4 The basic Verb Phrase

DOI: 10.4324/9781003118916-5

You now know that the basic sentence consists of a Noun

Phrase (functioning as subject) followed by a Verb Phrase
(functioning as predicate). This chapter deals with the general
structure (the immediate constituents) of the VP half of the
basic sentence.
Paddle, sunbathed beside a stream, dreads affectionate cats,
came to the graduation ceremony and stopped the car are all
VPs. As these show, categories introduced in previous chapters
can appear in the VP, including NPs. Within the VP, NPs have a
range of different functions. It’s these different functions of NP
and other phrasal categories that concern us here.

A first look at verbs

The one constituent a Verb Phrase (VP) must contain is
a head verb (V).
There are two kinds of verb in English: LEXICAL and
AUXILIARY. Lexical verbs are the ones that belong to the
indefinitely large general vocabulary of the language – e.g. run,
eat, apply, explain, recycle, break, prepare, depend ….
Auxiliary verbs, by contrast, are a special, restricted set of
verbs. The clear ones are: can/could, will/would, shall/should,
may/might, must, need – and be, have and do (these three can
also be lexical).
A full VP must contain a LEXICAL verb and it may
contain AUXILIARY verbs. In the following, the lexical verbs are
in bold and the auxiliary verbs are in italics.
 [1a] Diana plays the piano.
[1b] Diana played the piano.
[2] Anders is explaining his generalisation.
[3] Maggie should have recycled those bottles.
[4] Francois may have been preparing his lecture.

Auxiliaries are dealt with in Chapter 6. So, this chapter is called

‘The basic Verb Phrase’ because it’s about VPs containing just
LEXICAL verbs.
Lexical verbs are easily identified by their morphological (i.e.
their word-form) possibilities. They take some if not all of the
verbal INFLECTIONS -s, -ing, -ed, -en. For example: plays,
playing, played and writes, writing, written.
In VPs containing only a lexical verb, that verb will carry a
present or past meaning. In [1a–b] above, present and past are
explicitly marked: in [1a] play carries the PRESENT TENSE
INFLECTION -S; in [1b] it carries the PAST TENSE INFLECTION, -ED.
More often than not, though, present tense is not explicitly
marked (though it’s understood). Since tense isn’t relevant
here, I won’t bother with it in this chapter. Chapter 6 deals with
that.

The complements of lexical verbs

This chapter deals with the functional relations between lexical
verbs and other constituents in the basic Verb Phrase. In
Chapter 2, we looked at the function of affectionate cats in the
sentence

[5] Phil dreads affectionate cats.

The VP is dreads affectionate cats; dreads is the verb. We

decided that the relation between the V (dreads) and the NP
(affectionate cats) is a head~complement relation. It’s a two-
way (mutual) dependency between the verb (head) and the NP
(its complement). Omitting the NP after dreads yields an
ungrammatical string:

[6] *Phil dreads.

But not all lexical verbs do require an NP complement. If we

change the verb from dread to sunbathed, for example, we get
a different pattern of grammaticality:

[7] *Phil sunbathed affectionate cats.

[8] Phil sunbathed.

While dread MUST take an NP, sunbathe CAN’T take an NP. So

the NP depends not just on there being a verb present but,
more importantly, on what sort of verb it is. Dread and
sunbathe are examples of two general sorts – or sub-categories
– of lexical verb.
LEXICAL VERBS ARE SUB-CATEGORISED ACCORDING TO WHAT OTHER ELEMENTS
MUST APPEAR WITH THEM IN THE VP. IN OTHER WORDS, THEY ARE SUB-
CATEGORISED IN TERMS OF WHAT COMPLEMENTS THEY DEMAND.
Just because an NP can’t follow the V sunbathe doesn’t mean
that nothing can follow the V in the VP. We’ve seen, for
example, that the PP beside a stream can. But this PP can’t be
a complement of sunbathe: it is not NECESSARY to complete the
meaning of the VP. What [8] shows is that the verb sunbathed
functions, by itself, as a complete VP. Beside a stream just
gives extra – OPTIONAL – information. If we omit it, we’re still left
with a complete VP. So, in the VP sunbathed beside a stream,
the PP is a MODIFIER, not a COMPLEMENT. ALL VPs can include
(optional) modifying PP (or a modifier of another category).
The fact that a PP can follow sunbathe can’t, then, be used to
sub-categorise the verb. For example, a PP can be added after
dreads affectionate cats:

[9] Phil dreads affectionate cats in the hay-fever season.

So, dread and sunbathe are distinguished by the necessary
presence or absence of a following NP but not by the (optional)
presence or absence of a following PP.
This chapter focuses just on verb complements. This is
another sense in which the VPs discussed here are ‘basic VPs’.
Chapter 5 deals with optional modifiers in VP.
To see how general these verb sub-categories are, decide
which of the following verbs belong to the same sub-category
as dread (demanding an NP) and which to the same sub-
category as sunbathe (demanding no NP). Two of them belong
to both sub-categories.

laugh, make, die, sleep, inspect, play, spot, throw, relax.

Taking just the first two examples, note the following pattern of
grammaticality:

[10a] Max laughed.

[10b] *Max laughed Bill.
[11a] *Max made.
[11b] Max made a noise.

Laugh clearly belongs to the same sub-category as sunbathe,

as do sleep and die; none of these verbs allows a following NP.
But make clearly belongs with dread, as do inspect, spot and
throw, demanding a following NP. Play, on the other hand,
belongs to both sub-categories, with different meanings:

[12a] The children played.

[12b] Max played the tuba.

And so does relax:

[13a] Superman relaxed.

[13b] Superman relaxed his grip.
 Paddle, reflect and break are further verbs that belong to
both sub-categories. You can check this for yourself. Sentences
containing them in their different uses are given in Discussion
1, page 74.

This chapter presents six sub-categories of lexical verbs:

1 TRANSITIVE,
2 INTRANSITIVE,
3 DITRANSITIVE,
4 INTENSIVE,
5 COMPLEX TRANSITIVE,
6 PREPOSITIONAL.

Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is one that demands a single NP to
complement it. Dread, make, spot, throw and inspect are
transitive verbs.
The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to
function (more specifically) as its DIRECT OBJECT. In Phil
dreads affectionate cats, then, the NP (affectionate cats)
complements the transitive verb dread as its direct object.
When an NP functioning as the direct object of a verb is a
pronoun, it has a special form, called the OBJECTIVE CASE (more
traditionally, ‘accusative case’). The direct object pronouns in
the objective case are grammatical in [14], but the
corresponding pronouns in the SUBJECTIVE (traditionally,
‘nominative’) CASE are ungrammatical, [15]:
[14]

[15]

When the form of an NP is determined by its complement

relation with another constituent, it is said to be GOVERNED by
that other constituent (by the verb, in this case). Notice that
this goes for NPs complementing prepositions in PPs as well.
The preposition governs the NP, demanding it appear in the
objective case: for him vs. *for he, against them vs. *against
they. You and it are the only pronouns that don’t have a special
distinct form in the objective case. Verbs and prepositions
govern their complements in the objective case.
This is how to represent a transitive VP in a phrase marker.
Since the V and the NP are in a functional relation, the NP
needs to be represented as a sister of the V (and therefore as a
daughter of the VP) as in [16]:
 [16]

In [16] I’ve added to the V node the feature ‘[trans]’, short

for ‘transitive’. It simply sub-categorises the verb as transitive.
This sub-cat feature allows us to specify the function of the
following NP in terms of the phrase marker itself. Thus: when
an NP is the sister of a V bearing the [trans] feature, we
know that the NP is functioning as DIRECT OBJECT. The point
of this feature will become clearer when I deal with other sub-
categories of verb and the other functions associated with
them.
By the way, if you hadn’t already noticed, it is the direct
object that’s the loser in the game of Rock-Scissors-Paper.
(Sharpen, cut and wrap are transitive verbs.)

Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb is one that does not demand any
further constituent in the VP. ‘INtransitive’ means ‘has
(and needs) no complement’. Sleep, die, laugh and sigh
(and play on one interpretation) are intransitive verbs. Since an
intransitive verb requires no further element to form a
complete predicate, an intransitive verb counts as a
complete VP in its own right. Intransitive VPs are the
simplest VPs. So a sentence like Omar sighed is represented as
in [17]. Note the [intrans] feature on the V node.
[17]

Ditransitive verbs
Ditransitive verbs require TWO NP complements. They
are sometimes called ‘double-object’ verbs. The classic
example of a ditransitive verb is give. Others are send and buy:

[18a] William gave Millie some bleach.

[19a] The staff sent the general a message.
[20a] Lila bought her son a new watch.

In [18a]–[20a] the first complement (the NP in bold)

functions, more specifically, as the INDIRECT OBJECT of the
ditransitive verb. Indirect objects are RECIPIENTS OR
BENEFICIARIES of the action.
The second NP (italicised) is the DIRECT OBJECT – it has the
same function as the NP that complements a transitive verb.
Here’s a phrase marker for [18a]. Note the [ditrans] feature on
V.
 [21]

Both the NPs are governed by the V gave and would appear in
the objective case if they were pronouns.
Now decide which of the following verbs are ditransitive.

(a) show (b) offer (c) see (d) tell (e) announce

Take a look at the following sentences:

[22] The barber showed Matilda his collection of razors.

[23] Tarzan offered Jane his hairy arm.
[24] Ali told his boss the news.

Show, offer and tell accept two consecutive NPs, so they are
ditransitive. See and announce don’t accept two NPs; they are
not ditransitive (in fact they are transitive):

[25] *The barber saw Matilda his collection of razors.

[26] *Ali announced his boss the news.

Ditransitive VPs regularly have a second form. In this second

form, the first NP – the indirect object NP (bold in [18a]–
[24]) – corresponds to a Prepositional Phrase (PP) in a
position following the direct object. Compare [18a]–[20a]
above and [18b]–[20b]:
[18a] William gave Millie some [18b] William gave some bleach to
bleach. Millie.
[19a] The staff sent the general a [19b] The staff sent a message to the
message. general.
[20a] Lila bought her son a new [20b] Lila bought a new watch for her
watch. son.

These PPs – those that correspond with indirect objects – are

only ever introduced by the prepositions to or for. These [b]
sentences can be represented as in [27]:

[27]

A PP corresponding to an indirect object NP in a ditransitive VP

contrasts with PPs in transitive VPs. We’ve seen that a PP in a
transitive VP is not a complement of the verb; it’s an optional
modifier. By contrast, with a ditransitive verb such as send, we
need to specify

(a) a sender (subject)

(b) what is sent (direct object)
(c) to whom it is sent (indirect object).

We’ve seen that INDIRECT OBJECTS can take the form of

either an NP or a PP containing to or for. So indirect object
PPs are part of the complementation of ditransitive verbs and
need to be represented as sisters-of-V.
 THE INDIRECT OBJECT, then, is either (a) the first of two NP sisters
of a [ditrans] V or (b) the PP sister of a [ditrans] V. (See [21]
and [27].) If you are wondering whether the PP in V + NP + PP
is an indirect object in a [ditrans] VP or an optional modifier,
here’s a test: see if V + NP + PP can be converted into V + NP
+ NP. If it can, it’s the indirect object of a [ditrans] V, otherwise
it’s an optional modifier. And remember: if the P in the PP is
other than to or for, it can’t be an indirect object.
Several verbs are both transitive and ditransitive. In Tessa
wrote a letter and Nina baked several delicious cakes, for
example, we have good transitive VPs. Equally, in Tessa wrote
Peter a letter and Nina baked us several delicious cakes we
have good ditransitive VPs.
Furthermore, certain transitive VPs can be rephrased as
ditransitive. Thus, when Sarah kisses, nudges or compliments
Alan (direct object), we can say Sarah gave Alan a kiss/a
nudge/a compliment, with Alan as indirect object. In these
cases, though, the V + NP + PP version of the ditransitive VP is
not natural, even ungrammatical (?*Sarah gave a kiss/a
nudge/a compliment to Alan).
So, we’ve now met two kinds of object: direct and
indirect. With the sub-cat feature [ditrans], we don’t need to
mention these functions in phrase markers. The functions are
implied by the sub-cat feature. But in discussion we’ll still need
to mention the functions. I’ll use ‘dO’ and ‘iO’ for this.

Intensive verbs
INTENSIVE verbs require a single complement, which
can take the form of an Adjective Phrase or a Noun
Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase. The most obvious and
most commonly used intensive verb is be. As the classic
example of the intensive sub-category of verb, be is called ‘the
copula’.
 [28] Ed is rather extravagant. (AP)
[29] Sigmund was an auctioneer. (NP)
[30] Oscar and the First Mate were in the engine room. (PP)

The complement of an intensive verb functions (more

specifically) as a PREDICATIVE. (By the way, don’t confuse this
with ‘predicate’.) Other intensive verbs – i.e. other verbs taking
a predicative as complement – are: become, seem, appear,
turn, remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound.
When a verb is complemented just by an AP, you can
be sure you’re dealing with an INTENSIVE VERB. This is
because [intensive] is the only sub-category of verb that can
take just an AP complement. The point is worth noting because,
as mentioned, intensive verbs can be complemented by an NP
or a PP. When a verb is complemented by an NP, you’re going
to have to decide whether [V + NP] is an example of [transitive
V + direct object] or an example of [intensive V + predicative].
Understanding the ‘predicative’ function involves
understanding the difference between predicative and
direct object. I explain this now.
Compare [29] above (repeated as [31]) with [32]:

[31] Sigmund was an auctioneer.

[32] Sigmund visited an auctioneer.

In both, we have an NP complement. In [32] the verb is

transitive, so the NP complement functions more specifically as
direct object. As direct object, the NP identifies an individual
distinct from Sigmund (referred to by the subject NP). In saying
that Sigmund visited an auctioneer, we mention two distinct
individuals and say that the first visited the second. Visiting is a
relation between two individuals: a visitor (subject) and a
visitee (direct object). That’s what makes visit a transitive verb.
A moment’s thought will show something quite different in
[31]. [31] does not express a relation between two individuals.
In [31], with the intensive verb, only one individual is
mentioned (by means of the subject Sigmund). The rest of the
sentence (the VP) is used to characterise the subject. If [31]
can be said to express a relation at all, it’s a relation between
an individual and a property: it expresses the idea that
Sigmund has the property of being an auctioneer. PREDICATIVES
are used to ATTRIBUTE PROPERTIES to the things or people
referred to by other expressions. Unlike direct/indirect
objects, they don’t themselves refer to things or people.1
It’s precisely because intensive verbs take predicatives that
they can be complemented by Adjective Phrases: APs only ever
identify properties. Thus, [28] mentions Ed and attributes the
property of extravagance to him. NPs, by contrast, can be used
either to identify properties or to refer to individuals. That’s
why an NP can function either as predicative
(complementing an intensive verb) or as direct object
(complementing a transitive verb).
Many of the intensive verbs listed above also belong to the
transitive sub-category – but with a different meaning. This
difference between transitive (+ direct object) and intensive (+
predicative) can be made vivid by contrasting the two
meanings of such verbs. For each of the following, decide
whether the (italicised) NP is complementing a transitive verb
as direct object or complementing an intensive verb as
predicative:

[33] Max turned a subtle shade of green.

[34] Max turned another card.
[35] Tarzan felt a tap on his shoulder.
[36] Tarzan felt a real idiot.
[37] The leopard-skin pillbox hat didn’t become her.
[38] The hat became a very useful wastepaper basket.
[39] The Captain sounds a real tyrant.
[40] The Captain sounded the ship’s horn.
The NPs are functioning as direct objects (complementing
transitive verbs) in [34], [35], [37] and [40]. They are
functioning as predicatives (complementing intensive verbs) in
[33], [36], [38] and [39]. Notice that, in the latter cases, those
NPs could be replaced by APs without changing the sense of the
verb: green in [33], really idiotic in [36], ever more useful in
[38], and really tyrannical in [39]).
Now, I’ve said predicatives attribute properties to the things
referred to by other expressions. We have seen that, in the
case of intensive verbs, that other expression is always the
subject. So, to be more specific about the function of the
italicised complement expressions in [28]–[30]: they are
predicatives; and more specifically yet, they are SUBJECT-
PREDICATIVES. In the next section, I’ll be introducing object-
predicatives.
Now I can show more clearly the point of adding a sub-cat
feature to the V node. Without such a feature, [31] and [32] –
and all the examples [33]–[40] – would receive exactly the
same phrase marker analysis. It’s the distinction between the
features [intens] and [trans] that distinguishes them – as in
[41] and [42].

[41]
 [42]

An [intens] verb, by definition, takes a subject-

predicative. A [trans] verb, by definition, takes a direct
object. So, by using those features on the V node, you’ll be
assigning a (more specific) function to the complement of the
verb.
A word now about PPs functioning as subject-predicatives.
I’ve mentioned that all VPs can include optional modification by
PPs. PPs should only be treated as part of the complementation
of an intensive verb (i.e. as subject-predicatives) if they can’t
be omitted. So, in the engine room in [30] is a predicative since
[43] is not a complete sentence (though the missing element
might well be understood in context – see Chapter 5):

[43] *Oscar and the First Mate were ….

I’ll look again at PP complements below.

Complex transitive verbs

Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a
direct object (NP) and an object-predicative.
Again, the predicative can take the form of an AP, an NP or a
PP. Here are some examples, with the dO italicised and the
predicative in bold.
 [44] Max finds his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)
[45] They made Stella their spokesperson. (NP)
[46] Liza put the wine under her bed. (PP)

Everything I said about predicatives in intensive VPs goes for

the predicative in a complex VP, but with one big difference.
The difference is that the predicative in a complex
transitive VP attributes a property to THE DIRECT
OBJECT, not the subject – hence the name ‘object-
predicative’. The semantic relation between dO and object-
predicative in a complex transitive VP, then, parallels the
relation between the subject and the subject-predicative in an
intensive sentence. It’s an intensive relation. For example, if
[44] is true, then, as far as Max is concerned, his own jokes ARE
extremely funny. If [45] is true, then Stella BECAME their
spokesperson. And if [46] is true, then the liquor came to BE
under Liza’s bed. (Be and become, remember, are intensive.)
Here’s the phrase marker representation of [44]:

[47]

Assigning the feature [complex] to the V node makes the

phrase marker itself represent the function of his own jokes as
direct object and the function of extremely funny as object-
predicative; those are the functions assigned by complex
transitive verbs.
So, now in addition to the kinds of object, dO and iO, we
have two kinds of predicative: subject-predicative (sP) in
intensive VPs and object-predicative (oP) in complex VPs.
The sub-categorisation features are particularly needed in a
case like [48a].

[48a] Max found [Bill] [an amusing companion].

This example is ambiguous. Give it a thought! First make sure

of the two interpretations in your mind; then explain the
ambiguity by assigning different functions to the two
complements of the verb. In the light of that, you should be
able to assign two different sub-categorisation features to the V
found.

If you succeeded, that shows you really understand [ditrans]

(and iO) vs. [complex] (and oP)! On one interpretation, [48a]
corresponds in meaning with (a) Max found an amusing
companion FOR Bill. Here find is ditransitive: Bill refers to the
beneficiary and is functioning as indirect object and an amusing
companion is the direct object. Notice that three participants
are involved on this (ditransitive) interpretation. On the other
interpretation, [48a] corresponds with (b) Max found Bill to BE
an amusing companion. Now Bill and an amusing companion
have the functions assigned by complex transitive verbs: direct
object (Bill) and object-predicative (an amusing companion). On
this complex transitive interpretation, there are only two
participants, Max and Bill; an amusing companion merely
attributes a property to Bill (in Max’s view). The meaning
distinction between (a) and (b) – and hence the ambiguity –
and the different functions of Bill and an amusing companion is
all accounted for simply by the difference in sub-categorisation
feature attached to the V.

[48b]

This example is useful because it clearly distinguishes [ditrans]

and [complex] VPs. Bear it in mind if you’re ever confused on
the matter. Think also of the contrast between [49a] and [49b]:

[49a] Graham made Jane his wife.

[49b] Graham made Jane a sandwich.

Prepositional verbs
Glance/look (at NP), reply (to NP), refer (to NP), listen (to NP)
and worry (about NP) are examples of prepositional verbs –
complemented by a Prepositional Phrase. Take glance, for
example (note the stars):

[50] *Max glanced. (glance is not

intransitive)
[51] *Max glanced the falling acrobat. (glance is not
transitive)
[52] Max glanced at the falling acrobat. (glance demands a
PP complement)
 [53]

I’ll call the PP that complements a [prep] verb, a PREPOSITIONAL

COMPLEMENT.
As a reminder, there are three kinds of VP consisting of [V +
PP] we’ve looked at so far:

(a) V[intens] + PP. The PP is a complement (subject-

predicative – sP)
(b) V[prep] + PP. The PP is a complement (prepositional
complement – PC)
(c) V[intrans] + PP. The PP is an optional modifier.

As the complement of V, the PP in each of (a) and (b) will be a

SISTER-of-V. As we’ll see in the next chapter, the modifier PP in
(c) is represented in another position.
Prepositional verbs are so-called because they can
only be complemented by a PP. In this, they contrast with
[intens] verbs, which can be complemented by NP, AP or PP.
The [prep] sub-category is a bit of a ragbag. The fact is, there
just are verbs that require a PP as complement and don’t fit
into any of the other sub-categories. Notice that each [prep]
verb generally demands that the head of that PP be one
particular preposition – for example, we have glance [at NP],
not *glance [to NP], and refer [to NP], not *refer [at NP].
 We have now looked at a six-way distinction among verbs.
Not all verbs – and not all uses of all verbs – fit neatly into this
classification or do so only with a certain amount of ingenuity
on the part of the analyst. Even so, this six-part verb sub-
categorisation is a useful way of introducing all the functions of
constituents in the basic VP.

Summary

TRANSITIVE – subject – V – direct object

‘[trans]’: (S) (dO)
INTRANSITIVE – subject – V
‘[intrans]’: (S)
DITRANSITIVE – subject – V – indirect object – direct
‘[ditrans]’: object
(S) (iO) (dO)
subject – V – direct object – indirect
object
(S) (dO) (iO)
INTENSIVE – subject – V – subject-predicative
‘[intens]’: (S) (sP)
COMPLEX – subject – V – direct object – object-
‘[complex]’: predicative
(S) (dO) (oP)
PREPOSITIONAL – subject – V – prepositional
‘[prep]’: complement
(S) (PC)

The following may help in identifying the sub-categories of verb

in sentences:
Discussion of in-text exercise

1. (a) The ducks paddled (across the lake) – [intransitive]

(b) He paddled the raft (across the lake) – [transitive]
(c) Zadie reflected (quietly) – [intransitive]
(d) The shop window reflected the blinding sunshine –
[transitive]
(e) The samovar broke – [intransitive]
(f) Anna broke the samovar – [transitive].

Exercises

1. Identify the major functions in the following sentences

(subject, direct object, indirect object, subject-predicative,
object-predicative and prepositional complement). Identify
the verbs and sub-categorise them. Example:

Otto devoured the couscous

subject V direct object
[trans]

(a) The girl in the palace dyed her hair a strange colour.
(b) Hot air rises.
(c) Luigi promised me his spaghetti machine.
(d) The largest frying pan proved very useful.
 (e) Someone stole my contact lenses.
(f) It sounds like a really good film.
(g) The candidate’s answers amazed the examiners.
(h) The committee nominated her Acrobat of the Year.
(i) Oscar feeds his cat smoked salmon.
(j) I like my curries as hot as you can make them.
(k) This calls for a celebration.
(l) The main witness disappeared.
(m) The junta disappeared all its critics.
(n) He applied for a scholarship.

2. Decide whether the PP in the following is a complement of

a DITRANS verb. If in doubt, have a look at page 67.
(a) Leroy wrote several letters to Africa.
(b) Leroy wrote several letters to the President.
(c) Max took his dog to the station.
(d) Max lent his dog to the Dramatics Society.
(e) William baked a cake for everyone.
(f) William baked a cake for Christmas.
(g) Laura saved the money for a piano.
(h) Laura saved a place for Martha.

3. Using any of the following phrases, construct (1) a sentence

in which smelled (or smelt) is an intransitive; (2) a sentence
in which it is transitive; (3) a sentence in which it is
intensive. (I get five sentences.)
(a) smelled/smelt
(b) the nervous customer
(c) Jim’s attempt at a stew
(d) rather strange.

4. Using triangles for all major constituents (as used in this

chapter), draw phrase markers for the following.
(a) Nicholas felt strangely euphoric.
(b) The local gallery lends us the materials.
 (c) They voted the Senator out of office.
(e) A bucket of cold water revived that particular patient.
(f) The Venetians submitted to Napoleon’s demands.

Discussion of exercises
1.

(a) [The girl in the palace] [dyed] [her hair] [a strange colour].
S V dO oP
[complex]
(b) [Hot air] [rises].
S V
[intrans]
(c) [Luigi] [promised] [me] [his spaghetti machine].
S V iO dO
[ditrans]
(d) [The largest frying pan] [proved] [very useful].
S V sP
[intens]
(e) [Someone] [stole] [my contact lenses].
S V dO
[trans]
(f) [It] [sounds] [like a really good film].
S V sP
[intens]
(g) [The candidate’s answers] [amazed] [the examiners].
S V dO
[trans]
(h) [The committee] [nominated] [her] [Acrobat of the Year].
S V dO oP
[complex]
(i) [Oscar] [feeds] [his cat] [smoked salmon].
S V iO dO
[ditrans]
(j) [I] [like] [my curries] [as hot as you can make them].
S V dO oP
[complex]
(k) [This] [calls] [for a celebration].
 S V PC
[prep]
(l) [The main witness for the prosecution] [disappeared].
S V
[intrans]
(m) [The junta] [disappeared] [all their critics].
S V dO
[trans]
(n) [He] [applied] [for a scholarship].
S V PC
[prep]

2. As mentioned in this chapter, a PP is a complement of a

ditransitive verb only if it corresponds to an NP functioning
as an indirect object. Take examples (a) and (b). (1) is not a
reasonable paraphrase of (a), but (2) is a reasonable
paraphrase of (b):
(1) ?Leroy wrote Africa several letters.
(2) Leroy wrote the President several letters.
So the PP in (b) is the indirect object and write here must be
[ditrans]. In (a), by contrast, write is a [trans] verb,
complemented by the direct object letters or perhaps letters
to Africa. Note that, if to Africa is not part of the direct
object NP in (a), then it must be analysed as an optional
modifier within the VP. More on this below.
(c) No. cf. *Max took the station his dog. Take here is
[complex] and the PP is functioning as object-
predicative.
(d) Yes. cf. Max lent the Dramatics Society his dog. Lend is
[ditrans].
(e) Yes. cf. William baked everyone a cake. This is a
[ditrans] sense of bake.
(f) No. cf. *William baked Christmas a cake. (But see
below.)
(g) No. cf. *She saved a piano the money. The PP is a
modifier.
 Yes. cf. She saved Martha a place. A [ditrans] sense of
(h) save.

Notice it is only NPs denoting ANIMATE things that can be

indirect objects. For example, if Christmas is the name of a
person rather than the festival, William baked Christmas a
cake is OK. In (d) above, the Dramatics Society can be an
indirect object because it’s an organisation of (animate!)
human beings. By contrast, there is no single human
institution that represents Africa as a whole, so Africa is an
inanimate location and cannot function as indirect object.

3. INTRANSITIVE: 1. The nervous customer smelt.

2. Jim’s attempt at a stew smelt.
TRANSITIVE: 1. The nervous customer smelt Jim’s
attempt at a stew.
INTENSIVE: 1. The nervous customer smelt rather
strange.
2. Jim’s attempt at a stew smelt rather strange.

4. (a)
(b)

(c)

(d)
 (e)

(f)

In these six phrase markers, all six complementation types are

represented, and hence all six types of basic sentence
considered in this chapter.

Further exercises

1. For each of the following sentences:

(a) Identify the verb and give its sub-category.
(b) Identify all the major functions: subject (S), direct
object (dO), indirect object (iO), subject-predicative
(sP), object-predicative (oP), prepositional complement
 (PC). Make sure the sub-category feature on your verb
is consistent with the functions you assign.
(c) Give the category of each constituent you have
identified under (b) above.

Example:
[Phil] [dreads] [affectionate cats]
Function: S V dO
[trans]
Category: NP NP

(1) Petrol got more expensive.

(2) Alexander’s father left him.
(3) Alexander’s father left him lots of money.
(4) Alexander’s father left him in the care of the bishop.
(5) Several of the men complained.
(6) He referred to the fact that you had no clothes on.
(7) All the customers sit their children on the counter.
(8) Her mother and father approve of Matilda’s behaviour.
(9) Most of the students do the work you set.
(10) Moriarty locked Sherlock Holmes in the library.
(11) The sergeant and his men climbed up the drain-pipes.
(12) The abandoned meal went cold and greasy.
(13) The friendly manager poured everyone a glass of wine.
(14) Joan placed her latest trophy in a prominent position.
(15) Delia peered into the gaping hole.
(16) The new chef liquidised last week’s uneaten food.
(17) That spot made a perfect picnic place.
(18) Bill made a brilliant picnic table. (The most likely
interpretation, please!)
(19) This so-called music makes me mad.
(20) He made the men a decent meal.
(21) The exhausted team members made for the nearest
bar.
2. Draw phrase markers for at least some of the above
sentences, using triangles for all the constituents you
identified under 1(a)–(b) above. For examples, see the
Discussion of Exercise 4 above.

3. As we’ve seen, Prepositional Phrases have a variety of

functions. We’ve looked at four so far. As (necessary)
complements of verbs, they may function as
[A] subject-predicative in [intens] VPs,
[B] object-predicative in [complex] VPs,
[C] indirect object in [ditrans] VPs (but only with to or for),
[D] prepositional complement in [prep] VPs.
As we shall see, they can also function as (optional)
modifiers:
[E] modifiers in the structure of NP (e.g. the book in your
pocket),
[F] modifiers in the structure of VP (e.g. sunbathed
beside a stream).
Decide which one of these functions the bracketed PPs have
in the following sentences (this can be done just by giving
one of the above letters). NB. Some allow more than one
reasonable answer. This is particularly true of (n). Note that
(c) is crucially ambiguous.
(a) Bertram is the man [for the job].
(b) She was very happy [in the Spring].
(c) I saw the man [with the binoculars].
(d) This award is [for outstanding cookery].
(e) I’m doing this course [for my own satisfaction].
(f) Eliot left most of his manuscripts [to the museum].
(g) Eliot left most of his manuscripts [at the museum].
(h) He passed the wine [to Tessa].
(i) He passed the house [on his way to the parking lot].
(j) We stayed [for ten minutes].
(k) We stayed [at the Hotel Mortification].
(l) He knocked a glass [of wine] [onto the floor].
 (m) He remained [in a state of shock] [for ten days].
(n) Dionysus remained [in the bar].

1 Note that the reflexive pronoun himself in Max shaved himself does refer (to
Max), so it’s a direct object.