Inserting this value into the left side of equation, we obtain

The latter equation shows that the change in the temperature of the hot fluid δt1 is equal to a certain function Π of

the initial temperature difference and this fraction depends only on the two dimensionless terms and

.
Processing in a similar way, we may derive the expression characterizing the change in the temperature of the
cold fluid from formula

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Having determined the variation in the temperature of the working fluids and knowing their inlet temperatures, it is
easy to determine the final outlet temperatures:

The rate of heat transfer is determined by multiplying the water equivalent of the considered fluid by its change in
temperature:

The function is plotted in Fig. 27.1.

Example 2. Consider a water cooler with a heating surface F = 8 m2. Determine the outlet temperatures of the
fluids and the hourly rate of heat transfer Q for the following given data: V1 = 0.25 m3/hr, γ1 = 1,100 kg/m3, cp1
= 0.727 kcal/kg-°C and = 120°C. 1,000 l of cooling water a temperature = 10°C are available per hour.
Besides, it is known that the overall heat transfer coefficient k = 30 kcal/m2-hr-°C.
W1 = 0.25 X 1,100 X 0.727 = 200 kcal/hr-°C.

W2 = 1 X 1000 X 1 = 1,000 kcal/hr-°C.

The value of the function π is read off the graph (refer Fig. 27.1)

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Fig. 27.1 -- auxiliary function used to calculate outlet temperature in parallel flow heat
exchangers

The change (drop) in the hot fluid temperature is equal to

Hence the outlet temperature of the hot fluid is equal to

The amount of heat transferred per hour is determined by the expression):

The change in the temperature of the cold fluid is determined by equation), but it may also be found from the
relationship Q = W2 , from which

and .
27.2 Counter Flow
Calculation formulas for a counter flow arrangement are derived in the same way as for parallel flow. The final
calculation formulas assume the following form:

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In a particular case where the formulas acquire the following form:

The function is used to calculate outlet temperature in counter flow heat exchanger (refer Fig. 27.2).

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Fig. 27.2 -- auxiliary function used to calculate outlet temperature in counter flow heat
exchangers

If the above formulas are used to calculate the temperatures of the working fluids and the amounts of heat
transferred intermediate points of the heating surface, F is replaced by Fx; this is done only in the numerator and
the value of the whole surface F is left in the denominator.

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Module 6. Unsteady state heat transfer

Lesson 28
INTENSIFICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER

In solving practical heat-transfer problems, it may be necessary to identify the process in some cases and to
reduce it by all possible mean in other. For elementary processes of heat transfer requirement may be fulfilled by
utilizing the laws governing the variations in these processes.

The thermal resistance of a wall may be reduced by diminishing its thickness and making it of a material of
greater thermal conductivity; heat transfer by convection may be intensified by stirring the fluid and increasing
flow velocity; in boiling, intensification can be achieved by stirring the liquid and cleaning the heating surface, and
in condensation by properly arranging the cooling surface, cleaning it and increasing the velocity of steam flow;
finally, in heat radiation the process is intensified by increasing the emissivity and temperature of the emitting
surface. These and other possibilities have been considered rather in detail in studying individual phenomena of
heat transfer.

In the cases where heat transfer is the result of individual elementary phenomena occurring simultaneously,
intensification of the process becomes complicated and its correct solution may be obtained only by a thorough
analysis of the individual conditions of heat transfer.

Such an analysis requires the knowledge of the formulas of the overall heat-transfer coefficient. An investigation
of their structure permits evaluation of the effect of individual terms and makes it possible to determine the
correct ways and possibilities of solving the given problem.

By way of illustration, let us consider the formula derived for overall coefficient of heat transfer through a plane

wall. If we neglect the thermal resistance of the wall, i.e. if we assume formula acquires the following form:

From which it follows that the overall heat-transfer coefficient k is always less than the smallest of heat-transfer
coefficient α.

Indeed, let us assume α1 = 40 and α2 = 5,000, then k 0 = 39.7 keal/sq m-hr- °C. An increase in α2 practically

does not influence k; at α1 = 40 and α2 = 10,000, k0 = 39.8 kcal/m2-hr-°C.

A considerable increase in k 0 may be obtained only by changing the smaller of the two heat transfer coefficient,

α1 in this particular case. If, for example α2 = 5,000 and α1 = 80, k 0 = 78.8 kcal/m2-hr-°C; but if we set α1 =

200, then k 0 = 192 kcal/m2-hr-°C.

The dependence k 0 = f (α1, α2) it follows that an increase in α1 is accompanied by the relatively rapid growth of

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k only till α1 and α2 become equal. With a further increase in α1, the rate of k’s increase diminishes, and then
practically ceases altogether. Hence if α1 is about α2, heat-transfer may be intensified by increasing each of the
heat-transfer coefficients. If α1 is considerable smaller than α2, intensification is attained only by increasing the
smaller of the two, α1 in this case.

In the considered analysis, to simplify calculations, the thermal resistance of the wall was assumed to equal zero.
This is admissible in practical calculations, but the permissible error should always be known.

Consider a certain case of heat transfer with

If we assume that the thermal resistance of the wall is , the value of the overall heat-transfer coefficient will
change and be equal to

The latter dependence is presented by the curves where the values are plotted along the abscissa along the
ordinate, and k o is chosen as a parameter. It is observed that an increase in the terminal resistance of the wall is
accompanied by a reduction in the overall heat-transfer coefficient at a rate which increases along with the initial
value of k 0.

To illustrate this conclusion let us solve several numerical problems. Consider a heat exchanger used to heat
water. On the water side α2=5,000 kcal/m2-hr-°C. The steel wall is of thickness δ = 3 mm and λ = 30 kcal/m2-

hr-°C; hence,

(a) If water is heated by gas and α1=40, then

and

(b) If water is heated by condensing steam and α1 = 10,000,

and
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The fins are commonly used for increasing the heat transfer rates from the surfaces whenever it is not possible to
increase the rate of heat transfer either by increasing the heat transfer coefficient on the surface or by increasing
the temperature difference between the surface and the surroundings fluids. The fins are commonly used on small
power developing machines as engines used for scooters and motor – cycles as well as small capacity
compressors. They are also used in many refrigerating systems (either in evaporators or condenser) for
increasing the heat transfer rates.
An extended surface configuration classed as a straight fin, an annular fin or spine. The terms straight fin is
applied to the extended surface attached to a wall which is otherwise plane whereas an annular fin is one,
attached circumferentially, to a cylindrical surface. A spine or pin fin is an extended surface of cylindrical or
conical shape. These definitions are illustrated.

The circumferential fins of rectangular or triangular profile are commonly used on the engine cylinder of scooters
and motor cycles. The pin type fins are used on the condenser of domestic refrigerators.
The knowledge of temperature distribution along the fin is necessary for the proper design of fines. The
mathematical analysis for finding out the temperature distribution and heat flow from different types of fins is
discussed.
28.1 Heat Transfer through a Rod (Optional)
Consider heat flow through a prismatic rod of cross-section f and parameter U. the rod is kept in a medium at a
temperature which we assume to be zero. The temperature of the rod varies only with its length and is a function
of length, i.e., ϑ = f (x).The temperature at the base of the rod is ϑ0. Thermal conductivity and the heat-transfer
coefficient are known to equal λ and α1.

It is necessary to determine the law governing the change in the temperature along the rod and the amount of heat
transferred through the rod in steady-state conditions.
Take an element of length d located at the distance from the base of the rod and let us write the equation of
heat balance for this element.
It is clear that

………(a)
According to Fourier’s law

And

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Hence

………(b)
On the other hand,

………(c)
Equating (b) and (c) and cancelling, we get

Where

………(d)
If α1 does not depend on , m = const. Then, the common integral of the linear differential equation of the
second order has the following form:

………
(e)
The value of integration constant C1 and C2 are found from the boundary conditions. These conditions depend
on the length of the rod and consequently, will be considered separately.
28.1.1 Infinite rod

At = 0, ϑ = ϑ0 and ϑ0 =C1 + C2 ; at = ∞, ϑ=0 and C1 e-∞ +C2 e-∞ = 0, or C1 e∞ = 0. The latter

holds only if C1 = 0. Thus

………(f)
Substituting these values into equation (e), we get

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Hence ϑ = F (ϑ0, , α1, λ, f, U). Bearing in mind that the exponent m is dimensionless, equation may be
present in another, dimensionless form, namely,

………(g)

Therefore, in case of round rod

The parameter K1 characterizes the change in the temperature along the rod. The mode of temperature variation
is different, depending on K1, or rather on the relation between the values determining K1.

The amount of heat lost by the rod to the surroundings is equal to the rate of the heat flow through the base of
the rod.
Hence

………(h)

Now

………(i)
Finally

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Module 6. Unsteady state heat transfer

Lesson 29
ASSIGNMENTS

Q. 1. The wall of a steam boiler furnace which is not with water walls is made of layer of formed fireclay of
thickness δ1 = 125 mm and a layer of red brick 500 mm thick (δ2). The two layers fit each other tightly.
The wall temperature inside the boiler furnace tW1 = 1100°C and the wall outside temperature tW3 =50°C.
The thermal conductivity of formed fireclay λ1 = 0.28+0.00023t and that of the red brick, λ2 = 0.7 W/m-

°C. Calculate the amount of the heat lost from 1 m2 of the furnace wall by conduction and the temperature
at the layer interface.
ANSWERS

The loss of heat or the rate of heat flow through the wall q = 1032 W/m2. The temperature at the layer interface
tW2 = 787°C.

Q. 2. A reinforced-concrete smoke stack with an inner diameter d2 = 800 mm and outer diameter d2 = 1300
mm must be lined with a refectory on the inside. Determine the refectory lining and the temperature of the outer
surface of the smoke stack, tW3, under conditions that the loss of heat from length of 1m of the smoke stack
must not exceed 2000W/m and the temperature of the inner surface of the reinforced-concrete smoke stack,
tW2, should not exceed 200°C. The temperature of the inner surface of the lining refectory tW1 = 425°C; the
thermal conductivity of the lining λ1 = 0.5 W/m-°C; the thermal conductivity of concrete λ2 = 1.1 W/m-°C.

ANSWERS

δ = 120 mm. The temperature of the tube outer surface tW3 = 59°C.

Q. 3. Determine the time τ required to heat a steel plate of thickness 2δ = 24 mm from the initial temperature t0
= 25°C to the final temperature the = 450°C by placing the plate into a furnace in which the temperature tf =
600°C is maintained. The thermal conductivity, heat capacity and the density of steel are respectively λ = 45.4
W/m-°C, c = 0.502 kJ/kg-°C and ρ = 7800 kg/m3; the local coefficient of heat transfer from the hot
surroundings from the hot surroundings in the furnace to the surface of the steel plate α = 23.3 W/m2-°C.
ANSWER

τ = 45 min.

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Module 7. Mass transfer

Lesson 30
MASS TRANSFER, DIFFUSION PROCESS, FICK’S LAW, CONECEPT OF PERMEABILITY,
DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT

30.1 Introduction

The study of mass transfer carries special importance in energy transfer because all heat transfer processes within
one fluid or within different fluids which are mixing with each other are associated with mass transfer. There are
enough examples of industrial importance where mass transfer is keynote for energy transfer as in the case of
humidification of air in cooling tower, evaporation of liquid NH3 in the atmosphere of H2 in Electro flux
refrigerator and neutron diffusion within nuclear reactors. Many of our day-to-day experiences involve mass
transfer. Smoke leaving tall chimneys diffuses into the surrounding atmosphere. A lump of sugar added to a cup
of coffee eventually dissolves and then spreads uniformly throughout the coffee. Water retained in newly cut
timber or a wet cloth diffuses initially through the wood to its surface and then evaporates into the atmosphere.

When a system contains one or more components whose concentration vary from point to point, there is a
natural tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing the concentration differences within the system. The
transport of one concentration is called mass transfer. The mechanism of mass transfer can be understood by
drawing an analogy to heat transfer as follows:

1. Heat is transferred toward the lower temperature decreasing the temperature gradient, mass is
transferred towards the lower concentration decreasing the concentration gradient.
2. Heat transfer ceases when there is no longer a temperature difference, mass transfer ceases when
concentration gradient is reduced to zero.
3. The rates of both heat and mass transfer depend on a deriving potential and resistance.
The general subject of mass transfer encompasses both mass diffusion on a molecular scale and the bulk mass
transport which may result from convection process. These two distinct modes of transport, molecular mass
transfer and convective heat transfer. In this chapter only the first mode of mass transfer will be discussed.

30.2 Fick’s Law of Diffusion

Consider the system shown in Fig. 30.1. A partition separates the two gases C and B. when the partition is
removed, the two gases diffuse through one another until the equilibrium is established throughout the system.

The diffusion rate is given by Fick’s law of diffusion which states that the mass flux of an element per unit area is
proportional to the concentration gradient.

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Fig. 30.1

………(a)

Where
= mass flow per unit time per unit area kg/hr/m2
F = Area through which mass is flowing
D = Diffusion coefficient m2/hr
Cb = Mass Concentration of components B in kg/m3

The Fourier equation for conduction and Newton’s equation for shear are written as follows

………(b)

And

………(c)
Comparing equation (a), (b) and (c), the heat conduction equation describes the transport of energy, the shear
equation describes the transport of momentum and diffusion law describes the transport of mass.
Fick’s law may be expressed conveniently in term of partial pressures by making use of the perfect gas equation.
p =ρRT
where the density ρ represents the mass concentration to be used in Fick’s law.

The gas constant for a particular gas is given by the equation

Where
G = Universal Gas constant = 848

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Mb = Molecular weight of the gas.

………(d)

Substituting the value of ρ b into the equation (a), Fick’s law of diffusion for component B into the component C
can be written as follows:

……….(e)

Similarly, diffusion of component C into the component B is given by:

……….(f)

The above equation hold good only for isothermal diffusion.

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Module 7. Mass transfer

Lesson 31
PROBLEMS BASED ON HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Q. 1. Evaluate the diffusion coefficient of CO2 in air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure.

The following data is given:

CO2 3.996 190

Air 3.617 97

Π = 1.044

Solution:

T = 20+273 = 293°K

P = 1 atm

Π = 1.044

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= 0.147 cm2/ sec.

Q. 2. Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube 1.5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long into
dry atmospheric air at 25°C.

Assume D = 0.256 cm2/s

Solution:
Air will be saturated at the bottom of the test tube at x = 0 then the partial pressure of water vapour at x = 0 will
be saturation pressure of water vapour at 25°C.

at x =L =15cm (length of the tube)

At the top, air does not contain any water vapour

Pw2 = 0

Pa2 = Pt = 1.0303.

Now using the following equation

D= 0.256 × 0.36 m2/hr, T = 25+273 Mw =18

Pt = 1.0303 ata= 1.0303 ×104 kg/m2 , x1 = 0 , x2 = 0.15 m

G = 848

= 1.086 × 10-6 kg/hr.

Q. 3. Calculate the rate of diffusion of water vapor from a pool of water at the bottom of a well 6 metre in height
to dry air flowing over the top of the well. Assume the entire system is at 25°C and 1 atm. If the well diameter is
3 meters, then find out the total weight of water diffused per hour from the surface of the water in the well.

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Assume D = 0.256 cm2/s

Solution:

D = 0.256 x 0.36 m2/hr, x1 = 0, x2 = 6 m

Pa1 = Pt – Pw1 =1.0303 – 0.0323 = 0.998

Pa2 = Pt – Pw2 =1.0303 – 0.00 = 1.0303

A = 1 m2, Mw = 18, G = 848, T = 298.

Using the following equation

= 1.125 ×10-4 kg/m2-hr.

Total mass flow = mass flow rate × well surface area

= 1.125 × 10-4 × π/4 (3)2 = 7.94 × 10-4 kg/hr.

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Module 7. Mass transfer

Lesson 32
ASSIGNMENTS

Q. 1. Calculate the rate of heat flow through a plane homogeneous wall the thickness of which is considerably
smaller than its width is considerable smaller than the its width and height, assuming the wall to be made from: (a)
Steel (λ = 40 W/ m-°C); (b) Concrete (λ = 1.1 W/ m-°C); (c) diatomite brick (λ = 0.11 W/ m-°C). In all the
three cases wall thickness = 50 mm. the temperature of the wall surfaces are maintained constant: tw1 = 100°C
and tw2 = 90°C.

ANSWERS

For a steel wall q = 8000 W/m2;

For a concrete wall q = 220 W/m2;
For a wall laid from diatomite brick q = 22 W/m2.

Q. 2. The rate of heat flow through a plane wall of thickness = 50 mm, q = 70 W/m2. Determine the difference
between the temperature of wall surfaces and the numerical values of the temperature gradient through the wall, if
it is made from: (a) brass (= 70 W/m-°C) (b) red brick (= 0.7 W/m-°C); (c) cork (= 0.07 W/m-°C).

ANSWERS
For a brass wall t = 0.05°C and grad t = 1°C/m;
For a brick wall t =5°C and grad t = 100°C/m;
For a cork wall t = 50°C and grad t = 1000°C/m;

Q. 3. Determine the loss of heat Q, W, through a wall laid from red brick of length l = 5 m, height h = 4 m and
thickness = 0.250 m, if the temperatures of wall surfaces are maintained equal to tw1 =110°C and tw2 = 40°C.
The thermal conductivity of red brick = 0.76 W/m-°C.

ANSWERS
The loss of heat Q = 3920 W.

Q. 4. Determine the thermal conductivity of the material of a wall 40 mm thick, if at a temperature difference
between surface temperatures Δt = 20°C and the rate of heat flow Q = 145 W/m2.
ANSWERS

The thermal conductivity λ = 0.29 W/m-°C.

Q. 5. It is necessary to insulate the flat surface so that the loss of heat from unit area of this surface per unit time
will not exceed 450 W/m2. The temperatures of the surface underneath the layer of insulation tw1 = 450°C and
the temperature of the external surface of the insulating layer tw2 = 50°C.Determine the thickness of insulation for
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the cases:

a) The insulation is made from sovelite, for which

λ= 0.09+0.0000874t, W/m-°C.
b) The insulation is made from asbestos cement, for which
λ= 0.109+0.000146t, W/m-°C.

ANSWERS
(a) = 100 mm
(b) = 130 mm

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