Physical geography

Faculty- Ruheen Khan

Time-

1. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. The distribution of water on the Earth's surface is extremely
uneven. Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh; the remaining 97% resides in the ocean. Of
freshwater, 69% resides in glaciers, 30% exists as groundwater, and less than 1% is located in lakes,
rivers, and swamps.

2. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Coastal upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that
involves the upward movement of nutrient-rich deep waters towards the ocean's surface, providing a
vital source of sustenance for a diverse array of marine life. Statement 1 is incorrect: Coastal upwelling
facilitates the movement of nutrient-rich deep water to the surface, fostering an environment conducive
to the growth of phytoplankton, seaweed, and other primary producers. These primary producers form
the foundation of the marine food web, supporting the growth of zooplankton and other marine
organisms. Statement 2 is correct: Nutrient-rich waters resulting from coastal upwelling create highly
productive fishing grounds. The increased availability of food resources supports a thriving community
of fish, marine mammals, and birds. This phenomenon is exemplified by regions like the west coast of
Peru, where continual coastal upwelling contributes to one of the richest fishing grounds globally.
Overall, coastal upwelling regions only cover 1 percent of the total area of the world’s oceans, but they
provide about 50 percent of the fish harvests.

3. d Exp) Option d is the correct answer. Oceanic gyres are expansive systems of circulating ocean
currents that play a crucial role in the global movement of seawater. These large-scale gyres are
characterized by their circular or spiral patterns, influencing the distribution of heat, nutrients, and
marine life across the world's oceans. Statement 1 is incorrect: In the Northern Hemisphere, these
currents move in a clockwise direction, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they circulate
counterclockwise. This rotation is a result of the Coriolis effect, a phenomenon caused by the Earth's
rotation. Statement 2 is incorrect: The oceanic gyres are not typically considered the most productive
regions of the ocean. The central areas of gyres tend to have lower nutrient concentrations, limiting
primary productivity. However, the outer edges of gyres, where upwelling occurs, can be rich in
nutrients, supporting diverse marine life. Statement 3 is incorrect: The Sargasso Sea, often associated
with oceanic gyres, is located in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by its calm waters. It is
enclosed on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North Atlantic Drift, on the east by the
Canary Current, and on the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.

4. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. A guyot, also known as a table mount or flat-topped seamount, is
a type of underwater mountain or seamount with a distinct flat or gently sloping summit. Guyots are
characterized by their plateau like features, in contrast to the pointed or peaked summits of typical
seamounts. The flat top of a guyot is often believed to result from the processes of erosion and
subsidence.The formation of a guyot typically involves the following stages: 1) An underwater volcanic
seamount forms with a conical peak, but over time, through erosion caused by wave action and other
 geological processes, the summit becomes flattened. 2) The guyot gradually subsides or sinks beneath
the ocean surface. This combination of processes results in the distinctive flat-topped structures, called
guyots.

5. d Exp) Option d is the correct answer. Ocean currents are essential for maintaining the heat budget of
the Earth, by transporting warm water and precipitation towards the poles and cold water back to the
trophic. They can be classified into - Tidal Currents, surface currents, coastal currents and thermohaline
circulations. Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a
definite path and direction. Option 1 is correct: Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand.
That is why, near the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope. Thus, the latitudinal position
of ocean affects the movement of ocean current.Option 2 is correct: The Coriolis force is caused by the
rotation of the earth on its own axis. The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. Option 3 is correct: Wind
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and the water
surface affects the movement of the water body in its course. For example, trade winds influence the
direction of ocean current in the ocean. Option 4 is correct: Differences in water density affect vertical
mobility of ocean currents. Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity. Water with
higher density tends to move towards the water with lower density. Option 5 is correct: The attraction of
the sun and the moon on the earth causes the ocean water to rise up and fall down twice a day. The
vertical motion of the tides near the shore causes the water to move horizontally, creating currents.
Hence tides too have its influence on ocean currents. They are called tidal currents.

6. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Ocean trenches are long, narrow depressions on the seafloor.
These chasms are the deepest parts of the ocean—and some of the deepest natural spots on Earth.
Statement 1 is correct: Convergent boundaries involve the collision or subduction of tectonic plates.
When one tectonic plate is forced beneath another, it creates a subduction zone, leading to the
formation of oceanic trenches. Examples include the Mariana Trench formed by the subduction of the
Pacific Plate beneath the Philippine plate. Statement 2 is correct: Oceanic trenches are known for their
extreme and inhospitable conditions. The absence of sunlight at such depths results in the absence of
photosynthesis. The pressure is extremely high, temperatures are low, and the environment is dark.
Life in these trenches often relies on chemosynthesis and marine snow, where organisms extract
energy from chemical reactions rather than sunlight. Marine snow is the continuous fall of organic and
inorganic particles (including the remains of marine organisms, fecal matter, shells, and sand) from the
upper layers of the water column to the seafloor. Only organisms with high levels of adaptation can
survive in these regions.

7. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Statements 1, 2 and 3 are correct: Badland Topography is the
result of gully or ravine erosion. Ravines are widespread in Chambal basin. So, it is a characteristic
feature of Chambal basin. This topography is a feature of arid and semi-arid regions which are formed
by the erosional activity of wind and water on soft sedimentary rocks and clay rich soils. There are
several rock types found in the Badlands topography. The topography contains sandstones, siltstones,
mudstones, clay stones, limestones, volcanic ash, and shale. Statement 4 is incorrect: Mushroom rocks
are not found in this type of topography. They are characteristic features of Desert Erosional Landform.
8. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. The major ocean currents in the globe play a crucial role in
regulating Earth's climate, distributing heat and nutrients, and influencing weather patterns.Statement 1
is incorrect: El Nino refers to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along the Peruvian
coast as a temporary replacement for the cold Peruvian Current. The presence of El Nino leads to
below average monsoon rainfall in India. Statement 2 is correct: The Cold Canary Current is an ocean
current that flows southwards along the western coast of Africa and extends towards the equator. The
presence of this current in the region led to the formation of the Sahara Desert in the African region.
Unlike warm currents, cold currents do not give rise to moisture laden winds and hence there is no
rainfall in the coastal areas. These currents give rise to conditions which are the cause of desertification
in the affected coastal areas. Statement 3 is correct: Mixing of warm and cold current creates foggy
weather where precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle. For example, the mixing of Labrador current
(cold current) with Gulf of stream (warm current) causes drizzling in Newfoundland.

9. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Both surface and deep-water currents are integral components
of the Earth's climate system, with each playing a distinct yet interconnected role in regulating global
climate patterns. Statement 1 is correct: Deep water currents are primarily driven by density differences
in ocean waters, a process known as thermohaline circulation, which is influenced by variations in
temperature and salinity. Surface water currents, on the other hand, are primarily driven by wind stress,
which is the frictional force exerted by wind on the ocean surface. Statement 2 is correct: Deep water
currents typically move at much slower speeds compared to surface water currents. Surface currents
can reach speeds of up to several knots, while deep water currents typically move at a few centimetres
per second. This difference in speed is attributed to the increased viscosity and resistance at deeper
levels of the ocean. Statement 3 is incorrect: Both the surface and deep-water currents have a
significant impact on the global climate. For example, the deep-water currents circulate cold, dense
water from the poles towards the equator and then back again, creating a global conveyor belt system
that plays a crucial role in maintaining global climate.

10. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. A thermocline is the transition layer between the warmer mixed
water at the surface and the cooler deep water below. Option a is incorrect: Following is the
temperature structure of the ocean: The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water with
temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C. The second layer comprises thermocline and the third
layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Option b is correct: The thermocline layer is
characterised by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. Thermocline region begins
around 100 - 400 metres below the sea surface and extends several hundred metres downward. Option
c is incorrect: In the ocean, the depth and strength of the thermocline vary from season to season and
year to year. While it is semi-permanent in the tropics, it varies in temperate regions e.g. thermocline is
deepest during the summer in temperate regions. Option d is incorrect: In the Arctic and Antarctic
circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C. Thermocline is shallow to non-existent in the
polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom.

11. d Exp) Option d is the correct answer. Water vapor is an important component of the atmosphere and
ranges from 0 to 5% by volume. It is received through the evaporation of moisture from water bodies,
vegetation, and soil cover. Statement I is incorrect: The content of water vapor in the air/atmosphere
 tends to decrease from the equator towards the poles. As air moves away from the equator towards the
poles, temperatures generally decrease, because of reduced moisture holding capacity of air, resulting
in lower water vapor content. Statement II is correct: The quantity of water vapour existing in the
air/atmosphere depends upon the rate of evaporation and the temperature of the air which determines
its holding capacity of water vapour. The temperature of the air decreases from the equator towards the
poles due to the curvature of the earth and the angle at which the sun‟s rays strike the earth‟s surface.
The poles receive less direct sunlight than the equator, which results in lower temperatures. As a result,
the air at the poles has a lower holding capacity for water vapour than the air at the equator. This is why
the content of water vapour in air decreases from the equator towards the poles.

12. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density
and temperature. They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude. Statement 1 is
correct: The temperature in the stratosphere increases with height. The stratosphere exhibits a unique
temperature profile where, due to the presence of the ozone layer and the absorption of UV radiation,
the temperature tends to rise with altitude. Statement 2 is incorrect: Stratospheric ozone is a form of
ozone that is present in the stratosphere, which is the layer of the Earth‟s atmosphere that lies between
10 and 50 kilometers above the Earth‟s surface. The sun's Ultraviolet radiation is commonly split into
three bands: UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. Short-wavelength UV-C is the most damaging type of UV
radiation. However, it is completely filtered by the atmosphere and does not reach the earth's surface.
Medium-wavelength UV-B is very biologically active but cannot penetrate beyond the superficial skin
layers. It is responsible for delayed tanning and burning; in addition to these short-term effects, it
enhances skin ageing and significantly promotes the development of skin cancer. Most solar UV-B is
filtered by the atmosphere. The relatively long-wavelength UV-A accounts for approximately 95 per cent
of the UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface. It can penetrate into the deeper layers of the skin and
is responsible for the immediate tanning effect. Furthermore, it also contributes to skin ageing and
wrinkling. For a long time, it was thought that UV-A could not cause any lasting damage.

13. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Continentality is the main reason behind the high annual range of
temperature difference between steppes of the northern and southern hemisphere. Due to
continentality, winters are very cold in the north, but due to maritime influence in the south, winters are
mild. Thus, this brings a great difference in annual range of temperature. Also due to continentality,
conventional rainfall occurs in the region. And rainfall in winter is caused by occasional depressions of
the westerlies.

14. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Statement I is correct- Humidity is the amount of water vapor in
the air. The humidity levels during the summer season tend to be higher when compared to those
experienced in winter. In the summer, humidity levels can be between 50 and 60 per cent. Statement II
is the correct explanation for Statement I- Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. The warmer
the air, the more water vapor it can hold. As temperatures rise in the summer, the air becomes
saturated with more water vapor, leading to higher humidity levels in the summer.

15. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer.| Dust particles are made up of fine particles of solid matter, such
as rock and mineral particles, pollen, sea salt, chemicals, and bacteria. These particles can cause hazy
 skies and provide a surface for condensation of water vapor. Statement 1 is correct: Dust particles,
particularly when they absorb sunlight, can contribute to localized heating of the atmosphere. This
occurs when dust particles absorb solar radiation, leading to the conversion of light energy into heat
energy. In regions with higher concentrations of dust particles, this absorption of sunlight can result in
the heating of the surrounding air, contributing to local temperature increases. Statement 2 is incorrect:
Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The higher
concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry winds in
comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions. The dry winds in these regions carry dust particles from
the land and deposit them in the atmosphere, leading to higher concentrations of dust particles.

16. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a
season and in a year. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are: Option 1 is correct: The
Earth rotates on its own axis, which makes an angle of 66.5 degrees with the plane of its orbit around
the sun. This rotation causes the sun’s rays to strike the Earth’s surface at different angles at different
times of the day, leading to variations in insolation. Option 2 is correct: The amount of insolation
received at the surface depends on the length of the day. The longer the day, the more exposure an
area on the Earth’s surface has to solar energy, and thus, the higher insolation is received. Conversely,
shortening the day‟s duration results in less insolation. Option 3 is incorrect: Ocean currents and
circulation systems do not directly influence the amount of insolation received on the Earth's surface.
Ocean currents and circulation systems play a significant role in redistributing heat around the globe.
Option 4 is correct: Atmospheric conditions, including factors like cloud cover, dust, and other particles,
affect the transmission of solar radiation to the Earth's surface. The transparency or opacity of the
atmosphere influences the amount of insolation reaching the surface. Option 5 is correct: The
orientation or aspect of land surfaces influences the absorption and reflection of solar radiation.
Surfaces oriented more directly toward the Sun receive higher insolation compared to surfaces with
oblique angles relative to the Sun.

17. D. option d is the correct answer. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a dynamic and
significant atmospheric feature that plays a crucial role in Earth's climate system. Generally, positioned
near the equator, the ITCZ represents a region where the Southeast trade winds from the Southern
Hemisphere converge with the Northeast trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere.Statement 1 is
incorrect: While the ITCZ is commonly found near the equator, it is not strictly confined between 0-5
degrees North and South throughout the year. The ITCZ migrates with the Sun's apparent motion,
shifting its position seasonally. In the summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards. Similarly, during winters in the Northern Hemisphere, the sun
shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn, resulting in ITCZ shifting southwards. For Example, In the
month of July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes
called the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development of thermal low over
north and northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross
the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing from southwest to northeast due to the
Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and so the
reversal of winds from northeast to south and southwest takes place. They are called northeast
monsoons.Statement 2 is incorrect: The ITCZ is associated with a low-pressure zone. As the trade
winds converge at the ITCZ, warm air ascends, creating a region of lower pressure. Hence, the
 statement given is incorrect. Statement 3 is incorrect: The low pressure created at ITCZ is known for
the formation of clouds and heavy precipitation. The precipitation, along with thunderstorms is a
frequent phenomenon in this zone. It plays a significant role in generating rainfall in the tropical regions.

18. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Isotherms are lines that connect points of equal temperature on a
map. The horizontal distribution of temperature on Earth is shown by isotherms. Statement I is correct:
During winter in the northern hemisphere, the isotherms shift towards the south over the continent and
towards the north over the ocean. This is because the landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere cool
down more rapidly than the oceans, which retain heat for a longer time. As a result, the temperature
gradient over the continents is steeper than over the oceans, causing the isotherms to bend towards
the equator over the continents. Statement II provides an explanation for the phenomenon described in
Statement I. Land has low thermal capacity and limited heat transfer capacity than the water. The fact
that landmasses cool down more rapidly than oceans during winter directly relates to the observed
shifting of isotherms towards the south over continents and towards the north over oceans.

19. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Temperature inversion is a meteorological phenomenon
occurring when the atmosphere's temperature increases with altitude, as opposed to the normal
decrease in temperature with altitude. This phenomenon is caused by the trapping of cool air near the
ground surface by a layer of warm air above it Option 1 is correct: Longer nights during winter provide
more time for the Earth's surface to cool through radiative heat loss, contributing to the development of
temperature inversions. Option 2 is correct: Clear and cloudless conditions allow for efficient radiative
cooling of the Earth's surface during nighttime, aiding in the cooling of the air near the ground and
contributing to the development of temperature inversions. Option 3 is incorrect: Low-pressure weather
systems typically bring unsettled weather conditions with rising air masses, promoting vertical mixing
and hindering the formation of temperature inversions. Therefore, low-pressure systems are not
favorable for the development of temperature inversions. On the contrary, High-pressure systems can
lead to calm winds and reduced atmospheric turbulence, aiding in the formation and maintenance of
inversions. Option 4 is correct: Dry air near the ground surface can enhance the cooling effect of the
Earth's surface during clear nights, aiding in the development of temperature inversions.

20. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. The Coriolis force is named after French scientist
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. The Earth's rotation on its axis influences the wind direction, giving rise to
the Coriolis force, which is directly proportional to the latitude angle.Statement 1 is incorrect- The
Coriolis force deflects the wind toward the left direction in the Southern Hemisphere and towards the
right direction in the Northern Hemisphere. Statement 2 is correct- The Coriolis force deflects the wind
proportionally to its velocity, meaning higher wind velocities will experience a greater deflection and
vice-versa. Statement 3 is incorrect- The Coriolis force is zero at the equator and increases in
magnitude towards the poles. This is due to the Earth's rotation and the fact that the Coriolis force acts
perpendicular to the Earth's surface.

21. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. The South-East Trade Winds, which blow from the southeast
towards the equator in the Pacific Ocean, are not directed towards the Indian Ocean as a direct result
of El Niño. Instead, during El Niño, the South-East Trade Winds may weaken or even reverse their
direction in the central and eastern Pacific, leading to reduced upwelling of nutrient-rich waters along
 the western coast of South America. El Niño effects on the atmosphere and oceans: 1) Distortion of
equatorial atmospheric circulation: During El Niño, the trade winds weaken or even reverse direction.
This allows warm water to build up in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. 2) Irregularities in the
evaporation of sea water: The warm water in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean has a lower salinity
than normal, which reduces the amount of evaporation. This, in turn, reduces the amount of
precipitation that falls in the region. 3) Reduction in the amount of planktons which reduces the number
of fish in the sea: The warm water in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean is also less nutrient-rich
than normal. This, in turn, reduces the amount of plankton, which are the base of the marine food
chain. As a result, there are fewer fish in the sea.

22. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Option 1 is incorrect: Formation of Fronts (Frontogenesis)
requires Converging Air so that one air mass is moved towards another as contact between different air
masses is essential for a front to form. Diverging air circulation leads to dissipation of the front
(Frontolysis). Option 2 is correct: A Front by definition, is a region of instability/ transition at the meeting
point of two air masses with differing characteristics (like temperature, humidity, density, etc.). So, for a
front to form, there needs to be 2 air masses with contrasting temperatures. Option 3 is correct: Coriolis
Force is required to steer the air masses towards each other. If the air masses remain stationary
horizontally, they won‟t meet and no front would be formed without actual contact. Knowledge Base:
The temperature contrast influences the thickness of frontal zone in an inversely proportional manner.
With a sudden change in temperature through a front, there is a change in pressure also, which is
reflected in bending of isobars towards the low pressure. These isobars are otherwise smooth curves.
The fronts mostly lie in low pressure troughs. Also, a front experiences wind shift, since the wind motion
is a function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force.

23. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Pair 1 is correctly matched - Cumulus clouds emerge during
sunny days. They , resemble a puffy, cotton wool-like appearance. These clouds are often associated
with fair weather with minimal chance of precipitation. Scattered across the sky in patches, they are
reminiscent of childhood drawings, considered the typical cloud symbol, with bright white upper
sections and darker, more horizontal bases. Typically appearing later in the morning, they expand
throughout the day and dissipate at night. Pair 2 is correctly matched - Nimbostratus clouds are easily
recognizable due to their distinctive features. These clouds appear as dark grey, thick, and nearly
featureless formations that cover the entire sky, creating a uniform overcast layer and blocking sunlight,
resulting in a gloomyatmosphere. Found at low altitudes in the troposphere, typically ranging from 500
to 2000 meters above ground level, Nimbostratus clouds exhibit a unique appearance and behavior
that sets them apart from other cloud types. Pair 3 is incorrectly matched - Cumulonimbus clouds are
towering with an anvil-shaped top(flat and broad top), not Cirrostratus clouds. Cirrostratus clouds
manifest as transparent, whitish veils with a shiny or fibrous appearance, revealing a substantial
presence of moisture. A notable indicator is the luminous "halo" encircling the sun or moon, resulting
from light refraction on ice crystals, forming a complete circle.

24. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Rainfall is the lifeblood of our planet, nurturing ecosystems,
sustaining agriculture, and shaping the very landscapes we inhabit. However, this precious resource is
not distributed evenly across the globe, as various locations on the Earth experience varying annual
rainfall, distributed across different seasons. Statement 1 is incorrect- In warm temperate latitudes (35°
 to 40° N and S), the eastern margins of continental coast receive more rainfall than the western
margins. The reason for heavier rainfall is often associated with prevailing wind patterns and orographic
effects. In many regions, the prevailing winds, known as the trade winds, blow from east to west. As
moist air from the ocean moves towards the land, it is forced to ascend over elevated coastal areas. As
the air rises, it cools, and cooler air has a reduced capacity to hold moisture. Consequently, this leads
to the condensation of water vapor, cloud formation, and ultimately, heavier rainfall on the windward
(eastern) side of these coastal regions. On the leeward (western) side, the descending air tends to be
drier, resulting in decreased rainfall. Statement 2 is incorrect- Heavy rainfall exceeding 200 cm per year
is observed in the equatorial belt, the windward slopes of mountains along the western coasts in the
cool temperate zone, and the coastal regions of monsoon-influenced lands. Continental interiors of the
tropical zone receives very less rainfall of nearly 50 cm per year. Statement 3 is correct- The British
type of climate, characterized by the influence of the Westerlies on cool temperate western margins
year-round, is often associated with regions experiencing frequent cyclonic activity. Commonly referred
to as the Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate or North-West European Maritime Climate, these
areas encounter rainfall consistently throughout the year. Winters tend to be cool and rainy, while
summers are warm and also marked by rainfall. The weather in these regions is highly unpredictable,
reflecting the variability typical of this climate type.

25. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Monsoon refers to the seasonal change in the direction of the
prevailing winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics.
Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm
regions. The summer monsoon and the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of India and
Southeast Asia.

26. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Cyclones and anticyclones are large-scale weather systems that
influence atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns. Statement 1 is incorrect- There are two
main types of cyclones: tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones. In a tropical cyclone, the central
region is referred to as the 'eye,' characterized by calm winds and no rainfall. Conversely, in a
temperate cyclone, there is no specific area where winds and precipitation are absent, and therefore,
an 'eye' is not present. Anticyclones are high-pressure systems with winds rotating outwards. This
outward spiraling increases pressure and leads to clear skies and calm conditions in the center.
However, there is no significant pressure drop or formation of an eye in an anticyclone. Statement 2 is
incorrect- In the Northern Hemisphere, cyclones display counter-clockwise wind movement, a result of
the Coriolis effect induced by the Earth's rotation. The Coriolis effect, strongest at the poles and
diminishing towards the equator, deflects moving objects and leads to the inward and counter-clockwise
spiral of winds in cyclones. Conversely, anticyclones in the Northern Hemisphere exhibit clockwise wind
movement.

27. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Statements 2,3 and 4 are correct: The Roaring Forties are the
prevailing westerly winds that blow between 40-50 degrees south latitude. They are strong and
persistent, and they can reach speeds of up to 100 knots. The westerlies are caused by the
temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. Their direction is generally from north-west to
east in the southern hemisphere. Overcast skies, rain and raw weather are generally associated with
them. Statement 1 is incorrect. The Roaring Forties only blow in the Southern Hemisphere.
28. d Exp) Option d is the correct answer. In the context of atmospheric circulation, "cells" refer to
closed-loop patterns of air movement that drive the global distribution of heat and energy. These cells
consist of rising and sinking air masses, with distinct characteristics and locations within the
atmosphere. Harley cells, Ferrel cells and Polar cells play an important role in regulating the global
pressure and temperature. Ferrel Cell is a low-pressure zone which is in the mid-latitudes (30° to 60°
latitude). It is characterised by sinking air i.e. air masses from the Hadley cell and the Polar cell
converge at the surface. The converging air masses are forced upwards due to the Coriolis effect,
leading to the formation of jet streams, hence in the Ferrel cell, westerlies blow from west to east.
Knowledge Base: Polar cells are high-pressure zones at the poles where the dense cold air from the
poles sinks towards the surface, creating regions of high pressure. They encompass the regions from
approximately 60° to 90° north and south latitude, playing a key role in the Earth's climate system. The
Hadley cell at the equator is the large-scale atmospheric circulation cell responsible for the global
movement of trade winds. The belt of prevailing winds that blow from west to east in the tropics refers
to the trade winds, which are part of the Hadley cell circulation pattern. The Hadley cell encompasses
the region from the equator to approximately 30° north and south latitude

29. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Mountain and valley breezes are local wind patterns influenced
by temperature variations between mountains and adjacent valleys. Statement-I is correct: It is true that
the Mountain breezes are slightly warmer than the Valley breezes. The reason for this is that during the
mountain breeze, the air descends from the mountain, gets compressed and warmed by adiabatic
compression. On the other hand, during the Valley breeze, as the air rises from the valley it expands
and cools. Therefore, Mountain breezes are generally slightly warmer than the Valley breezes.
Statement-II is correct: In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as
the valley breeze. During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends into the valley as
the mountain breeze. Statement II is not correct explanation of Statement I as, Statement II only talks
about direction of movement of breeze during Day and night. It does not talk about the nature of breeze
i.e. whether Mountain Breeze is warmer or colder than Valley Breeze.

30. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Extratropical cyclones usually form in higher latitudes, closer to
the Poles, outside the tropics. They often develop in the middle and high latitudes. Statement 1 is
incorrect: The primary energy source for extra tropical cyclones is the horizontal temperature contrast
between the cold and warm air masses. The collusion of warm, moist air from the tropics with cold, dry
air mass from higher latitudes is the primary cause of extratropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones primarily
derive their energy from warm ocean waters, not extra tropical cyclones. Statement 2 is correct:
Powerful winds, substantial precipitation (including snow), and frontal systems (such as cold and warm
fronts) are distinctive traits of extra-tropical cyclones. An extra tropical cyclone passing over a specific
area often orchestrates a prolonged period of continuous snowfall or rainfall, marked by an overcast,
dark grey sky, followed by a subsequent phase of colder, intermittent showers. Statement 3 is correct: It
is true that the core of extratropical cyclones is relatively colder than their outer regions. During
extratropical transition, the cyclone begins to tilt back into the colder airmass with height, and the
cyclone's primary energy source converts from the release of latent heat from condensation (from
 thunderstorms near the centre) to baroclinic processes (alignment of Pressure gradient lines). Hence,
the low-pressure system eventually loses its warm core and becomes a cold core system.

31. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in
tropical areas and move over to the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by
violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. The conditions favourable for the formation and
intensification of tropical storms are as follows: Option 1 is correct: Sea Surface temperature greater
than 27° C is one of the favourable factors responsible for the development of cyclones. The warm sea
surface temperatures provide the latent heat energy needed for the cyclone‟s development. Option 2 is
correct: A large ocean area provides a vast area for the wind to blow over, allowing it to gain energy
and contribute to the intensification of tropical cyclones. Option 3 is incorrect: Strong vertical wind will
disrupt the cyclone's updraft, hindering its development and intensification. Hence, the weak vertical
wind favours the development of tropical cyclones. Option 4 is incorrect: The presence of a pre-existing
weak low-pressure area (not high pressure) is necessary for the development of a tropical cyclone.
Small local differences in the temperature of water and of air produce various low-pressure centres of
small size. A weak cyclonic circulation develops around these areas. This area of low pressure helps to
initiate the upward motion of air necessary for formation of tropical cyclones.

32. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Tropical cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons, are
powerful weather systems characterised by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surge. They form
over warm ocean waters and can cause significant damage when they make landfall. Statement 1 is
incorrect: The eye (not eyewall) of a tropical cyclone is a relatively calm region with clear skies and
subsiding air. The eye is so calm because the strong surface winds that converge towards the centre
never reach it. The Coriolis force deflects the wind slightly away from the centre, causing the wind to
rotate around the centre of the cyclone (the eye wall). Statement 2 is incorrect: The eyewall (not eye) is
a region of intense thunderstorms surrounding the eye where the strongest winds and heaviest rainfall
occur. This region experiences powerful updrafts, which draw moisture-laden air upwards, leading to
the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds and the release of tremendous amounts of latent heat.
Statement 3 is correct: The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. Hence it is true
that tropical cyclones lose their intensity rapidly once they make landfall due to the lack of warm water
as their energy source.

33. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. The study of earthquakes involves key terminologies to describe
different facets of seismic events. These help in explaining the point of origin of earthquake, points on
the surface to experience the waves, and the point where movement in rocks have taken place.
Regions related to an Earthquake. Pair 1 is incorrectly matched: Epicenter is the location where seismic
waves, generated by the release of energy within the Earth, first reach the surface. It lies directly above
the surface of the Earth. Also, it is the point where the earthquake's effects are most strongly felt. Pair 2
is incorrectly matched: Hypocenter is also called „focus‟ of the earthquake. It is the precise point within
the Earth where an earthquake originates, and seismic energy is initially released. Pair 3 is correctly
matched: Fault plane refers to the surface within the Earth along which the rocks experience movement
during an earthquake. It is the location where two rocks slip past each other. This leads to sudden
release of energy.
34. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. The Primary waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-waves)
are the sub-types of body waves. During an earthquake, these waves pass within the interiors of the
earth. When the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called
surface waves. Statement 1 is correct: The P-wave leads to stretching and squeezing of materials,
whereas S waves create troughs and crests in the materials. P-waves, while vibrating parallel to the
direction of waves, create pressure on materials. This creates density differences, leading to stretching
and squeezing of materials. On the other hand, due to perpendicular vibration of S-waves, they are
known to create troughs and crests in the material. Statement 2 is incorrect: The manner of propagation
of different waves is quite different. The P waves vibrate parallel to the direction of waves, whereas the
S-waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of waves. Hence, the statement given is incorrect.

35. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. The continental drift theory, first proposed by Alfred Wegener in
1912, suggests that Earth's continents were once joined together in a single supercontinent called
Pangea. This supercontinent began to break apart about 200 million years ago and gradually drifted to
their current positions. Wegener's continental drift theory proposed various forces to explain the drifting
of continents. Let's analyze each force mentioned in the options: Option 1 is correct: Attraction force
between moon and the Earth: This force refers to the gravitational pull between the Earth and the
Moon. Wegener suggested that the tidal force due to the gravitational pull between the Earth and the
Moon contributes to the drifting of continents over a long period. Option 2 is incorrect: Convection
currents in the Earth's mantle: This force involves the movement of the Earth's mantle driven by
convection currents. But Wegner did not consider it as a force causing the drifting of the continents. It is
a key component of the plate tectonics theory. Option 3 is correct: Force generated due to rotation of
Earth: The Earth's rotation contributes to the Coriolis effect, influencing ocean currents and atmospheric
circulation. Wegener considered this force to explain continental drift theory. Option 4 is incorrect:
Tensional forces at plate boundaries play a crucial role in the geological processes. But Wegner did not
consider it as a force for the drifting of the continents.

36. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Statement 1 is incorrect: The crust is the Earth's outermost layer
and is less dense than both the mantle and the core. The average density of crust is 2.7 g/cm3. 1) The
density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3 g/cm3. The density of lower mantle
ranges between 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 2) The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2
g/cm3. The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3. Hence, crust is the least
dense layer of the earth. Statement 2 is correct: The mantle is the middle layer in the structure of the
Earth. It is about 2900 kms thick and comprises of around 84% of the Earth’s overall volume. The
mantle exhibits variable viscosity, being predominantly solid rock yet less viscous at tectonic plate
boundaries and mantle plumes. The aesthenosphere, which is in partially molten form, is also part of
the mantle. The mantle activities contribute to phenomena like volcanoes, seafloor spreading,
earthquakes, and orogeny, shaping the planet's geological features. Statement 3 is incorrect: The outer
core is in liquid state, whereas the inner core is in the solid state. The outer core is composed of iron
and nickel in the molten state. The inner core is mainly composed of solid iron and nickel, therefore,
also called the NiFe layer. The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent
of the earth’s volume but 33% of earth’s mass.
37. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Statement 1 is correct: Longitudes are imaginary semicircles
starting from the north pole and ending at the south pole. All longitudes are equal in length irrespective
of their location. Latitudes, on the other hand, are imaginary parallel lines which make a circle around
the Earth. The equator represents zero-degree Latitude. All parallel circles from the equator to the
poles are called parallels of latitudes. As we move away from the equator, the length of latitudes
decreases. Statement 2 is correct: The Earth's longitude lines run perpendicular to its latitude lines,
forming a grid that helps to identify specific locations on the planet. Latitudes are horizontal lines that
measure distance north or south of the equator. Longitudes are vertical lines that measure east or west
of the meridian in Greenwich, England. Together, latitude and longitude enable people to locate points
or places on the globe.

38. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are rocky, airless
remnants left over from the early formation of our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago. Comets are
cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock, and dust that orbit the Sun. Statement 1 and 3 are correct.
Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun. Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of
the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices. They range from a few miles to tens of miles wide,
but as they orbit closer to the sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can
be larger than a planet. This material forms a tail that stretches millions of miles. Statement 2 is
incorrect. The asteroid belt is located roughly between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars.
Comets are not limited to any specific region; they are spread all over the solar system.

39. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Lava is the molten magma that has been expelled from the
interior of the earth during volcanic eruptions. It is heavily charged with gases such as carbon dioxide,
sulphurated hydrogen, and small proportions of nitrogen, chlorine and other volatile substances. There
are two types of lavas i.e., basic and acidic lavas. Statement 1 is correct: Basic lavas are dark coloured
like basalt and are rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. The acidic lava is light coloured, of low
density and with higher silica content. Statement 2 is correct: Acidic lavas are highly viscous (higher the
viscosity, lower the fluidity) hence they flow slowly and travel less. It ends up forming cone shaped
volcanoes. Basic lava is highly fluid thus travels far and forms sheet volcanoes. Statement 3 is
incorrect: The rapid congealing of acidic lava in the vent obstructs the flow of outpouring lava resulting
in loud explosions. Basic lavas flow quietly out of the volcano and are not very explosive.

40. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Dykes are vertical wall-like structures formed when lava
solidifies perpendicular to the ground through cracks and fissures. They are intrusive volcanic
landforms resulting from magma or lava filling fractures in the Earth's crust. Dykes play a significant role
as conduits for the upward movement of molten rock. This process leads to the development of vertical,
wall-like structures that cut across existing rock formations. These are the most commonly found
intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area. These are seen as the conduits supplying magma for
the eruptions that contributed to the Deccan traps' formation.

41. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Pair 1 is incorrectly matched: The Nazca Plate is a small oceanic
tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is bounded by the South American Plate to the east, the
Pacific Plate to the west, and the Cocos Plate to the north (not between Central America and Pacific
Plate). The Nazca Plate is moving westward at a rate of about 8 centimeters (about 3.15 in) per year,
 and it is slowly being subducted under the South American Plate. This subduction process is
responsible for creating the Andes Mountains and for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
along the western coast of South America. Pair 2 is incorrectly matched: Formed around 23 million
years ago, the Cocos Plate is a youthful oceanic tectonic plate situated between Central America and
Pacific plate (not Between South America and Pacific plate). Its name is derived from Cocos Island,
situated above it, and its origin traces back to the fragmentation of the Farallon Plate, a process that
concurrently gave rise to the Nazca Plate. Pair 3 is correctly matched: The Caroline Plate is a small,
oceanic tectonic plate in the western Pacific Ocean. It lies between the Philippine and Indian plate
(North of New Guinea).

42. b Exp) Option b is the correct Answer. Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals
and ions from the weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of
organisms. Types of Biological Weathering Option 1 is correct: Burrowing animals: Some animals, such
as moles, squirrels, and rabbits, can create fissures in rocks. These animals, however, suck up the
nutrients from the rock by creating a fissure. It gradually breaks the rock into large chunks. Option 2 is
correct: Microbial activity: Organic acids are produced by microscopic organisms such as algae, moss,
lichens, and bacteria. This changes the chemical composition of the rock and gradually erodes its outer
layer. Option 3 is incorrect: Cryofracturing is caused by water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a
key agent of mechanical weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in
rock. If temperatures drop low enough, the water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The ice
then works as a wedge. It slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice melts, liquid water
performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split. This specific
process (the freeze-thaw cycle) is called frost weathering or cryofracturing. Option 4 is incorrect:
Exfoliation is caused due to thermal stress. Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical
weathering in a process called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with
heat) and contract (with cold). Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress.

43. b Exp) Options b is the correct answer. Statement 1 is correct: Sedimentary rocks are formed through
the process of lithification, which is the transformation of loose, unconsolidated sediments into solid
rock. This process involves three main stages: 1) Weathering and Erosion: The first stage of lithification
is weathering and erosion; they break down rocks and minerals into smaller particles called sediments.
2) Deposition: At the depositional site, the sediments settle and accumulate. The weight of the overlying
sediments compacts the lower layers, squeezing out water and air spaces. 3) Cementation: Over time,
minerals dissolved in water can precipitate and fill the spaces between the sediment grains. This
process, called cementation, further strengthens the rock and completes the lithification process.
Statement 2 is correct: Fossils are predominantly found in sedimentary rock deposits due to favorable
conditions for preservation. Sedimentary rocks, formed from accumulating sediments over time, are
more likely to preserve the remains of past organisms. These rocks often originate in environments
conducive to organic matter preservation, such as swamps and oceans. Additionally, sedimentary rocks
are well-preserved, resisting erosion. In contrast, igneous and metamorphic rocks, formed through
processes that involve melting or recrystallization are less suitable for fossil preservation as these
processes obliterate any existing organic matter. Statement 3 is incorrect: Schist and marble are
examples of Metamorphic rocks, not sedimentary rocks. Conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess,
geyserite, chalk etc are some examples of Sedimentary rocks.
44. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Weather plays a crucial role in triggering and influencing mass
movements on Earth's surface due to its significant impact on factors that contribute to slope stability.
Mass movements, also known as mass wasting, encompass the downslope movement of soil, rock,
and other debris under the influence of gravity. Weather conditions, particularly precipitation, can
significantly alter the balance of forces acting on slopes, increasing the likelihood of downslope
movement. Statement 1 is incorrect- Mass movement and erosion are separate geomorphic processes
distinguished by their mechanisms and outcomes. Unlike erosion, mass movement does not involve
active transport by air, water, or ice; instead, the debris may carry these elements with it. Hence,
weathering and erosion processes are not essential for mass movement though they may help mass
movements. Statement 2 is correct- Gravity facilitates mass movements, with no involvement of any
other geomorphic agents like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, or currents in the process.
Statement 3 is correct- Solifluction is a type of mass movement characterized by the slow downslope
flow of water-saturated or lubricated soil mass and fine-grained rock debris. This phenomenon is
essentially a form of creep, where the movement is facilitated by the presence of lubricating water. It is
prominently observed in permafrost zones, where groundwater strata are situated between
permanently frozen soil and rocks, contributing to the gradual downslope motion typical of solifluction.

45. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Seafloor spreading is a geologic process where there is a
gradual addition of new oceanic crust in the ocean floor through volcanic activity while moving the older
rocks away from the mid-oceanic ridge. Seafloor spreading was proposed by an American
geophysicist, Harry H. Hess in 1960 when he provided evidence in support of this. Statement 1 is
correct: Particularly, the mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic
regions revealed the following facts: The rocks equidistant on either side of the crest of mid-oceanic
ridges show remarkable similarities in terms of the period of formation, chemical compositions, and
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest.
The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest. This records that there is a constant
movement and spreading of rocks on the ocean floor. Statement 2 is incorrect: The ocean crust rocks
are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in the oceanic crust is nowhere more
than 200 million years old. Some of the continental rock formations are as old as 3,200 million years. It
is clear evidence that the formation of rocks on the sea floor is due to the reabsorption of materials.
Statement 3 is correct: The condition on the mid-oceanic ridge was substantially different from other
surfaces away from the region because of the warmer temperature. The molten magma from the
mantle arose due to the convection currents in the interior of the earth. This makes the temperature
near the mid-oceanic ridge becomes warm and the other surface to become cold because as the
molten magma continues to push upward, it moves the rocks away from the ridge.

46. a Exp) Option a is the correct answer. Statement 1 is correct: It states that a black hole is an
astronomical entity that cannot be seen by a telescope. This is true because black holes do not emit
any light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. They are essentially invisible to conventional
telescopes. Statement 2 is correct: The gravitational field on a black hole is so strong that it does not
allow even light to escape. This is also true. According to Einstein’s theory of general relativity, a black
hole is formed when a massive star collapses under its own gravity, creating a region in space where
the gravitational pull is so intense that nothing, not even light, can escape from it. Statement 2 is the
 correct explanation for statement 1: A black hole cannot be seen through a telescope. The intense
gravitational field of a black hole prevents any form of electromagnetic including light radiation from
escaping, making it appear completely dark and effectively invisible.

47. d Exp) Option d is the correct answer. The Earth consists of diverse elements, with the outer layer
existing in solid form and the interior in a hot, molten state. Approximately 98% of the Earth's crust is
made up of eight key elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and
magnesium. The remaining composition includes elements such as titanium, hydrogen, phosphorus,
manganese, sulfur, carbon, nickel, and others.

48. c Exp) Option c is the correct answer. Statement 1 is correct: Metamorphism occurs when rocks are
forced down to lower levels of the Earth by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through
the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected to great amounts
of pressure by overlying rocks. Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks
undergo recrystallisation and reorganisation of materials within original rocks. Statement 2 is correct: In
the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an
arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation. Statement 3 is
correct: Causes of Metamorphism among rocks are: 1) Orogenic (Mountain Building) Movements: Such
movements often take place with an interplay of folding, warping and high temperatures. These
processes give existing rocks a new appearance. 2) Lava Inflow: The molten magmatic material inside
the earth‟s crust brings the surrounding rocks under the influence of intense temperature pressure and
causes changes in them. Geodynamic Forces: The omnipresent geodynamic forces such as plate
tectonics also play an important role in metamorphism. Statement 4 is incorrect: Limestone is type of
sedimentary rock which is formed organically. Limestone converts into marble under heat and pressure.
The marble thus formed is a metamorphic rock. Some of the well-known examples of metamorphosed
rocks are as follows: clay may be metamorphosed into slate, limestone into marble, sandstone into
quartzite, granite into gneiss, shale into schist and coal into graphite.

49. b Exp) Option b is the correct answer. Tectonic Plate Boundaries refers to the region where two
tectonic plates meet. Most of the geological activities takes place at the plate boundaries. A single
tectonic plate can have multiple plate boundaries. There are three types of plate boundaries: 1)
Convergent plate boundary: It refers to the region where the crust is destroyed as Earth’s one plate
subducts below another plate. The site where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. 2)
Divergent plate boundary: It refers to the site where new crust is formed when the Earth’s plates move
away from each other. The sites where the plates pull away from each other are called spreading sites.
3) Transform plate boundary: It refers to the place where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as
the plates slide horizontally past each other.Statement 1 is correct: Island arcs are long curved chains
of volcanic islands found along the convergent tectonic plate boundaries. Island arcs result due to the
interaction of two oceanic crust where they converge and form the subduction zone. For example,
Japanese Island. Statement 2 is incorrect: Volcanoes observed at the divergent plate boundary are less
violent than those appearing at the subduction zone of convergent plate boundary. The reason being
the magma at convergent site is more viscous and it has more volatile material (mostly water).
Statement 3 is correct: Rift valley is a linear shaped lowland region that is found between the mountain
ranges. It is formed when Earth's tectonic plates move apart or diverges. Rift valleys are found both on
 land and at the bottom of the ocean, where they are created by the process of seafloor spreading. For
example, East African rift valley. Statement 4 is incorrect: The third type of plate boundary occurs where
tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other. This is known as a transform plate boundary. As the
plates rub against each other, huge stresses can cause portions of the rock to break, resulting in
earthquakes. Places where these breaks occur are called faults. A well-known example of a transform
plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California.

50. a Exp) Options a is the correct answer. Steady-state theory, in cosmology, a view that the universe is
always expanding but maintaining a constant average density, with matter being continuously created
to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones become unobservable. A steady-state
universe has no beginning or end in time, and from any point within it the view on the grand scale—i.e.,
the average density and arrangement of galaxies—is the same. Galaxies of all possible ages are
intermingled.