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THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

The term communication can be defined as
 An interactive process shared between the sender and the receiver. [Schram]
 Transmission of information, skills, knowledge, values, ideas, concepts or feelings from
one point to another. [Berelso and Steiner]
 The process of passing on, receiving and understanding any communicable aspect
among individuals through a given medium. [Rogers E. & Rogers R]
 The process of transferring or passing information from one person to another person
inform of symbols, sound, signals still pictures, speeches etc. [Brownel J.L]
 The process of imparting knowledge, skills, values, experience and mood so as to
achieve a certain goal. ]Berlo]
 The process of interchanging thoughts, facts, ideas, emotions, opinions or information
by two or more persons. [Summer J.R & Newman V.H]
 A continuing process and thinking process dealing with the transmission and
interchange of ideas, facts and course of action. [George R.]
 A process of meaningful interaction among human beings thus it is the process by which
meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings. [Konar]
 The exchange of information, deas, thoughts, values, facts, opinions, views, skills and
experience among individuals with common understanding and common goal. [Scudder]
 Communication originated from a Latin word COMMUNIS which means to share and to
understand something in common. [Dr. Jain & Dr. Bian]
Generally communication is simply the process of transferring information from the sender to
the receiver where the recipient decodes the information and reacts accordingly. The
communication theory that was proposed by Scudder S.F. in 1980 states that all living beings
exist on the planet communicates although the means of communication varies from one
specie to another. The universal law of communication theory says that all living beings
communicate through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures and possible
way to make the others aware of their thoughts, feelings, emotions and other problems
associating with their life experience. For instance a mother would never understand that her
child is hungry unless the child cries. The same applies when the child is injured cries to
communicate the pain that need medical attention. Also this may happens when a child scores
less marks in examinations parents would not speak to the child for sometime so that a child
can buck up for further examinations.
Likewise Plants communicate their needs to be taken care of and watered immediately through
visible changes in the colour of the leaves/flowers by falling down. Likewise the gardener
waters the plants when the leaves start turning brown, become dry and showing the signs of
withering, thus turning brown, dying of leaves are actually the ways the plant tries to
communicate to the gardener.

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Like human beings, animals also communicate among themselves though gestures, sounds and
various body movements to indicate that they are hungry, in danger or need medical attention.
For example monkeys always carry their babies wherever they go to ensure the safety of their
babies. Also the dog barks when sees the strange person passing or coming nearby to alert the
person that it won’t tolerate any more that kind of movement or it the sign of telling the owner
that someone unfamiliar is coming to the compound. The following are the point of views as
advocated by Scudder in his communication theory.
Mechanistic Point of View
The mechanistic point of view says that communication is simply the transmission of
information from the first party to the second party; the first party being the sender and the
second party being the receiver. Therefore here what matters is the transmission of the
message from the sender to the receiver by using relevant channel where feedback is not
necessarily produced.
Psychological Point of View
Psychological point of view states that communication is simply not only the flow of
information from the sender to the receiver but actually the feelings and thoughts of the
sender which want to share with the receiver. It also includes the feelings, thoughts and
reactions of the receiver soon after interpretation of information has made. Here the most
important aspect is the message communicated which carries thoughts and feelings of the
communicators. Also feedback from the receiver is very important in the communication
process as it makes the communication to be continued.
Social Point of View
The social point of view considers communication as a result of interaction between the sender
and the receiver. Communication is direct depends on the content of the speech. In this context
communication is the results of social interaction between the sender and the receiver. This
interaction may take different form depending on the expectations of the communicators,
social experience of the communicators as well as their social relationship. At this point of view
feedback is what makes the communicators interact each other.
Critical Point of View
The critical point of view states that communication is a tool of which individual uses in
expressing his/her power and authority to other individuals. This point of view happens most in
politics and administrative system. In politics the ruling party [the government] has the power
and authority to give directives and order to the public government officers in performing
various duties. Also in the organization the managers have the power and authority to inform
the subordinates about the organizational goal, giving directives and order to the subordinates
so that they can perform their duties and behave accordingly to reach the organization goal.
Here feedback can be appraised or not depending on the context.
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Systemic Point of View

The systemic point of view states that communication is actually a new message and a different
message which is created when individuals interpret the message in their own way and draw
their own conclusion. Here the emphasis has made towards the message itself, the way
message is conveyed and interpreted by the communicators. The sender may have his/her own
intention of communicating a message to the receiver but the receiver may perceive the
message differently as intended by the sender. So here the meaning of the message depends
on the communicators’ perception and the communication context regardless of the medium
used.
Thus communication is an integral part of human existence. Since man is a social animal,
communication helps him/her to exchange information like feelings, emotions, thoughts, skills,
knowledge and experience. Human being has ever lived in communication with other people
within and beyond the boundaries of his/her community. This has been done verbally [orally or
written] and non-verbally through signs, symbols, sounds, facial expression, gestures and body
movements by using various technological means. Life without communication would be
difficult and miserable. Communication is essentially the ability of people to interact one
another in various aspects of life experience. Therefore communication is a process by which
people create and share information with one another so as to reach a common understanding.
Hence what matters in communication process is the interaction between two parties with
common understanding. The following are the types of communication:-

COMMUNICATION

VERBAL COMMUNICATION NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Facial Expression
ORAL WRITTEN
Postures

Speaking Writing Gestures

Eye Contact

Listening Reading
Silence
Computerized Communication

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1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication is the use of words to share information between two parties. The term
verbal means words which are either spoken or written; therefore verbal communication is the
exchange of information through the use of spoken language and written language. However it
might be noted that verbal communication does not implies only speaking but also writing as
well. Verbal communication therefore requires both the speaker and the writer to convey the
message to the audience [the listener or the reader] who interpret and evaluate the
communicated message. Thus under verbal communication we have oral communication and
written communication as discussed below.
A: ORAL COMMUNICATION: It involves the exchange of information through the words of
mouth. Oral communication requires a clear and proper pronunciation of words, clarity of
language, presentation skills, communication context [political presentation, educational
presentations, economical presentations social presentation] and other situational factors. In
oral communication speaking skills and listening skills are very essential in exchanging
information between the speaker and the listener. It is a face to face communication that takes
place through lectures, Public speeches, telephonic conversations, songs, meetings,
conferences, presentations, discussions, drama, oral interview etc. Oral Communication can be
categorized into two main parts namely;
One Way Communication; is a type of Oral Communication where by the sender does not need
feedback from the receiver. It involves in sending and receiving information without asking
questions or seeking more clarification. One way communication saves time and the sender
feels more comfortable as he/she does not expect any question from the receiver. On the other
hand one way communication has some disadvantages like distortion of information, omission
of important information and it does not give an ample time a receiver to express his/her
feelings and opinions. This may take place in a working place when the top management is
giving order and directives to the subordinates, in the church when the priest is preaching the
word of God, in mass media particularly when advertising goods and services, in education
setting when a lecturer is lecturing in the class specifically in higher learning level, in army when
a commander in chief is giving order to soldiers, when the president is addressing the
parliament or giving order to his subordinates.
Two Way Communication; is a process through which two parties communicate with one
another in a reciprocal manner. It is a type or category of Oral Communication that involves
sending and receiving information with more clarification; the sender get feedback from the
receiver as a results facts can not be omitted, changes and responses can be made on the spot.
However this kind of communication consume time because it involves discussion between the
speaker and the listener also a speaker may feel attacked because of so many questions paused
by the receiver. Generation of information and responses depend upon the way the speaker
and the listener communicates what they communicate and their relationship. This kind of

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communication can take place during presentations, seminars, discussion, conferences,

meeting, oral interviews, teleconferences, telephonic conversations, etc
Advantage Of Oral Communication
 Degree of understanding can be appraised on the spot.
 Responses or feedback can be produced immediately.
 Doubts/misunderstanding can be clarified on the spot.
 It brought people together as a matter of facts many issues or subject matters can be
discussed on the spot. It has many audience/receivers.
Disadvantage Of Oral Communication
 It is less accurate rather than written form.
 Oral form is impossible in length communication where there is no limitation of words
to communicate.
 It lacks proof of record, thus it can cause misunderstanding/contradiction especially
when there is nowhere to refer.
 It difficult to fix exactly time of interaction as it depends on time and nature of subject
matter to be discussed.
B: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: It is a kind communication where people exchange
information through written documents. This type of communication happens when someone
interacts through Telephonic Messages, Telegrams, Letters, Memorandum, Articles, Reports,
Newspapers, Minutes, Books, E-mails etc. Effective written communication is essential when
preparing worthy materials for business development. Effective writing involves careful choice
of words in relation to the context, careful use of grammar; formation of sentences,
organization of sentences and paragraphs in a prescribed format. This kind of communication is
very useful to the people who have gone to school; those who know to write and read thus it
implies writing skills and reading skills.
Advantages Of Written Communication
 Information can be stored for further usage. Written communication is a permanent
means of communication where documentation of information is highly observed for
further usage, it can be used from generation to generation.
 Information is more accurate, precise and explicitly than oral form as it follows
grammatical rules of a respective language. Here skills and competencies in language
and vocabularies are highly needed. Poor witting skills and quality have a negative
impact towards writer’s reputation.
 It is suitable in comprehending the complicated message; complicated message can be
easily understood better when they are in written rather than in oral form. There is less
chance of misinterpretation and misunderstanding because clarifications are almost
given per each subject in a given context.

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 Omission of words is minimized because it is generally prepared with a great care and
precision. Written communication demands a writer to go about writing techniques
such as, reviewing, editing and proof reading so as to avoid unnecessary
errors/inconveniences that might be a burden to the readers.
 It can be used as reference/proof especially when contradiction arises or emerged. It
assists in proper delegation of power and responsibilities likewise legal defenses can
depend upon written communication as it provides valid records; therefore principles,
roles, rules and regulations can be maintained through written form.
 Immediate feedback is produced; the information are communicated directly between
both parties thus if there is any doubt arisen, then the speaker may clarify immediate to
suit the need of the audience. Also if the audience demands clarification from the
speaker, the speaker will be in position to respond on the spot and sometimes a
presenter may seek responses from his/her audience.
Disadvantages Of Written Communication
 It needs a lot of reference to prepare. A writer needs a lot of written and recorded
information to compile/document information so as to be well informed about the
subject when drawing inferences. Otherwise a writer may found himself/herself writing
something which is obvious known to the majority; hence a writer must engage
himself/herself with various scholars and come at least with a new agenda on the same
topic being addressed by other writers.
 It is very costful compared to oral form; here a lot of money are needed to compose,
distribute even the audience have to buy it. Thus its costs are huge in terms of
stationary and the man power employed in writing/typing and deriving the meaning of
the content.
 In written communication changes and feedback can not be appraised on the spot
particularly when it has been composed and distributed. Written communication is not
subjected to change after communication; this is because the writer and the receivers
are separated by distance thus it is difficult to clear the doubts that need responses
from the source.
 Written communication is time consumed where a writer use much time in compiling
information, typing, editing and proof reading. Also the reader uses a lot of time to read
and grasping the message from the text.
 Written communication limits the number of communicators in a sense that it is suitable
for those who have gone to school. The writer and the readers should be literate; the
writers must possess various writing skills and language skills, presentation skills so as to
arouse the interest of the readers to grasp the message, likewise the reader must
possess the reading skills and reading skills so as to determine, examine and evaluate
the communicated message.

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2. NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Refers to the communication that uses body language to communicate. It is a non linguistic
transmission of information trough visual cues such as body language [kinesics], space and
distance [proxemics], physical environment, appearance, voice [paralanguage] and touch
[haptics]. A speech contains non verbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice
quality, pitch, loudness, speaking style as well as prosodic features such as intonation and stress
during presentation. Non-verbal communication focuses on the interaction between individuals
by considering the communication environment where communication takes place, physical
characteristics of the communicators and behaviors of communicators during interaction. It is
the transmission of messages through a non verbal platform such as facial expression, eye
contact, gestures, postures and distance. Scientific research has shown that body movements
and gestures constitute 55% of effective communication. Our body conveys messages, moods
and attitudes consciously as well as unconsciously. Non verbal communication involves the
process of generating actions trough signs and symbols [encoding] as well as interpretation of
those received signals [decoding]. Non-verbal cues speak more than words. Non-verbal
communication is classified into various ways:-
Facial expressions: facial expressions are social signals used by humans to convey various types
of meaning in various contexts. Darwin (1904) came to conclude that facial expressions are
typically associated with evolution of man; for instance lifting eyebrow might helped our
ancestors to respond to unexpected environmental events by widening the visual field so as to
see more. However Fridlund (1997) claimed that there is no read outs of inner emotional states
rather than communicating intentions, therefore lifting eyebrow does not mean “ Iam
surprised”, but might mean “something happened”. Thus the face is said to be the mirror of the
mind. Whatever we feel is reflected by on our face. Through face we can understand the mood
of the speaker whether is angry, embarrassed, surprised, ashamed, hungry, sick, sad, happy,
sincerely and other kind of feelings and emotions. For instance smile signifies friendliness, a
creased forehead signifies worry, raising eyebrow expresses surprise, winkling eye expresses
persuasive.
Gestures: these are various body movements that transmit our message. Some gestures may
be voluntary/conscious and some are involuntary/unconscious. Some gestures have universal
meaning while others have multiple meaning or regional meaning. For instance; Shrugging
shoulders signify disagreement or protest, Raising a fist means smashing/hitting/breaking/ or
wonderful, Raising fingers signify victory-- a state of being happy because you have won
something, Raising thumb means support or agreement, Nodding head means support or
agreement, Shaking head means negation/being against/protest, Clapping hands means
Congratulations, Crossing legs means pleasure/composure--a state of being calm and having
your feelings under control, Shaking legs – means pleasure/sexual desire, Sighing – a deep
breath that shows you are tired, sad, disappointed/relief, Vowing-a state of being tired or

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hungry, legs spread shows sexual desire. Frankly speaking gestures are part of body language
because our heads, hands and legs tend to communicate by themselves in their own way.
Postures: posture is the attitude assumed by body either when the body is stationary or when it
is moving. Posture is the position adopted by the body that helps in conveying the message.
Each position of the body has expressive or defensive functions. Posture concerns the overall
bearing of the body including the angle of inclination, the position of the arms and the legs.
Actually there are two types of posture namely; inactive and active posture. Inactive postures
these are attitudes adopted for resting or sleeping, they are usually assumed in need of
relaxation while active postures are integrated actions of various muscles that maintain fixed
and movable positions. Active postures can be static or dynamic. Static posture body segments
are aligned and maintained in a fixed positions like standing, sitting, lying and kneeling while
dynamic postures body segments are not fixed but moving in various positions where muscles
have to work to adopt for changing circumstances. Examples are walking, running, jumping,
throwing and lifting.
Eye contact: is a type of body language that is extremely during face to face conversation.
Sometimes our eyes speak more than words; through eye contact you may notice that
someone is feeling shy, anxiety, unconfident, uncomfortable, respect or disrespect, paying
attention or not, lying or speaking the truth, upset or disappointed. Eyes are the window to the
soul and hold the truth. Avoiding eye contact is a sign that a person is hiding something, feeling
shy and feeling uncomfortable or worrying about something. Eye contact is a critical way of
showing and earning respect and honor; sustained eye contact creates a sense of connection
and form background acknowledgement between two parties. Eyes reflect our sincerity, warm
and honesty. Eye contact reveals our thoughts and feelings such as smiling eyes, angry eyes,
painful eyes, worried eyes, confident eyes, hostility eyes, kind eyes, welcoming eyes, desired
eyes, respecting eyes etc. Eye contact is the best way to communicate that importance; the
truth is eye contact evokes presence and projects confidence and self-esteem while speaking.
Therefore the more confident you are the more eye contact you give; when eye contact is
maintained it signifies control or power over a situation and establishes dominance.
Silence: silence generally means the absence of any kind of noise. Silence is the powerful
weapon that expresses individual’s feelings towards something. During a speech, if a speaker
pauses in between then he/she is trying to mean something. If the pause is too short, it means
that the speaker is trying to recollect what is going to say next and if he/she pauses for a long
time, it means that the speaker wants the audience either to think about the matter he said or
is looking for some kind of response from them. It can also mean that the speaker is seeking the
attention of the audience because he is going to say something very important. According to
the law contract silence is a form of acceptance but in communication context silence could
mean well understood, less concerned, none of personal business, upset, failure to give counter
points/admit defeat, avoiding to get into trouble or avoiding conflict. Thus silence can allow a

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user to express varieties of emotional messages in various communication contexts; silence is

more powerful than a bunch of empty words.
Frankly speaking, Verbal and Non-verbal communication are very essential in human
communication. The two kind of communication help people to interact one another in various
spheres of life. Verbal and Non-verbal communication are not contradicting to each other but
they are complementing each other. We use non-verbal to emphasize, regulating and
controlling the flow of verbal messages. Verbal communication is both suitable in formal
communication like public speaking, press conference, teleconference, job interview, writing
business letters, writing business memos, writing scientific reports, writing minutes as well as
academic writing and informal communication like normal conversation, singing songs, writing
cards, writing friendly letters, telephonic messages and phone calls etc. while Non-verbal act as
intermediate tools in complementing the meaning of the spoken message. It very difficult for
the speaker to avoid the use of eye contact, gestures, postures and other signal markers while
speaking. Most of actions demonstrated by our body are involuntary thus why we found
ourselves speak at the same time our bodies generate various actions.
However in the previous time people used traditional ways to exchange information among
themselves through using runners as media to send message from point one to another, fire
signals, light from torches, drum beats, blowing horns, writing on rocks, narrative/oral form and
traditional dances. Currently information and communication are easily accessible effective
and quick; therefore advancement of science and technology have made possible the exchange
of information through computerized media. Computerized communication refers to the kind
of communication that uses modern technology in sharing information such as computer, radio,
telephone, projector, typewriter, mixer with amplifier, speakers, etc.
For instance nowadays oral communication is done through teleconference where various
computer devices are connected to share information, press conference where various visual
and auditory devices are used to disseminate information, public speaking where auditory
devices are used to aid the communicated message to reach to the audience effectively
likewise written communication is now done by using computer like writing email, using
internet/social media, typing texts and displaying information by using projector, sending EMS
and telegram, writing telephone messages, the same applied in Non-verbal communication
where computers, projectors, televisions and smart phones can be used to convey those
gestures, postures and body movements to others. Apart from that, computerized
communication has some advantages as it helps the information to reach to a targeted person
on the spot because of speed used to transmit the message; It saves time that would be used to
accomplish a certain task; nevertheless, people of different races around the universe can share
knowledge and experience.

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LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Levels of communication refer to the kind of communication that takes place within an
individual, two individuals or more than two individuals. Levels of communication depend on
various contexts, relationships, gender, culture, interest, knowledge and experience that
influence the outcomes of interaction among individuals. This kind of communication implies
the combination of social and physical environments in which communication takes place. In
order to understand the meaning of what is being communicated the context must be
considered. Therefore levels of communication can be categorized into two groups namely;
intrapersonal and interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is
a communication that takes place between people who are interdependent, have some
knowledge and experience, shared culture and familiar to each other/one another; for example
communication between a child and parents, employer and employee, students and teachers,
lovers, friends and so on. Interpersonal communication demands cultural and linguistic
awareness. Linguistics is the scientific study of language and is divided into three broad aspects
namely: the form of language [how words are used to form sentences], the meaning of the
language [significance of words and sentences produced] and the context of language
[interpretation of words and sentences according to the communication setting] while culture is
a human concept that encompasses the beliefs, values, attitudes and customs that influence
individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions; the more differences between the cultural
backgrounds of two people, the more different styles will be. Factors that influence
interpersonal concept of communication are status, expectations, values, feedback and
language.
However there is a growing interest in biological and physiological perspectives on
interpersonal communication. Some of these perspectives are personality, knowledge,
interpersonal skills, intercultural, structure, non-verbal signals, language, emotional experience,
social networks and social relationships. Interpersonal communication goes in pairs and groups
such as family, friends or peer groups, social media and mass media to the wider population.
The context and channels of communication also affect the effectiveness of interpersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication can be person to person [telephonic call], person
to group [lecture, public speaking/speech], group to group [debate, peer group presentation,
parliament discussion between the government and the members of parliament, social media]
and act as a mediator for information flow from mass media to the wider population.
Furthermore mass communication is a part and parcel of interpersonal communication which is
an exchange of information on a large scale to a wide range of population through the use of
mass media. Mass communication is almost done through various media such as radio,
television, newspapers, magazines, films, social networking/internet. Mass communication can
be advertisement/broadcasting, journalism, telecommunication, public relations and social
media, printed media etc.

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Characteristics Of Mass Media

Large number of audiences; the most important characteristic of mass communication is that
its audiences are relatively large. Audience may exceed millions after millions. Hence its
message aims to attract largest number of audiences.
Heterogeneous audiences; audiences of mass communication are not only large in number but
also heterogeneous in nature. Its audience may belong to different races, ages, religions,
sections, status, culture etc. Thus the communication influences society and in turn influenced
by the society but in most cases the audience has a great chance of choices.
Scattered audiences; the audiences of mass communication are not organized in a certain area
but the audiences are scattered in vast geographical area even in the whole universe. So its
audiences are far away from the source of information.
Personally unknown audiences; message flow to scattered external audiences who are
personally unknown to the communicator. Here a person or group of people may communicate
with other individuals who are not familiar with each other/one another.
Uses modern technology; it relies on electronic media and printed media to address large
number of audiences. The modern communication media [radio, television, computers, films,
newspapers, posters etc] are required for effective preparation and distribution of the message.
Mass communication does not take place through face to face conversation or telephonic
conversation. Whoever wishes and have ability to afford the media can easily receive the
message from the mass communication channels.
Rapid dissemination of information; the speed and dissemination of the message is concerned.
Here various specialized modern communication technologies such as radio, television,
broadcasting media, computer and computer network are used to transmit messages fast and
instantly. Also numerous copies of films, books, magazines and newspapers can be distributed
across the vast geographical area within few days. Moreover, modern mass communication
occurs continuously where messages are sent on schedule.
Absence of direct feedback; in mass communication, there is no direct feedback from the
receivers. It is mainly because the receivers are far away from the source of information, for
that matter it is regarded as one way communication. However in some cases the reactions of
audiences can be known as subsequent behaviors.
Requires professional help; developing and designing the message in mass communication
requires help from professional communicators such as reporters, editors, actors, authors,
writers as well as official spokespersons. These professional communicators design, edit and
disseminate news, advertising, entertainment, public reactions and political campaigns.

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Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is a communication within oneself using internal vocalization or
reflective thinking such as self talk, act of imagination, act of visualization, recalling/retrieving
information and memorization. It is the internal dialogue that takes place constantly in the
mind of an individual without externalization and it relies on previous interaction with the
external world. Intrapersonal communication can happen when someone is speaking aloud to
himself/herself the same applied when a person is reading aloud to himself/herself as a form of
rhetorical exercise. Our ability to talk to ourselves and think in words is a major part of human
experience of consciousness. The mind have ability to generates and predict about upcoming
information and body movements. In most cases intrapersonal communication uses first person
pronoun particularly when there is a need to overcome difficulties and facilitation of hard
actions. The following are the characteristics of intrapersonal communication;
 It is a private analytical process towards a dense subject in which the person is the
sender and receiver of the message.
 It happens mainly through internal thought or dialogue, reflection on the previous
interaction or event, listening and mastering the internal voice, fantasies/dreams,
reading aloud, meditation or mediation and memorization.
 It is the door to the universe of emotions and personal attitudes; it is about examining
what happens in the mind. This allows us to identify the mentality of the person that
influences and develop integrity, self-motivation as well as self-esteem.
 It is a self-analysis and self-evaluation that enables an individual to address those
constant thoughts and memories that come in the mind without knowing why.
 It results from personal experiences done in the past. The patterns that occur in the
mind during a day are the outcomes of the previous actions which helps an individual to
generate dialogues and predict what might happens in the near future.
 It is a personal mental efforts devoted to a certain fixed thoughts which need to be
recognized and reflected in the mind in order to resolve any episode of anxiety or stress
in time and achieve stability.
In general, there are some specialists in psychology who have classified the negative internal
dialogues that limit self-assessment and ability to build relationships with others: Catastrophic
dialogue-is all about anxiety and feel guilty-there are internal dialogue such as “everything
became tragedy because of me, All happened because of me”, Self-critical dialogue-it is a state
of feeling useless such as “ I never do things right, I can not make things right, I do not care
about anyone”, Victim dialogue-it is characterized by having desperate and unprotected such
as “Nobody loves me, Nobody understand me, I am suffering and nobody cares”, Irrelevant
dialogue-it is all about chronic stress and frustrations results from the failure to achieve
something in life like lacking money or social class as a result a person is always defensive,
hatred and rejected. They have internal dialogues such as “I do not get right things, I am going
to draw attention, I do not care about the extremes that I have to reach, They will see soon”

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and Self-acceptance dialogue-it is all about the failure to accept yourself and admit the
unsolved problems that endanger your mind in doing things right. Normally they produce
statements like “This is what I meant to be, I can not change my destiny, One day yes”. The
signals that the mind produces should not be ignored. Many individuals experience inner
conflicts that are not always correctly diagnosed and even if the causes are known but solutions
must be found. Thus it is advised that people must learn to accept themselves as they are, get
to know themselves and exercise to change general attitudes and thoughts contrary to
emotional stability as well as adopting more profitable/positive thoughts that contribute to a
general balance of self-evaluation, self-awareness, self-confidence, self-control, self-motivation,
self-adaptation and self-esteem.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Forms of communication refers to the communication that flows within the organization, it can
be formal or informal communication. The two forms can be communicated verbally or non-
verbally, vertically or horizontally. Before going further let us discuss a little bit about the
concept of organization, types and its characteristics.
Organization
Is a social unity of people in a defined territory that is structured and managed to meet a need
or to pursue collective goals. It a group of people in a certain area, systematically structured
and managed to determine the relationship between functions and position that enables to
delegate roles, responsibilities, power and authority. Greenwald, H.P. (2008), Organization is a
system of rules, assignments, procedures and relations designed to achieve identifiable
objectives and goals. It is a set of interrelated systems, structured and designed to perform
complicated tasks in a given environment. Thus in a simple definition; organization is a group of
people who work together in an organized way for a shared purpose. Organization can be
grouped into two categories namely; profit oriented or non-profit oriented.
Profitable organization aims to earn profit through its operations and is concerned with its own
interests. Most of these organizations are not owned or supported by the government rather
than working for financial gains necessary for paying taxes, paying salaries, paying
advertisements and other running costs, thus their mindset and policies aim at maximizing
profit and minimizing expenses. In this kind of organization it is difficulty to find its employees
being paid high salaries and bonuses as they have to make more profit from selling goods or
services they produce; fears to be bankrupt or to be swallowed by other organizations. On the
other hand the organization tends to employ more people particularly when the maximization
of profit reached at high level which in turns lowers the employment burden to the
government.

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Non-profitable organization is designed to provide products and services for free or at a lower
price than the actual price required. These organizations raise money in different ways such as
income from donors or foundations, sponsors, through services products they produce, through
investments and government funding. The survival of these organizations depends on the
number of people they serve and the quality of services provided. Normally they create a need
among the people and provide the means to satisfy that need for their survival. Once the
product or service is no longer needed then the organization is also no longer needed. When
the organization is able to provide goods or services beyond their expectations, then the
organization can increase and improve the quality of services or products produced, can pay
high amount of salary to employees and improve social services around the community they
are living. Most of these organizations are not paying taxes to the existing government; such
organizations are Non-Government Organizations [NGOs], Educational Institutions, Public
hospitals, postal services, churches etc. The following are the characteristics of Organization
Organizational System; organization is a system having various units that are interrelated and
interdependent. Within the organization there are different departments or sections that
perform various duties; each department is independent in performing its duties but the
fulfillment of duties depends upon other departments. Any change in a unity or department has
the potential for impacting the whole system of the organization.
Organizational Rules; every organization has established rules and regulations in which every
member working or living in must follow or adhere. These rules are well defined through
policies and procedures like working hours [the time the workday begins or ends], vacation,
allowances for extra duties-workloads, allowances for over time, sitting allowances for
meetings, salary increments, dressing code, cooperation and many in kind. Normally these
rules patterns may change as long as person’s status changes in the organization. The variation
of policies depends upon the economical status of the organization and the change of services.
Organizational Roles; everybody in the organization is assigned duties to perform. Normally
employees or members are evaluated by managers to determine whether they have ability to
perform the assigned duties in acceptable manner; if you are not reached the level expected
you may be given a warning, demoted or even terminated by the organization authority.
Organizational culture; organizational culture is a unique way of interpreting rules and
behaviour within the organizational. Organizational culture refers to the underlying beliefs,
values, assumptions, expectations, experiences, interactions and philosophy that influence
individuals’ behavior within the organization. Organizational culture is a set of shared
assumptions that guide what happens in organization by defining appropriate behaviour for
various situations [Cited from Ravasi & Schultz, 2006]. Organizational culture affects the way
people and groups interact with each other, with clients and with stakeholders [Cited from
Schrodt, 2002]. Therefore organizational culture is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs
and rules that have been developed overtime and are considered valid.

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Organizational structure; refers to the blue print of an organization’s employees and job titles.
It is the way organization is structured using different level of authority and chain of command
between superiors and subordinates where the higher level control the lower level. The highest
level of authority is at the top of the pyramid and orders flow from the top level down to the
next level where the order is supposed to be carried out. In most cases orders and directives
flow vertically where the top management evaluates, makes decision and coordinates all
activities performed within the organization.
Organizational communication networks; refers to the way individuals interact one another
within the organization. This type of communication networks can be both formal and informal.
Formal communication can be vertical [downward communication & upward communication],
horizontal/interactive [interdepartmental communication] and external communication
[organization and environment] while informal is all about peers’ interaction [grapevine- goes
horizontally]. This kind of communication networks helps individuals within the organization to
interact and coordinate various tasks assigned by the managers.
Organization environment; refers to the physical boundaries where the organization
found/exist. It is also composed of forces or institutions surrounding an organization that affect
performance, operations and resources. Organizational environment can be influenced by
internal factors such as employees’ behaviour, organization culture, mission and vision and le
adership styles or can be influenced by external factors which include all elements exist outside
of the organization’s boundaries such as government regulatory agencies, competitors,
customers, suppliers and pressure from the public. Thus organizational environments can be
internal and external environment consists of entities, conditions, events and factors that
determine and influence the choices and activities which in turn expose the strengths and
weaknesses found in the organization; what happens outside of the organization can have
direct impact on what happens inside the organization.
A: FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Refers to the Communication in which the interchange of information is done through the
defined channels either vertically or horizontally. It can also be defined as the process by which
individuals stimulate meaning in the minds of other individuals by means of verbal or non-
verbal messages. It is effective due to systematic flow of information. This kind of
communication follows the chain of command which is established by the body of
management. Normally this kind of communication is used exclusively in the workplace where
all members/employees are bound to follow it while performing their duties. It is generally
written thus documentary evidence and secrecy is full maintained. Formal communication has
four dimensions namely:-

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1. Downward communication
It is a communication that initiated by highest level of management to convey orders,
instructions, warnings, directives and responsibilities to the subordinates working in the
organization. This kind of communication is helpful for managers in informing the employees
about the vision, mission, goals, objectives, policies and procedures of the organization.
Downward communication has the following goals.
 To inform the subordinates about organizational goals, plans, programmes, policies and
procedures. Also helps the employees to understand their duties and responsibilities as
long as they are well informed with their performance.
 To provide feedback to the employees based on information about their performance in
various duties/responsibilities. Managers provide necessary explanations about
employees’ performance towards the assigned duties.
 To motivate and inspire employees through various programmes, workshops, seminars
and developing their careers and promotions.
 To establish and maintain proper discipline to the subordinates in performing
organizational activities by enacting rules and regulations time to time.
 To explain the changed environment to the subordinates in order to cope with
environmental organization.
 To maintain a good relationship between the management and workers especially when
the top management communicates with their subordinates sincerely without double
standards.
 To avoid by passing hierarchy. Downward communication takes place by following the
established chain of command of the organization. Also helps in making decision about
what should be done, how should be done, who should done, in which circumstances,
and the consequences to be taken if a certain member does not meet and fulfill his/her
duties
NB: This kind of communication suffers from various shortcomings like filtration of the
message, confusion, and reliability of the source, distortion of the message and lack of
feedback.
2. Upward Communication
It is a communication which the flow of information starts from low level of authority
[subordinates] to high level of authority [superiors] for the purpose of expressing views,
ideas, complaints and grievances to the top management through formal meetings. This is
possible in a democratic environment where the employees have a say to the management.
Upward communication has the following advantages
 Upward communication helps individuals within the organization to interact and
sharing informational conflicts with the top management. This kind of
communication helps the subordinates to convey information with their
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superiors/top management that make themselves feel like they are part decision
making process. Hence the management may introduce a new scheme without any
resistance from the employees.
 Feedback is well observed, it provides the management with necessary information,
thus it helps the management to ascertain whether the directives issued to the
employees have been properly understood and followed.
 Helps the top management to access the valuable information on what the
employees think about the organizational policies and directives
 Helps in Promoting the welfare of the organization through constructive suggestions
and opinions from the subordinates.
 Helps in decision making, in order to take better decision the top management
requires information on various issues from the subordinates. It gives the employees
the opportunities to vent their problems and grievances.
3. Horizontal Communication/Interactive/Lateral
Is the flow of information across peers/ departments for the people who at the same level of
authority without going through several levels of organization in solving problems, coordinating
task and enhancing morale to fulfill a common purpose. This also happens when information
comes direct from the top management at similar level, then immediately they communicate
these directives among themselves. This is the channel at which most social interaction takes
place in a formal structure through staff meeting or informational presentation. Though
horizontal communication is formal in nature but it enjoys some degree of informality in
exchanging information as the communicators hold the same position, status and honor.
Horizontal communication helps in reducing possible misunderstandings and conflicts through
meeting, discussion and face to face conversation thus establishes consensus among workers
and managers, that consensus creates an environment of cooperation, group efforts/team
work and team spirit in performing organizational activities. Horizontal communication
facilitates the coordination of various departmental activities to reach its ultimate goal. The
purpose of this communication is to get the job done, to coordinate tasks, to solve problems, to
share some skills and experiences.
The most challenging of this channel happens when different groups at a given level in the
organization fail to cooperate especially when they are in competition with one another for the
purpose of getting rewards or promotion [hostility]. Apart from that horizontal communication
can create conflict over interest among employees by exposing each other to management and
lost trust. Also in some cases, top managers discourage horizontal communication thinking that
workers may become friendly with one common stand hence may create threat to the
management. Therefore the success of horizontal communication depends on good
relationship between peers themselves and conducive environment created by the top
management within the organization.

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4. External Communication
Refers to the kind of communication that takes place between the organization and the
environment OR It is a formal exchange of information between an organization and other
organizations, groups or individuals outside its formal structure. External communication
facilitates cooperation with groups such as supplies, investors and stakeholders by presenting a
favorable image of an organization and its products or services to potential customers and
society at large through face to face meetings, printed media/newsletters, broadcasting media,
press release and electronic communication technologies like internet. Every organization
should know the taste, liking and disliking of its customers to increase the sale of its products or
services by collecting information [views, opinions, suggestions, complaints, perceptions and
feedback] outside the organization.
This communication happens when the organization exchanges information with other
organizations such as government officers/regulatory bodies, banks, insurance companies,
customers, suppliers, religious leaders and people surrounding environment. Normally the work
of communicating between one organization and another organization is done by P.R.O [Public
Relation Officer]. The purpose of this channel of communication is to solve disputes between
one organization and other organization or organization and environment, to coordinate task
between one organization and other organization, to share information and experience.
Although external business communication seem to be an effective way to reach out to the
public but it has some challenges. The central impression of the people outside the organization
can define the success or failure in the long-run. However with interactive technology there is
also the possibility of public backlash such as posting negative comments which will not only
ruin the organization reputations but also has the potential to affect the corporate revenue as
well as means of promotion. Therefore those who are in charge of external communications for
the company/institution need to be aware of their audience and the image they wish to convey
all over the world.

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ORGANOGRAM/ORGANISATIONAL/FORMAL COMMUNICATION MODEL

DIRECTOR

CL EO QA AO PRO PO/HR
DDAA DDAF

DPGS CUGS
ESTM CP BRS CNSL
D-FASS D-FBA D-STD

AD-FASS AD-FBA WRDN ACNT

H- LG H-SSC H-EDF G-STD LO

LST LW PSY H-BS H-LM
LTR DS CT AF HRM ALL-STD
KISW HST FE M&E P&SC
GEO ICT
EC
MATH
PH
KEY
=Horizontal =Upward =Downward

B. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

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Informal communication is the one which does not follow any pre-defined channel for
transmission of information. It is a communication that rises from a natural desire of people to
communicate each other/one another. This type of information moves freely in all directions
and thus it is natural as people interact with each other about their professional life, personal
life and personal experience. Grapevine happens in the organization depending on the nature
of organization like if the organization permits their employees to communicate with each
other frequently, existence of peer group, the presence of insecurity of services, uncertainty of
promotion, prohibition to form or enter into trade unions and undermining the role of
subordinates by superiors. Informal communication is also known as GRAPEVINE which means
a source of secret information. Grapevine is an integral part of human communication as it
permits the workers at all level to denote basic human weakness. Informal communication is of
four types
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION MODEL

Stran
d

Cluste Grapevin Gossi

r e p

Proba
bility

1. Single strand
Here a group of people make chain to supply information. This happens when a person tells
something to someone and that person tells another person the communicated message thus
the information passes on to everyone till the information has reached most of persons
concerned.
A B C D E
2. Cluster

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Here group A communicates with a few selected individuals whom they trust the most and then
the other group communicates the information to their trustworthy friends by making chain
and the communication continues. [Several groups of people linked together by chain].

A B C D

3. Gossip
Here the information is sent to everyone by the same person. Hence a person A supplies
information to everybody. This chain is like a wheel where one person stays at the center and
the information passes along the spokes of the wheel stationed on the rim.
E

B A C

4. Probability
The communication happens when a person chooses randomly some persons to pass on the
information of little interest or less important. This channel is also includes a number of people
who are not even necessarily linked by any organization
B G I
A C F J
D H K
E

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

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Process can be defined as a series of things done in order to achieve a particular result;
therefore communication process refers to a step by step by step or stage by stage that should
be considered when someone wants to communicate with others effectively. Communication
process can be termed as the exchange of information between two or more people. Both
parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other with respective
context. Thus human communication has a structure with various elements and context
variation depending on the communicators’ behavior. Other scholars recognize these processes
as Elements of Communication. Communication process involves the followings elements
Source/Sender/Encoder
Refers to a person who organizes information in a good manner and finally sends to the
receiver. The sender is a creator, initiator, processor and evaluator of the message. The sender
might be a speaker, writer or someone who merely uses gestures and other non-verbal clues.
The source is a human being in nature with various features like ability to make things right and
flexible in changing behaviour. He/she is the one who seeks information, speculate the truth
about the message, well informed about his/her audience, knowledgeable and skilled in
operating various communication media as well as knowing the culture of the people he/she
wishes to communicate with.
Message/Content
This is the subject matter to be communicated or shared between the sender and the receiver
or Refers to any organized information as intended by the Sender [speaker or writer]. The
communicated message can be inform of spoken or written language or non verbal which is the
symbolical representation of ideas. The message communicated can be inform of command,
request, question or wishes. The message should be well organized, timely, clearly, meaningful
and relevant to the situation/context. Message can be in written form or spoken form.
Channel/Media/Medium
Refers to a means through which the message is passed or transmitted from the source to the
receiver. Is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted from point A to point B.
Channel is a mechanism through which the message is transmitted from the source to the
receiver. Communication media can be printed-[books, magazines, maps, charts, photographs,
newspapers, journals, posters,] or non-printed media-[Audio & visual] Radio, sound film, sound
mixer, still pictures, flannel boards, interactive video, video camera, tape, projector, computer,
photocopy machine, Television, Telephone, etc. Printed media are locally produced,
inexpensive and simple to operate while Non-printed media are imported from abroad and
most of them are complex, expensive and difficult to operate.

Receiver/Recipient/Decoder

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Refers to a person to whom the sender targeted his or her message. Is a person who receives
the message and provides a feedback to the sender after interpretation has made. Receiver is a
preprocessor of the message, decoder of the message and reactor of the message. The receiver
like the sender is a human being with human traits [flexible to change/adaptive and ability to
analyze information in a given context. The receiver can be individual [the listener/reader] or
group of people [audience] who react and mentor the sender’s message. Once the receiver
receives the message and understands it in a proper perspective he/she reacts accordingly with
the message communicated by the sender. Like the sender; the receiver must be well informed,
able to control emotions and patient, able to make reactions in accordance with the situation
as well as understanding the culture/attitude of the sender.
Feedback
Refers to a reaction/response made by the receiver towards the message. It is a response that a
source/sender gets from the receiver or refers to any response/reaction made by the receiver
toward the message. As soon as the message received by the receiver/ decoder and well
understood, then she/he responds to the sender. Feedback is a process of responding to what
has been received from the sender or it is a process by which the sender obtains the
transformed information from the intended receiver. Once the receiver confirms to the sender
that he/she has received the message and understood it, then the process of communication is
complete and successful.
A SAMPLE OF COMMUNICATION MODEL.
SENDER/ENCODER RECEIVER/ DECODER
A MESSAGE CHANEL B

B DECODER ENCODER A

MESSAGE CHANNEL MESSAGE

FEEDBACK
STEPS IN COMMUNICATION PROCESS AS PROPOSED BY BERLO IN1960
Ideation
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It is a process of conceptualizing ideas into sender’s mind. Is a process by which the sender
thinks about information he/she wants to communicate with the audience or receiver.
Encoding
It is process of transforming/changing ideas into words/symbols in a spoken form or written for
with respective guided principles. Here the sender makes an effort of transforming/converting
ideas into words or non- verbal clues by using respective language with correct grammar
through speaking or writing.
Transmission
It is a process of sending the encoded ideas by using the appropriate media or channel. Here
the sender uses a proper media to carry the intended message to the targeted
person/destination.
Receiving
It is a process of receiving what has been encoded from the sender. Here the receiver perceives
the message either through listening or reading.
Decoding
It is a process of making interpretation/evaluating the message as intended by the sender. Here
the receiver thinks carefully with the communicated information by judging the worth of the
message so as to make a right decision. Here the receiver evaluates the message in order to
understand the intention of the sender towards the subject matter being communicated.
Action
It is a process of accepting or rejecting the message. After interpretation the receiver can
decide whether to accept or reject what has been communicated by the sender. Here action
can be regarded as feedback, which is a process whereby the sender obtains the transformed
information from the intended receiver.
Therefore human communication has a structure with various elements like the sender,
message, channel, receiver and feedback. Communication is dynamic by nature in a sense that
information can starts anywhere either from the sender or receiver, this means that it is
possible for a sender to become a decoder likewise the receiver to become encoder.
Communication process involves conceptualizing data, organizing data, processing data,
perceiving data, interpreting data, evaluating data and responding data. Thus communication is
a meaningful interaction among human beings in which information are perceived, shared and
common understanding reached. These processes can be summarized in a diagram as follows:-
SENDER MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER
IDEATION SPOKEN PRINTED RECEIVING

ENCODING OR OR DECODING
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TRANSMISSION WRITTEN ELECTRONIC ACTION
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FEEDBACK

COMMUNICATION PROCESS WITH VARIOUS PERSPECTIVE MODELS

Models are widely used to depict ideas, thoughts or concepts in a simple way through diagrams
charts, graphs and pictorial representations. Communication models are systematic
representations of communication process through graphs, charts and diagrams. Through
models one can easily understand the process and draw conclusion from it. Communication
models are conceptual framework used to explain human communication process and
understanding how communication works by keeping the components in a good order from
complex to simple. Models are used by business companies and other firms to foster their
communication, explore their options and evaluate their own situation. There are three major
types of communication models as follows:-
Linear Model
Linear model of communication is the simple one way communication where the message
flows in a straight line from the sender to the receiver. In this model the concept of feedback is
no longer considered, the only task that a receiver does is to receive the message. Example of
models under this type are- Aristotle’s model, Shannon-Weaver’s model, Lasswell’s model and
Berlo’s model.
Transactional model
In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as communicators and both play
the same role equally of encoding and decoding the message, thus feedback is a must.
Transactional models relate communication with social reality, cultural up-bringing and
relational context. Example of models under this type are- Helical model and Becker’s model.
Interactive model
Interactive model is similar to transactional model as they are both two way communication
models but interactive is most used in mass communication where people exchange their
views, ideas and experience direct by using radio, television and social media through internet.
A good example of model under this type is schram’s model. Below are samples of models:-
SHANNON AND WEAVER’S COMMUNICATION MODEL -1949

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Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver were engineers who worked for Bell Telephone Company
in the United States of America [North America]. Their goal was to ensure that telephone cables
and radio waves work at maximum efficiency. Thus the model reflects the features of telephone
technology. However this model was later adapted to human communication. The Shannon
Weaver’s model was the first theoretical model developed in 1949. It is regarded as a mother of
all other models and simple model to understand communication process. This model
presented the following components
Information source
This is the person who sends message to the receiver. Is the one who prepares the content by
putting his/her thoughts in words/symbols with the purpose of influencing the recipients. This
may be a teacher in classroom setting, a writer of a certain text, a speaker in public
presentation/meeting, a radio presenter in broadcasting or a number of intellectuals discussing
with others in the public.
Transmitter
Is an Instrument that is used by the sender to convey information to the receiver. Transmitter
refers to any apparatus that caries message from the source to the intended person. It can be
books, journals, News papers and electronic devices like phones, television and computers.
Message
Refers to the information which is shared between the sender and the receiver that are either
inform of spoken or written. According to this model the message communicated are in form of
signals being transmitted by the transmitter [radio]. However this message can be interrupted
by any noise such as physical noise and psychological noise during the process of
communication. Hence the message created by the source depends much on the channel used
with careful selection of environment where communication takes place.
Noise source, Is any disturbance which interferes the process of conveying the message to
receiver. It may be technical fault experienced along the line. This may happens when students
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are talking loudly while a teacher is teaching, Students rubbing desks in class while a teacher is
teaching, receiving phone call in a market place where people are so busy in advertising their
business and giving services to the customers, noise from moving vehicles near the
classroom/presentation environment. According to this model there are various means and
situations presented by Noise Source as follows:-
Physical noise, these are sounds produced by various objects/persons surrounding the
communication environment. This may occur during the time when students make informal
conversation in the class loudly, noise from moving vehicles near the class or flying of an
aeroplane near the class.
Psychological noise, these are factors that affecting the condition of brain of the audience. The
audience brain may fail to concentrate and understand on what is being presented by the
source in a given context because the mind is outside of the present environment. For instance
a student may fail to concentrate on what is being taught in the class even though the student
is in class because of his/her personal problems experienced in life at that moment like thinking
about life hardship [failure to meet his/her basic needs] or being dropped by a love/husband.
Receiver, this is a person who receives information and immediately responds the message to
the source as intended. According to Shannon’s perception a receiver is a person who receives
the message through a mobile phone inform of signals which can be interrupted by various
noise produced within the surrounding environment.
Destination, Shannon and his colleague regarded this element as feedback. It is a response
from the receiver toward the message. Soon after the message has been received, the receiver
decodes the message by interpreting, evaluating the message and finally making reactions.
According to Shannon point of view the process of receiving does not mark the end of
communication until the response has made by the receiver towards the information source.
[SUMMARY]: According to Shannon-weaver the first process starts with the information
source/sender that produces the message and transmits it through relevant signals depending
on the medium used. However such signals/message can be interrupted by noise as a result
the signal received being a combination of the original signal with the noise which later on is
converted to about the original message. Shannon and Weaver have constructed this model to
reflect telephone communication where the source of the message is the caller, the transmitter
being the telephone and the message is inform of signals transmitted through electric wires.
These signals can be interrupted by noise, the noise source may be any technical fault
experienced along the line, and later on the signals are converted into clear message. After the
message has been received, the receiver responds to it and that mark the end of
communication.

SCHRAMM’S COMMUNICATION MODEL (CIRCULAR 1954).

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Schramm Wilbur and Osgood C.F. were trying to criticize Shannon and Weavers’ model that
their communication model is too linear in a sense that it start somewhere and end
somewhere. After all their model reflects the telephone communication while in facts there are
so many means of communication to be used apart from telephone such as television, radio,
computer, news papers, books etc. Schramm and his friend Osgood believe that information is
of no use unless and until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to others. Encoding plays a
very important role because it initiates the process of communication by converting thoughts
into content. When information reaches the recipient his/her responsibility is to understand
what the sender intends to convey [decoding]. They also emphasizes that communication
would be incomplete unless the sender receives feedback from the recipient. Thus encoding
and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication. The model has
only three components namely; the sender, the message and the receiver.
According to Wilbur Schramm’s and C.F Osgood “effective communication” to occur there must
be “feedback”. Thus why, they proposed a two way communication model in a “circular form”.
Schramm and Osgood focused on the behavior of the main actors in the communication
process [The sender and Receiver]. They argued that the acting parts [sender and the receiver]
perform the same functions of encoding, decoding and interpreting the message. Encoding is
the process of thinking about the message you want to communicate to others by choosing the
right words and order, Decoding is the process of understanding the message by making
evaluation soon after receiving while interpreting is the process of understanding the intention
of the sender towards his/her message.

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However Shannon and Weaver put much emphasis on channel while Schramm and Osgood put
much emphasis on the behavior of the two actors in the communication process which is
feedback.
The main weakness of this model is that, it addresses the equality in communication process;
this may not be the same case in all situations. Also it does not show the medium of
communication.
LASSWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL [1948-1958]

WHO SAYS WHAT THROUGH TO WHOM

[SENDER] [MESSAGE] WHICH [RECEIVER]

[CHANNEL]

WITH WHAT EFFECT

FOR WHAT PURPOSE

UNDER WHICH CIRCUMSTANCE

Lasswell’s communicatin model was developed by a communication theorist known as Harold D

Lasswell in. Lasswell’s model is regarded as one of the most influential communication models.
Lasswell’s communication model has five components presented in form of questions which are
used as analytical tools for evaluating the communication process. These components are; Who
[the communicator/source of the message], Says what [the content of the message], Through
which [the channel/medium], To whom [the receiver of the message/audience] and With what
effect [the results/outcomes of the message towards the communicators or it is the
relationship between presentation of facts and generated effects]. In 1958 Brad dock extended
Lasswell’s formula by adding two more questions namely; under which circumstance [the
communication context] and for what purpose [sender’s intention].
The major criticism of Lasswell’s model is that the model itself is too linear and does not
consider barriers in the communication process. Also the model is said to be propaganda based
as it focuses on the outcomes that are generally used for political persuasion.

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BERLO’S COMMUNICATION MODEL--- SMCR (1960)

SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

Comm.Skills Seeing Comm.Skills

Attitude CODE STRUCTURE Hearing Attitude

ELEMENT CONTENT
Knowledge Touching Knowledge

Societal TREATMENT Smelling Societal

Culture Tasting Culture

Berlo was a behavioral psychologist and communication theorist who believed that individuals’
knowledge, skills, experience and cultural background play an important role in communication
process. In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver’s linear model of communication
and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication.
According to him, communication is a process of interaction which depend upon the behaviours
of the two actors [the sender and the receiver] therefore psychology is needed to understand
the behaviour of the people we communicate with. The change in any factor affects the
communication process because those factors are interrelated one another. Berlo came with
four elements [the source, message, channel and receiver] and their basic characteristics. Each
element is affected by many factors as follows:-
1. S-SOURCE
Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message and sends to the
receiver. According to Berlo, the sender/receiver must possess various communication skills,
knowledge and positive attitudes towards the person he/she wishes to communicate with. Also
the sender must be aware on the personal behaviour and social behaviour of the people he/she
wants to communicate with. The following are the factors related to the sender and the
receiver as well:
Communication Skills: Communication skills of a person are factors that affect the
communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the message will be
communicated better than if the sender's communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the
receiver can not grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective.
Communication skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc

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Attitude: The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The
person's attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and the
message itself.
Knowledge: Familiarity with the subject matter [the message] makes the communicated
message have its more effect. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicators send
and receive the message effectively and reach consensus [common understanding].
Social Systems: Society is a system that shapes individuals mind the way of thinking, acting and
reacting, perceiving, deciding and interacting with others, hence societal values, beliefs, laws,
rules and many other social factors affect the communicators’ way of conveying the message.
Thus individual’s differences create difference in generating and processing information. Place
and situation also fall under social systems.
Culture: Cultural differences between the sender and the receiver can affect the
communication process either directly or indirectly. For instance a person from one culture
might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture. Therefore the
communicators must consider the context of interaction in relation to their cultural aspects.
2. M-MESSAGE
A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the
form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors that affecting the message are
Content: Content is something that is in the message. The whole message from the beginning to
the end must contain facts, sufficient and relevant information as intended and required as
well.
Elements: Elements are the verbal and non verbal things that tag along with the content like
gestures, signs and language. The communicated message must carry various elements that
enable the information to be well understood by the audience.
Treatment: Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment
also affects the feedback of the receiver. Thus the message must be treated equally in both
parties so as to reach a mutual understanding.
Structure: The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects
the effectiveness of the message. hence the message should be well organized in such a way
that the receiver understand the intention and purpose of the sender.
Code: Code is the form in which the message is conveyed. It might be in the form of language,
text, audio and visual. The code used to convey the message must be clear itself so as to avoid
misconception or confusion during interpretation.

3. CHANNEL
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Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms of
communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc.
But in general communication, the five senses of a human being is the channel for the
communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel. Hence the channel must
include the following senses:-hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting.
4. RECEIVER
Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that the
thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in similar to that of the sender
for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as
intended if the receiver and the sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good
presentation skill. Other factors are similar to that of the sender like Communication skills,
Attitudes [positive perception], Knowledge [familiarize with the subject matter/communicated
message], culture [awareness of the receiver towards sender’s intention, beliefs, perception
and interest] and Social Systems [societal values, rules, laws, roles]
The major criticism of this model is that, the model itself is too linear [one way communication]
and does not consider barriers in the communication process. Also in this model, the concept of
feedback is not considered as the most important factor in the communication process. Again
Berlo believes that the communicators [the sender and the receiver] must have the same level
of knowledge, skills, attitude, experience and culture which may not be the same in all
situations, in most cases we share information with people of different status, experience, skills,
knowledge, attitude and culture due to advancement of communication technology and other
social factors.
Importance of Communication Models
 Communication models help to identify and understand the components and
relationship of communication process being addressed or studied. Models give the
whole understanding of communication system or communication structure that lead to
effective communication
 Communication models provide knowledge and experience about various factors that
can make communication process successful or unsuccessful due to different
phenomena that can influence or interfere the intended communication goal. Therefore
models help us to predict the outcome and control a certain level of interactions.
Communication models are used to predict the success or failure of communication.
 Communication models represent new ideas and thought on various aspects of human
communication which helps the communicators to plan for effective communication
and achieving their goals. Models provide inputs for setting the standards of
communication system and ensuring effective communication in various aspects of
human life.

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 Communication models help to explain any complex phenomena in communication

process as they provide information in a simplified way which otherwise would be
complicated or ambiguous. Models are used to analyze real problems in a simplified
manner in such a way that a person can easily understand and use the same knowledge
when communicating with others.
 Communication models summarize large information into graphical form or well
focused main points. Models are pictorial representation of communication process; as
a result most of communication theorists use models to make research and
investigation in the field of communication. Communication models present various
aspects of communication logically that help the researchers in understanding the
patterns of communication. Scholars who study communication share theories with one
another through internet, journal, books, articles and at conference. The sharing of
ideas generates dialogue which allows us to understand the communication process and
develop various communication concepts.
 Communication models help us to organize and understand the broad range
communication experiences by paying attention to common features of communication
situations in understanding the general patterns of communication behaviour. Hence
communication models are used to challenge the communicative norms and
questioning about human experience by focusing on how humans use communication
to bring about advantages and privilege to particular people or groups.
Generally, a model is a visual presentation that identifies, classifies and describes various parts
of a process. It helps us to understand the association and relationship between the sender,
message, media and receiver in the communication process. Communication models perform
various functions in developing communication skills and efficiency. Thus communication
models criticize and challenge our traditional theoretical understandings of communication
aspects and the way we perceive and share information.

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BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

According to Louise, B.E et al, communication barriers are the problems that arise at every
stage of the communication process and have the potential to create misunderstanding and
confusion. According to Mamoria, B.C. Communication barriers are when communication
impeded and does not reach the receiver. Therefore communication barriers are factors that
hindering the message to be communicated effectively between the sender and the receiver.
Communication barriers are obstacles that breakdown the communication process. The
following are the barriers to effective communication
Physiological/Biological Barrier
Effective communication requires proper functioning of the senses in both the sender and the
receiver. Limitation of human body and mind can cause interruption in message from reaching
its destination as required or expected. Physiological barriers are factors relating with tangible
parts of human body-physical disabilities such as deafness/hearing impairment [severe or
partial], blindness/vision impairment [short/long sighted], dumbness/speech impairment and
physical condition. These impairments can be summarized in the following aspects:-
Hearing impairment-A sender/receiver with hearing impairment can not receive audio
message. Also a person with this impairment can not talk with people face to face easily and if
the hearing problem is not severe, he/she might only hear some words but unable to get the
intended meaning of the message. Hearing problems can be hereditary, developmental or
caused by other condition. Sometimes it happens to a person having speech disorder and
hearing disorder at once since birth or small age.
Vision impairment- In most cases the formation of message happens by seeing. When people
can not see properly, their message is almost unclear and misses many descriptions. Also the
sender can not predict the mood of the receiver likewise the receiver might not understand the
signal markers produced by the sender and its intention as well.
Speech impairment-Speech problems can affect fluency of communication and the clarity of the
message. This problem is caused by partial/total damage of brain where the part of brain that
control speech does not work properly. There are many kinds of speech disorders like
cluttering, stuttering, muteness etc. Some disorders affect the flow of speech while other
disorders prevent the production of speech sounds
Physical body-physical condition of the body like pain, disease and sickness affect the mind of
the person in processing information. When physical body of someone is not working properly,
a person may fail to perceive, interpret and retrieve information. Disease and infections might
affect the vital organs needed for processing information. For instance a person with
neurological condition of paralysis can not express even a single word but can have some
physical ways of expression like non-verbal cues which sometimes can not be well understood
by the receivers due to the fact that non-verbal cues have multiple meaning.

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Psychological Barrier
Psychological barrier is the influence of psychological state of the communicators which creates
an obstacle for effective communication. Every human being has a unique mind which is
composed with various emotions, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, options and thoughts that
facilitate/affect the whole process of communicating. Communication depends on the mental
condition of a person; if the person is not mentally or emotionally sound then he/she can not
communicate effectively. Psychological barriers can be caused by personal problems and
experience like hardship of life, lack of trust between communicators, lack of attention,
premature judgment, closed mind and poor retention.
Personal problems and experience can affect the communication process between the sender
and the receiver. Human being is born in the universe with various struggle and survival. Thus
the more the person struggles the more he/she is encountered with life difficulties such as
losing someone you depend on, being divorced, terminated from the job, lack of
motivation/lack of apliciation in a working place, failure to meet basic needs etc. Hence to
communicate with this kind of a person is not easier than it is expected; as a matter of fact the
person will fail to comprehend the message communicated because he/she has a wondering
mind with various emotional experiences.
Lack of trust, negative attitude towards the person you are communicating with affects the
communication process. In case there is a lack of trust between both parties, then they will
tend to derive negative meaning out of the message and they will often ignore what is being
communicated. Imagine you are in the church where the priest is teaching the word of God
particularly telling the audience that they have sinned God in many ways while on the previous
day you have witnessed the pastor coming from the guest with a woman whom you know and
the context is showing that the two have committed adultery. Also this may happens when an
incompetent teacher is teaching some irrelevant information contrary to the given curriculum
as a result some students will start losing trust and ignoring whatever is being communicated.
Lack of attention; this happens when the person is pre-occupied by some other business out of
what is being communicated as a result the person will not be able to comprehend the message
and will not be able to provide feedback as it was intended. Sometimes this factor may due to
lack of factual information from the sender. The audience may not pay attention careful to
sender’s words because they found no factual and useful information from the presenter.
Premature evaluation; in adequate attention towards the communicated message, makes
communication less effective. Some people have the tendency of drawing conclusion directly
and form judgment without considering the whole aspects of information. This is generally
done by the people who are impatient in listening which lead to false assumptions contrary to
what is actually being communicated. This barrier may be drawn from prejudice where the
communicator may judge the receiver negatively because of age, sex, education, religion,
appearance etc.

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Language Barriers
Language is the main tool in a communication process. The main function of language is to
enable people to understand what is communicated in various spheres of human life.
Communication becomes difficult in situation where communicators do not understand each
other’s language. If the sender and the receiver do not use the same language and words, then
there is no meaning to the communication. Language barrier can be caused by difference in
language /dialect and use of jargons or slang.
Difference in language; variation in language between the sender and the receiver can affect
the communication process. This barrier may happens when the sender communicates by using
the language which is not familiar to receiver as a result the communicated information will not
be understood by the receiver and also the sender will not get any response from the intended
receiver, the sender might convey something whereas the receiver understand something else.
For instance in the bible we are told that once upon a time the people of Israel had the same
language which enabled them to live together as a result they built a Babel tower. Letter on
God made them speak different language so that they can not understand one another; from
that moment they stopped building the tower and went off to live in different parts of the
world.

Semantic barrier; this happens when communicators use the same language but differ in dialect
and accent; the meanings, implications and interpretations of words will be different. The use
of Jargons, jargons are technical words used in various area of specialization, thus the use of
technical jargons when communicating with others who are in different areas of specialization
of yours might cause confusion, conflict and hostility though you speak the same common
language. For instance the word “adjournment” is used by the lawyers and police for delaying a
trial for defendant while in business communication the same word mark the end of the
minutes by noting the time of the meeting ended. Similarly, grammar and spelling mistakes
create a huge communication barrier in written communication. Also the use of figurative
language like personification, simile, metaphor and irony/sarcasm in expressing a certain
thoughts might bring about variation in meaning and interpretation. For example someone
might say “The former president of United Republic of Tanzania-Mwalimu Nyerere is now
addressing his people on Clouds television” while the speaker’s intention is relaying to the
former president Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete.

Mechanical Barriers

These are barriers that have to do with instruments used to transmit the message from the
sender to the receiver. Mechanical communication barriers are technical sources of
interference in the communication process, such interferences can be failure to operate
communication media, loss of network, defective telephone line and signals, lack of power

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source, and poor printing quality. Media to be used can be the radio, television, telephone,
computer including machines used by those with speech impairments, hearing impairments
[text telephone or telecommunication devices for deaf] and visual impairments [ Braille
machines]. Most of these media depend on electrical power generated by various sources. Lack
of electrical power may lead to loss of network and technical fault in the mass media as a result
delaying of information occurs. Media can also be printed such as books, journals, articles,
news papers or magazines.

The choice and uses of media play an important role in communication process. For instance
you are writing an email using computer to a person who has not gone to school; living in the
interior where there is no communication network and power source then the person will fail
to grasp the intended message. Also this might happens when a sender is communicating the
message by using newspaper to the people who can not read because they have never gone to
school. Thus failure to choose communication media can bring misunderstanding or confusion
between the communicators.

Environmental Barriers

Environmental barriers refer to physical and natural condition that hindering the process of
exchanging information between the sender and the receiver. Environmental barriers can be
caused by noise, geographical distance, climate change and poor infrastructure.

Noise is the disruption found in the environment either produced by human beings or various
objects. It interrupts the communication process and makes the message less accurate, unclear,
less productive and it might even prevent the message from reaching the intended receiver.

Likewise climate change can affect the communication process; thunder, heavy rain fall, wind
and other factors may lead to loss of network and noise which interrupt the flow of information
from the sender to the receiver. Also unstable temperature makes people unfocused on
creating and sharing the message. If the temperature of the place is too high or very low may
affect the concentration of the message between the sender and the receiver

Never the less, communication is also affected by time and distance. If the message is not sent
in appropriate time, the message will not have the effect as it should be and the intention will
not be met. In addition to that, geographical distance between the sender and the receiver
affects the deliverance of the message. For example in face to face communication the speaker
may find difficulty communicating with a distance person otherwise there must be audio
devices that might catch the wave sounds from the speaker to the intended listener. Thus the
communicators must be careful in choosing the media that can suit the communication
environment. Mediums and channels of communication must be decided upon by the roles
they play, the distance that must be conveyed and the time needed to convey the message.

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Cultural Barriers
Culture is a total way of people’s life in terms of behaviour, norms, traditions, rituals, arts,
perceptions, language, beliefs, etc which is learnt and shared in a particular social group of the
same nationality, ethnicity or religion. Culture is handed down from one generation to another.
It gives people their way of seeing the world and interpreting life. Cultural barriers occur when
people of different cultures are unable to understand each other’s customs, resulting into
inconveniences, difficulties and block the progress of communication.
Thus cultural differences makes communication difficult as the mindset of people of different
cultures is different and the means of processing and perceiving information are also not the
same. Different cultures have different meanings, behaviours, and gestures and it gives rise to
prejudices, manners and opinions. For instance people with different belief in religion can
communicate in many aspects of life but when it comes on the issue of religion it might be
difficult to share the word of God in the same manner; a non-Muslim in a predominately
Muslim culture will be prohibited from marrying.
Apart from that, gender differences can affect the communication process between male and
female. Although nowadays gender issue is not a complex discussion but still there is a
possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman or vice versa. Even in a work place
where women and men share the same status, knowledge and experience but the means of
communication are not the same. Gender barriers are the outcomes of societal culture that
shape the mindset of the person in processing information; the ways in which men and women
are taught to behave from childhood to adulthood affects the interaction between men and
women.
By considering the above definitions and discussion, it can be concluded that communication
barriers are the factors that hinder the flow of information from the source to the destination.
Communication barriers impede the flow of information; create problems in processing
information, encoding and decoding information as well as inappropriate feedback. Hence in
order to make communication more effective, both the sender and the receiver must be aware
on those factors that hindering the communication process by overcoming through the use of
familiar language and relevant jargons, choosing the right media to carry the content, provision
of feedback on time, choosing conducive environment as well as being aware on the cultural
aspects they belong.

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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION [OVERCOMING BARRIERS]

Language Clarity
Correct grammar increases effectiveness and credibility of the message. Formal errors might
affect the clarity of your message, trigger ambiguity and raise doughts. The language used must
contain relevant jargons/vocabularies in relation to the area of specialization and context
where communication takes place. The language of communication must be familiar to both
parties so as to reach mutual understanding. For instance in training session, delivering a
subject matter using English language or using advanced knowledge to the illiterate people
serves no purpose. Hence to make the training message clear you have to communicate with
them in the language that they are comfortable with in a simplified jargons or vocabularies.
Clarity of the Content
The clarity, reliability, uniformity, objectivity, formality, integrity and timing of the message
conveyed are very important in effective communication. The message to be communicated
must be clear in the mind of the audience, relevant to the context, timely to the situation [if the
message is not transmitted/responded in appropriate time, then its utility is lost], well
organized/comprehended in a prescribed format, sufficient and meaningful with intentions and
purposes. In order to avert the semantic barriers, the message should be conveyed in simple
expressions and the vocabularies chosen must be suitable to the reference. Also the message
should be concise in a sense that it contains only relevant information and necessary facts; false
information manipulated and exaggerated information irritates/confuses the receiver and
makes communication ineffective.
The Use of Effective Media
The choice of media depends upon the speed of delivery, sensitivity, confidentiality, mode of
presentation, the size of the audience, the type of the audience with their basic characteristics
and situation as well. Thus the media used must be proper, relevant, accessible, affordable,
audible, visible and clear understood to both the sender and the receiver.
Awareness of the Communicators
The tune of seriousness and commitments of the communicators [the sender and the receiver]
can influence the communication process. Also the attitudes of the sender and the receiver
have an effect in drawing conclusion and understanding the communicated information. The
communicators must be well informed about their cultural differences so as to avoid
unnecessary inconveniences, knowledgeable/expert on using various communication media,
familiar with the subject matter being communicated, possess communication skills [writing,
reading, speaking and listening skills] as well as being aware on non-verbal cues communicated
in both parties by making sure that the actions conveyed are supporting the message conveyed.
Apart from that, the communicators must be patient in respecting someone point of views,
control their emotions and must have ability analyze information with reasonable intentions.
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Provision of Feedback
Feedback is the heart beat of the communication; feedback is what marks the end of
communication process between two parties. Communication is dynamic and two way traffic of
interaction which depend much on feedback or responses from each side. Feedback is essential
in reaching mutual understanding between the sender and the receiver, thus it maintains the
relationship and endless interaction between them. In this context it is possible for a sender to
become a decoder likewise the receiver to become the encoder. So to avoid creditability gap,
the sender must ensure that the message communicated is well understood by the receiver
through receiver’s reactions and responses. Communication is incomplete unless the response
from the receiver is received by the sender. The success of communication can be evaluated
through communicators’ reactions; therefore feedback must be bucked up and examined.
The Use of Compatible Environment
Compatibility of the environment where the communication takes place is very crucial in
understanding the message communicated. The communicators must choose the conducive
environment for effective communication to take place; environment where there is no noise
to confront the message. However climate, infrastructure and distance influence the
communication process; imagine a person is making a phone call to a distance person where
also there is a heavy rainfall; actually the expected outcomes will be communication
breakdown because the distance and climate does not support the communication process.
Also this may happens in academic setting where the lecturer is lecturing a certain subject
matter in a class which is lacking light, ventilation and proper acoustics/audio devices with a
cloud of students as a result the intended message would not reach to the targeted audience
because of poor infrastructure.
Intercultural Awareness
Intercultural awareness simply means the situation of understanding the similarities and
differences between your culture and other’s culture. Background information towards the
people you communicate with matters a lot in the communication process. Advancement of
science and technology in education, professions, economy, politics and information
communication have made people to live in multicultural world where the exchange of skills,
knowledge and experience are done, thus we need to understand the culture of the people we
interact with in school setting, at work place, in social media and the society we have born or
living in so as to avoid unnecessary inconveniences and misunderstandings that may arise
during communication process. We need to understand that our way is not the best; we have
to understand that there are other’s ways which can be shared. Thus cultural awareness help to
respect others’ point of view, opinions, perceptions, thoughts and beliefs which act as the
central impressions in the communication process.

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IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is closely related with every sphere of human life. Since communication is
essential in every sphere of life, its scope is wide and pervasive. This reveals that
communication is the part and parcel of human life. In business, communication ensures the
effective performance of business activities and control of production/services. Without
communication the nation can not administer its wings and maintain relationship with the
other part of the world. Due to advancement of science and technology in communication, the
whole world has turned into a global village.
 Communication helps people to follow the chain of command within the organization.
The flow of relevant information at all levels helps people to communicate effectively
within the organization by following the right channel. All members in the organization
must be well informed about the organizational objectives, developments that are
taking place and managerial departments so that to be aware of their responsibilities
and where to report. The right information should reach the right person by the right
person at the right time and place.
 Communication helps in solving problems through collective measures and collective
opinions. The information collected through communication aids in decision making.
Communication facilitates in accessing the vital information required to take decisions in
solving the existing problem/conflict. Communication makes possible to unite people
with different perceptions, attitudes, visions, point of views and opinions through
reasonable interactions. Thus communication helps people to understand one another
by removing misunderstandings and creating clarity of thoughts as well as expressions.
 Communication helps in socialization, communication helps individuals to become
active members in the community/society in which they belong as a matter of fact many
issues like skills and experiences can be shared among individuals. Communication acts
as catalyst in human civilization and living in integrated society. In social life people need
to develop social bondage, thus communication helps us in creating and strengthening
this social bondage.
 Communication is a source of social and economic development of the nation through
planning and taking intelligent decision in sounding issues. In this age of globalization,
communication is not merely confined within the national boundaries thus countries are
exchanging their cultural, economical, social, political, educational and technological
affairs continuously. Communication is the lifeblood of business as it provides necessary
information in formulating business plans and policies which in turns ensure effective
business performance like production, distribution, financing etc; hence it laid down the
basis of development in the society and national at large.
 Communication reveals government regulation and accountability through public
opinions. The government collects public opinions and get useful information that help
public savants to increase their efficiency in performing their duties in various sectors.
Through public opinions the government can make changes in policies, allocation of
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resources and directives by appointing the right persons to suit the need of the majority
in a country.
 Communication helps in creating and maintaining social relationship among the people.
Through communication people understand one another by sharing information and
create togetherness in the community. For instance we do not choose our biological
family to communicate but we choose friends and improve our relationship. Hence
communication helps to better understanding and enhancing the quality relationship
with family members/community members by improving our physical and emotional
health. Eg. A person who is isolated by his/her family/society can commit suicide thus
why we learn how t o cooperate and relate with others.
 Communication helps in management as the means of achieving organizational goal.
Efficiency and effectiveness of management depend on effective communication with
various internal and external parties. In fact communication is a tool of expressing
power and authority to others, thus without communicated information plans and
policies can not be formulated, activities can not be organized, directives can be issued
and control can not be ensured. On the other hand, free flow of information lessens
doubt, confusion and controversies between workers and managers, as a result
harmonious relationship develops in the organization.

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COMMUNICATION SKILLS
WRITING
Writing is a process of representing mental ideas and concepts in a written form. Writing refers
to the internal interaction of ideas that appear outside of the mind through documentation. It is
a record of thoughts in readers’ mind. Writing is a process of documenting information for
future reference. It is the exchange of information between the writer and the readers. Types
of writing are categorized according to the purpose and the topic to be communicated, thus we
have:-
 Academic writing [essay, letter, report]
 Public writing [political speech, social and economical speech]
 Organizational writing [memos, minutes and report]
 Interactive writing/personal writing [cards, personal letter
Writing process
Prewriting
Refers to the process of brainstorming the subject matter before writing the actual text. It
involves discussion with others through conversation, interviewing and library research. Pre
writing involves decision about a topic, gathering information and free writing. Here a writer
may decide the topic through his/her own experience, societal events and other personal
experience in lifetime. After gathering the topic and information that needed to support the
central theme, then you may outline the topics in a point form so as to help when flowing
information. Use your outline as a map in preparing the rough draft. The first draft comes from
free writing which is the process of writing whatever comes into writer’s mind regardless of the
grammar or mistakes arisen. Free writing is the process of generating the ideas being gathered
before.
Drafting
It is the first draft extended from prewriting. The ideas have to be arranged in paragraphs so
that the fundamental ideas can not be lost. The flow of information must be guided by the
conceptual representation of points outlined in the first rough draft. After satisfactory has
made then a writer can identify the structure-introduction, main body and conclusion; but the
most important factor here is to assess if the topics outlined in the first draft have been
discussed and included; since it is the first draft forget about the mistakes you might have made
when writing the text. Allow your mind to be free from errors so as to depict and control the
flow of information.

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Revising or Proof reading

It is a process of reviewing the whole text and cross check whether the information addressed
is sufficient or not, determining whether there is any change that needs to be addressed. In
this stage a writer has the task to find out any weakness that might affect his/her career and
which might affect the reader’s mind when articulating the concept.
Editing
This is an extremely detailed process where the writer makes some changes towards what was
found during revision. Here a writer might either remove unnecessary points and repetition of
the same points or may add some important information. Also the writer can check spelling,
grammar, sentence structure, punctuation marks, and relationship between paragraphs.
Publishing
This is the final process of producing the fair copy. Here the writer presents information which
have already corrected and confirmed. The style of presentation will depend on the subject
matter being addressed
ACADEMIC WRITING
Academic writing is a kind of writing that adhered formality of presentation. It is a focused,
structured, evidenced and relevant to the subject. It has a central theme in which every part
contributing to the main line of argument without repetition. Its purpose is to inform, expose,
report and persuade rather than entertain. Academic writing is explicitly about the
relationships in a text. These connections can be made through the use of various signal
markers or transitional words. It is well organized, structured and planned; it flows easily from
section to section in a logical order. Academic writing uses formal language which is in general
objective rather than person; it encourages the use of excellent grammar rather than colloquial
words and expression.
General Characteristics of Academic Writing
 Avoid plagiarism, acknowledging someone’s idea adds more credibility to your work and
protects you against the law. Any work that is not cited anywhere is at risk
 Use formal language with specialized jargons; avoid the use of clichés, slang &
colloquialism. Words and terms have very specific meanings thus formal words and tone
must reflect the content, however do not use words or phrases that you are not familiar
with them.
 Adhere its structure [Introduction, Main body and Conclusion]
 Should have sufficient information to support the main idea of the text; use few words
to represent factual information. Insufficient information rises confusion and wrong
interpretation.
IT IS EVERY THINGS44
Money is better than education.

 Avoid the use of abbreviations or contractions which are not universal; write words,
phrases or clauses in full so as to bring about clarity
 Use excellent grammar of a respective language; use simple sentences to express a
single grammatical idea instead of using complex sentences that might contains more
than one grammatical idea which in turn increases complexity in understanding the
message communicated.
 Observe the correct use of punctuation marks; the proper use of punctuation marks
makes the work more readable, reasonable, precise and attractive. Punctuation marks
can be period/full stop, comma, colon, semi-colon, opening and crossing marks, slash,
dash, hyphen etc. improper use of punctuation marks leads to loss of meaning and
writer’s intentions.

WRITING LETTERS
IT IS EVERY THINGS45
Money is better than education.

A letter is a message written in the piece of paper, enclosed in the envelope and sent to a
distant person. A letter is a communication that helps people to exchange information in a
written form. Letters can be categorized into two main aspects, namely:-
A: INFORMAL LETTERS/FRIENDLY LETTERS
Are letters that are written for the purpose of exchanging ideas between individuals, informing
others about a certain event, inviting someone in various occasions/ceremonial events,
greeting one another and inquiring something from a friend, parent or relative. Informal letters
can be Congratulation letter, Invitation letter, Condolence letter, Loving letter, Dedication letter,
Inquiring letter, Wishing letter, Apology letter, and Informative letter. Informal letters has the
following components:-
 Has a single address [sender’s address] on top of the right side of the paper and date
just below the sender’s address. The sender’s address can be personal or institutional
address. If it is your own address then you may write your name as a part of an address.
 Its salutation does not address /express the title of the person rather than friendly tone
such as Dear love, Dear John, Dear friend, Dearest father/mother/sister/brother etc.
 Has a main body that express the main purpose of writing a letter. The language to be
used is not very formal as it sounds like conversation.
 Has an ending clause that signifies the ending of letter, it can be written as “Give my
regards to..........or Remember me to...............or Pass my greetings to.........or See you
soon.....................”
 Has a complimentary phrase that reflects the end of the message with informal tone.
Ends with words like [Yours sincerely, Yours............or Yours affectionately particularly
for the people who have a close relationship]. It has no signature and title of the writer
but the name of the writer is written either in full names, nick names or a single name.

B: FORMAL LETTERS/BUSINESS LETTERS

Are letters that are written for the purpose of exchanging skills and experience,
seeking/applying for a job, promoting someone, informing/assigning someone about duties/job
descriptions, condolence someone for the deepest lost, complaining to the top management,
exchanging goods and services, inquiring something, acknowledging someone, accepting an
offer, apologizing and inviting someone with authorities/titles/position. Formal letters can be
Application letter, Letter of an Offer, Termination letter, Resignation letter, Condolence letter,
Informational letter, Inquiring letter, Complaint letter, Claim letter, Order letter,
Acknowledgement letter, Acceptance letter, Invitation letter, Letter of an Apology and Letter to
the Editor. There are so many types of business letter depending on the purpose or intension of
the writer but the main purpose is to inform someone or to persuade someone. The following
are the main components of business letters.

IT IS EVERY THINGS46
Money is better than education.

 Has a sender’s address that is written on top of the right side of the paper and date just
below the sender’s address. Address can be personal or Institutional address. Bear in
your mind that your name is not a part and parcel of the address particularly when
writing formal letter.
 Has a reference number that is written on top of the left side of the paper just below the
date.
 Has an address of addressee that is written on the left side of the paper just below the
reference number. Here you must address the title of the person you are writing to
rather than his/her name even if the person is based on your family ties.
 Has a salutation that addresses /expresses the title of the person such as Dear sir or
Dear madam. If you are not sure about the sex of someone being addressed then write
both sex e.g. Dear sir/madam. This part expresses the formal nature of the relationship
between the communicators.
 Has a caption/title which summarizes or introduces the main agenda to be discussed in
the main body.
 Has a main body that express the main purpose of writing a letter. The language to be
used is very formal as it follows the grammatical rules of a respective language.
Specialized jargons are presented in relation to the context as a matter of fact there is
no use of slang, abusive/offensive language and contractions. The body of the letter may
include; an introductory paragraph and discussion paragraph[s].
 Has an ending clause that signifies the ending of letter. If there are documents that have
to be enclosed/accompanied/attached with a letter, then there is a need to make
notifications. The contained notifications can be enclosure notation [evidence] or copy
notation [complimentary copy=Cc or photocopy=pc]. It can be written as “I have
enclosed this letter with the copy of contract/agreement herein for your attention in
that regard”.......... particularly if it is a termination letter/notice or “I have enclosed
this letter with my resume’/CV or copies of my testimonials/certificates and I am looking
forward to a favorable consideration”.... especially when applying for a job or “I will be
glad to receive information before the end of this month/year to facilitate further
consultations”.......especially when inquiring something or ordering goods or “I am
looking forward to join Mzumbe University community to contribute the development
of academia in our country”.......especially when accepting an offer or “I have attached
copies of all payment receipts for the year 2010 and the communications that have
done between me and your office” or “Kindly look into the problem once more and I am
sure you will help me out of distress”....especially when complaining or claiming about
something.

 Has a complimentary phrase that reflects the end of the main message with a formal
tone which end with words like “Yours sincerely” ...especially when a person being

IT IS EVERY THINGS47
Money is better than education.

addressed is currently your work mate in the same institution or “Yours faithfully” if the
letter is written outside the organization and the person being addressed is highly
recommended to assign your letter and make the decision towards your career and
moral behaviour. After that a writer has to sign, write his/her name, and specify his /her
title as well as the contact if necessary.

Qualities of Business Letters

Business letters should always be brief, clear, diplomatic, grammatical correct, and politely
expressed with accepted formal English language. When we write, our aim is to be well
understood and fulfill a certain goal. Any business letter has two mainly purpose; both a
messenger and ambassador. As a messenger, it carries what you want to say and as an
ambassador it carries your image-the image of the firm or organization/association of which
you work. This means that you have to think clearly and concisely before writing. Usually
business letters should preferably be typed on letter heads and printed on a good quality paper.
Brevity; the letter should be brief and concrete in a way that only factual information is
presented so as to capture the intended message. The message must be precise, concrete and
straight to the point; Keep in your mind that the recipient might be a busy person who does not
want to waste time with unnecessary information, thus your letter must contain a well defined
content and should not exceed two pages.
Clarity; the letter should be clear and contain relevant information in a prescribe format. The
message should round out the central idea of the letter, reinforce the objectives and promote
the action that the sender expects from the recipient. Its paragraphs must be well organized,
structured and express necessary facts and thoughts.
Courtesy; the letter should be written to achieve a certain purpose. Thus a letter should be
written in a polite language, diplomatic manners and following grammatical rules of a
respective language. Colloquial and abusive language should be left aside completely; the
universal accepted formality must be presented and comply with a predetermined structure.

Useful Expressions In introducing a letter or corresponding to Business Letter

IT IS EVERY THINGS48
Money is better than education.

A. Further to my letter of date....................................[This is useful for telling a reader that the

writer is making follow up a previous letter].
B. We note from your letter of date.................................[The writer is responding]
C. Having heard your advertisement on “City Radio” last Thursday, I would like to have further
details about your school particularly on school fees and uniforms. [Certainty of information]
D. In response to your advertisement in Yesterday’s “Daily News” I would like to apply for the
post of Assistant Manager. [Certainty of information]
E. With reference to your advertisement in the Guardian of April 11 th 2018, I would like to apply
for the post of Assistant computer programmer. [Certainty of information]
F. I am writing a letter to apply for the post of Personal Assistant to the Public Relation Officer
which was advertised in “The Times” of 10th December, 2018. [Addressing the subject matter]
Layout/Syle/Format of Writing Business Letters
Style of writing letters can be Indented style, Semi-blocked style, Full blocked style and the
modified blocked style. Indented style was initiated by the British [Britain or United Kingdom]
while Semi-blocked style and Full blocked style were initiated by the Americans [United States
of America] and later on modified by the Americans themselves.
A. Indented Format
Indented style is the one in which the address of the sender and date are written on top of the
right corner of the page, salutation and paragraphs [introductory paragraph, discussed
paragraph and ending paragraph] are slanted/indented into one centimeter or two
centimeters]. The reference number and address of addressees are aligned to the left marginal
line and written in block style while the caption/title and the complementary phrase are
centered. Punctuation marks like comma and full stop are used in both sender’s address
[writer’s address] and address of addressee [recipient address]. The style is originated from
Britain/United Kingdom.
B. Semi-Blocked Format
Semi blocked style is the one in which the address of the sender and date, the reference
number, address of addressees, salutation and the caption/title are written in block style
[aligned to the left marginal line]. Paragraphs [introductory paragraph, discussed paragraphs
and ending paragraph] are slanted or indented into few spaces and each paragraph is separated
by double /single line spaces. The complementary phrase is written on the bottom left hand
side of the page. Punctuation marks like comma and full stops are used in both sender’s
address [writer’s address] and address of addressee [recipient address]. Semi block format
follows the same arrangement as the block format except for paragraphs where indention is

IT IS EVERY THINGS49
Money is better than education.

applied, unlike in block format where paragraphs follow the same alignment. The style is
originated from United States of America.
C. Full Blocked Format
The full blocked style is the one in which all components of the letter are align from the left
marginal line of the page without indentation. Spaces are left between paragraphs [paragraphs
are separated by single or double line spaces]. Punctuation marks such as comma as well as
periods/full stops are used. This style is originated from America and later on was modified
from the Blocked Format.
D. Modified Blocked Style
The modified blocked style is the one in which sender’s address is written on top of the right
side of the page while the reference number, address of the addressees, salutation, Paragraphs
[introductory paragraph, discussed paragraph, ending paragraph] and complementary phrase
are aligned from the left marginal line of the page. The title of the letter is centered. Spaces are
left between paragraphs [paragraphs are separated by a single line space or double line spaces
depending on the nature and the length of the letter]. Punctuation marks such as comma as
well as periods/full stops are used.
APPLICATION LETTERS
Are letters that are written for the purpose of achieving a specific goal such as to get a job or to
secure admission to an institution. An application letter is presented in various sections with a
clear format and formal language. The following are the components of an application letter
 Has a sender’s address that is written on top of the right side of the paper and date just
below the sender’s address. Address can be personal [owned by individual/family] or
Institutional address [owned by a company, school, college/university, local/central
government]. Bear in your mind that your name is not a part and parcel of the address
particularly when writing the inside address/sender’s address.
 Has a reference number that is written on top of the left side of the paper just below the
date.
 Has an address of addressee that is written on the left side of the paper just below the
reference number. Here you must address the title of the person you are writing to
rather than his/her name even if the person is based on your family ties.
 Has another address of addressee [U.F.S-Under Further Sender] particularly when the
letter have to be seen first by a certain officer as a part of referee for further forwarding.
 Has a salutation that addresses /expresses the title of the person such as Dear sir or
Dear madam. If you are not sure about the sex of someone being addressed then write
both sex e.g. Dear sir/madam. This part expresses the formal nature of the relationship
between the communicators.

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Money is better than education.

 Has a caption/title which summarizes or introduces the main agenda to be discussed in

the main body. Example; [ RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF PUBLIC RELATION
OFFICER]
 Has a main body that expresses the main purpose of writing a letter. The language to be
used is very formal as it follows the grammatical rules of a respective language.
Specialized jargons are presented in relation to the context as a matter of fact there is
no use of slang, abusive/offensive language and contractions. The body of the letter may
include; an introductory paragraph [The source of information, your personal details
such as age, sex and marital status-single or married] and discussion paragraph[s] that
speak about your educational qualifications [academic and professional qualifications]
as well as your working experience.
 Has an ending clause that signifies the ending of letter. If there are documents that have
to be enclosed/accompanied/attached with a letter, then there is a need to make
notifications. The contained notifications can be enclosure notation [evidence] or copy
notation [complimentary copy=cc or photocopy=pc]. It can be written as [“I have
enclosed this letter with my resume or copies of my testimonials/certificates and I am
looking forward to a favorable consideration”]. Also indicate the readiness of attending
an interview.
 Has a complimentary phrase that reflects the end of the main message with a formal
tone which end with words like “Yours sincerely” ...It is a polite way of addressing
someone in power as a means of recognizing/appreciating the title she/he holds or
“Yours faithfully” if the letter is written for the first time and the person being
addressed is highly recommended to assign your letter and make the decision over you].
After that a writer has to sign, write his/her name, specify his/her title as well as contact
if necessary.

A SAMPLE OF APPLICATION LETTER IN NDENTED STYLE.

P.0. BOX 38456878,

IT IS EVERY THINGS51
Money is better than education.

ARUSHA.
nd
22 DECEMBER, 2018.
REF.NO. AT/MM/JB/96/01

THE BUSINESS MANAGER,

SAUT-MBEYA,
P.O. BOX 44344556,
MBEYA.

U.F.S
THE FINANCE MANAGER,
UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA,
P.O. BOX 500,
IRINGA.

Dear sir/madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF CHIEF ACCOUNTANT AT SAUT-MBEYA.

In response to your advertisement as was advertised in the “Daily News” of 20 th

December, 2018; I would like to apply for the post of Chief Accountant at your institution. I am
Tanzanian aged 36 years old and male by sex. I completed Ordinary Level in 2000 and Advanced
Level in 2002 at Sangu Secondary School. Thereafter in 2003 I under took a Bachelor degree of
Account and Finance at Tanzania Institute of Accounts in Mbeya Centre and graduated in 2006.
I have served as Assistant Finance Manager at University of Iringa for eight years. Also I have
experience of three years worked as Chief Accountant at Mbeya Cement Company effectively
from 2015 up to 2018.
I have enclosed this letter with copies of my testimonials or certificates as a reference
and I am ready to appear for any interview that I might be asked to attend. I am looking
forward to a favorable consideration.
Yours faithfully,
Signature
--------------------
Mapelestino .S. Maparatino
Accountant
Contact-0755-45-45-45
A SAMPLE OF APPLICATION LETTER IN SEMI-BLOCK STYLE

P.0. BOX 38456878,

IT IS EVERY THINGS52
Money is better than education.

ARUSHA.
22nd DECEMBER, 2018.

REF.NO. AT/MM/JB/96/01

THE BUSINESS MANAGER,

SAUT-MBEYA,
P.O. BOX 44344556,
MBEYA.

U.F.S
THE FINANCE MANAGER,
UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA,
P.O. BOX 500,
IRINGA.

Dear sir/madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF CHIEF ACCOUNTANT AT SAUT-MBEYA.
Having heard your advertisement in “Yesterday’s Daily News” I would like to apply for the
post of Chief Accountant at your institution. I am Tanzanian aged 36 years old and male by sex. I
completed Ordinary Level in 2000 and Advanced Level in 2002 at Sangu Secondary School.
Thereafter in 2003 I under took a Bachelor degree of Account and Finance at Tanzania Institute
of Accounts in Mbeya Centre and graduated in 2006. I have served as Assistant Finance
Manager at University of Iringa for eight years. Also I have experience of three years worked as
Chief Accountant at Mbeya Cement Company effectively from 2015 up to 2018.
I am attaching this letter with copies of my testimonials or certificates as a reference and I
am ready to attend any interview that I might be asked to attend. I am looking forward to a
favorable consideration.
Yours faithfully,
Signature
-----------------------------------
Mapelestino .S. Maparatino
Accountant
Contact - 0755-45-45-45
A SAMPLE OF APPLICATION LETTER IN BLOCK STYLE
P.0. BOX 38456878,

IT IS EVERY THINGS53
Money is better than education.

ARUSHA.
22nd DECEMBER, 2018.

REF.NO. AT/MM/JB/96/01

THE BUSINESS MANAGER,

SAUT-MBEYA,
P.O. BOX 44344556,
MBEYA.

U.F.S
THE FINANCE MANAGER,
UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA,
P.O. BOX 500,
IRINGA.

Dear sir/madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF CHIEF ACCOUNTANT AT SAUT-MBEYA.
With reference to your advertisement which was advertised in the “Daily News” of 20 th
December, 2018, I would like to apply for the post of Chief Accountant at your institution. I am
Tanzanian aged 36 years old and male by sex. I completed Ordinary Level in 2000 and Advanced
Level in 2002 at Sangu Secondary School. Thereafter in 2003 I under took a Bachelor degree of
Account and Finance at Tanzania Institute of Accounts in Mbeya Centre and graduated in 2006.
I have served as Assistant Finance Manager at University of Iringa for eight years. Also I have
experience of three years worked as Chief Accountant at Mbeya Cement Company effectively
from 2015 up to 2018.
I have attached this letter with copies of my testimonials or certificates as a reference and I am
ready to appear to any interview that I might be asked to attend. I am looking forward to a
favorable consideration.
Yours faithfully,
Signature-----------------------
Mapelestino .S. Maparatino

Accountant

Contact- 0755-45-45-45

A MPLE OF APPLICATION LETTER IN A MODIFIED BLOCKED STYLE

P.0. BOX 38456878,

IT IS EVERY THINGS54
Money is better than education.

ARUSHA.
nd
22 DECEMBER, 2018.

REF.NO. AT/MM/JB/96/01

THE BUSINESS MANAGER,

SAUT-MBEYA,
P.O. BOX 44344556,
MBEYA.

U.F.S
THE FINANCE MANAGER,
UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA,
P.O. BOX 500,
IRINGA.

Dear sir/madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF CHIEF ACCOUNTANT AT SAUT-MBEYA.

I am writing to apply for the post of Chief Accountant which was advertised in the
“Daily News” of 20th December, 2018. I am Tanzanian aged 36 years old and male by sex. I
completed Ordinary Level in 2000 and Advanced Level in 2002 at Sangu Secondary School.
Thereafter in 2003 I under took a Bachelor degree of Account and Finance at Tanzania Institute
of Accounts in Mbeya Centre and graduated in 2006. I have served as Assistant Finance
Manager at University of Iringa for eight years. Also I have experience of three years worked as
Chief Accountant at Mbeya Cement Company effectively from 2015 up to 2018.
I am enclosing this letter with copies of my testimonials or certificates as a reference and I am
ready to attend any interview that I might be asked to attend. I am looking forward to a
favorable consideration.
Yours faithfully,
Signature---------------------
Mapelestino .S. Maparatino

Accountant
Contact-0755-45-45-45
WRITING CURRICULUM VITAE/RESUME’

IT IS EVERY THINGS55
Money is better than education.

The term Curriculum Vitae is originated from a Latin word Curriculum [course] and Vitae [life].
The two words mean the course of someone’s life. Curriculum Vitae is simply means a short
summary /an account of something that carries an image of one‘s career in terms of his/her
educational qualifications, experiences and skills. The American calls Curriculum Vitae as a
RESUME’. American wants one page of Resume while the British wants two pages of
Curriculum Vitae, that means any longer risks being basketed without a glance. A resume/CV
should be typed and copies made have to be kept for further reference.
The important facts/information should be presented clearly and concisely. The information
given should be correct and true to the best of the writer’s knowledge. The language used
should be easy to understand in constructive manners. Generally a good CV should not exceed
two pages. Curriculum Vitae is an important in the job market; prepared to suit the
specifications of the job being applied for by highlighting the key qualifications and skills related
to the job targeted. Sometimes you will be required to attach your application letter with a CV;
sending out a CV to a prospective employers as the image creation to your qualifications.
Types of Curriculum Vitae
Curriculum Vitae can be categorized into three mainly types namely; Entry level CV, Functional
CV and Chronological CV.
Entry level CV
This is a type of CV suitable for the candidate who is applying the job for the first time. Its main
strength lies on educational development of the candidate because the applicant has not been
involved in employment before; thus professional experience is not a significant factor to be
considered.
Functional CV
It is a type of CV that put much emphasis on skills and capability possessed by a certain
individuals. This kind of CV highlights and focus directly to the major skills, abilities and
experiences of an individual from the previous professional as the means of suiting the position
being applied in the present. It emphasizes the specific professional competency. It usually
preferred for applications of jobs that require specific skills or a set of clearly defined
personality traits.
Chronological CV
It is a type of CV that put much emphasis on historical development of one’s career. This is a
type of CV that is used mainly for in house jobs particularly when there is a promotion within
the institution. This CV enumerates a candidate’s job experiences in reverse chronological
order. The profile section explains the recent experience backwards to the previous
experiences. The following are the parts of CV

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Money is better than education.

Personal details –this parts presents information about the writer himself/herself so that the
interested employer can easily contact you. It includes the names of an applicant -starting with
surname, first name and last name, date of birth or year of birth-here the writer may write the
date, month and year, nationality-country bith of an applicant, gender-the sex of an applicant,
marital status-civic status of an applicant whether he/she is single or married, contact-
telephones number, address-postal office or E.mail except the place of birth, tribe and religion
because they might have direct negative implications and interpretations that can reduce your
credibility and ruin your reputation.
Personality traits/personal profile-this part gives a statement that describe your character. It is
a summary that ofers an applicant a chance to market himself to a prospective employer.
Words like goal oriented, flexible and adoptable, hardworking, self motivated, self
determinations, working under pressure, highly improved and others, are almost used to creat
a mental picture into employer’s mind towards the job you are applying for.

Educational background –this parts presents education qualifications Possessed by an applicant

in reverse chronological order by stating the most recent qualification downward to the earliest
one; starting with proffessional qualifications attained from high learning institution [University
level] and Textiary-education attained from college level [diploma and certificate] followed by
accademic qualifications attained from secondary level [Advance level and Ordinary level ]

Work Experiences –this parts presents the personal years of experience, the place where an
applicant has served and various positions he/she held before applying the current job. In
presenting work experience, one must start with the most recent job experience going
backwards to the previous experiences. Also the candidate must state all experience relating to
the job he/she is applying for, followed by other experiences relating to your proffessions or
out of your proffessions and if possible you may highlight your responsibilities and
achievements.

Extra curriculum activities -this parts presents personal skills attained through practice and life
experiences without going through formal training like business skills, computer skills,
vocational skills, seminars, workshops, conferences etc, language skills - international language
are highly recommended [Kiswahili, English, French] rather than vanecular language. However
personal interest and hobies can be stated here but the listed hobies should be relevant to
personal health and friendly to the institution you are applying for.

Referees- this part presents the names of decent people who can give more information about
your career and your moral behaviour. Your referees can be religious leaders, managers of
learning institutions and government officers; friends, parents and relatives are strictly rejected
so as to maintain facts and consistance of information. These are people who know the
applicant well enouph, therefore they can give reliable information on the applicant’s suitability
or unsuitability for the job being applied for. However, the required number of referees are not
less than or more than three.

IT IS EVERY THINGS57
Money is better than education.

A: PERSONAL DETAILS
Names : Maparatino Selestino Maparastino
Profession : Accountant
Age : 36 Years
Sex : Male
Nationality : Tanzanian
Marital status : Single
Contact : 0755-45-45-45
Address : maparastinomas @ g.mail.com

B: PERSONAL TRAITS
Iam an extremely fit and active person who has a great deal of experience in this fild. Iam
always striving to improve myself and I believe that I can embrace the challenges. Further more
I am hardworking, fearing God, self determination, goal orinted, and self motivated.

C: EDUCATIONA L BACKGROUND

YEAR CERTIFICATES AWARDS INSTITUTIONS

2012-2014 Masters degree in accounts and finance University of Dar es salaam
2007-2010 Bachelor degree of account and finance Tanzania Institute of Accounts
2003-2006 Diploma in accounts St Augustine University
2000-2002 Advance Certificate of secondary Education Sangu Secondary School
1996-2000 Ordinary Certificate of secondary Education Sangu Secondary School
1990-1996 Certificate of Primary Education Mkwajuni Primary School

D: WORKING EXPERIENCE
2006-2014 -Assistant finance Manager at University of Iringa
Duties
 Planning the annual budget.
 Producing financial reports related to budgets, accounts payments, accounts receivables
and expenditures.
 Predicting future financial trends by offering the insights and financial advice.
 Determining the accuracy of the financial statements prepared by the management.

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Money is better than education.

2015-2018- Chief Accountant at Mbeya Cement Company

Duties
 Developing long-term business plans based on budgets, payments and expenses.
 Reviewing, monitoring and managing budgets.
 Supporting the executive management by introducing strategies that work to minimize
financial risk
2018-2019- Auditor at Kangaro Investment
Duties
 Correcting, interpreting and reviewing financial information
 Monitoring and maintaining budgets
F: EXTRA CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES
Other Skills : Expert in hair dressing, computer literacy and a licensed driver with class C
Language skills : Writing and speaking Kiswahili & English language fluently,
Hobbies : Writing plays, reading short stories and novels, watching movies and swimming.
G: REFEREES
Human resource manager-Dr.Nortino, D.S
Mbeya Cement Company,
P.O. BOX 3434,
Mbeya.
E.mail : nortinodins @ g.mail.com
Contact : 0655-55-55-55

Ward Executive Officer-Torrontino, F.G

Mkwajuni Village,
P.O.BOX 8888,
Chunya-Mbeya.
Contact : 0788-88-88-88

The Headmaster-Fr. Constantino, M.E

Sangu Secondary School,
P.O.BOX 9898,
Mbeya.
E.mail constatinomes @ yahoo. Tz. Com.
Contact 0766-66-66-66

IT IS EVERY THINGS59
Money is better than education.

A SAMPLE OF APPLICATION LETTER EXPECTED TO BE ATTACHED WITH CURRICURUM VITAE

TANZANITE ASSOCIATION,
P.0. BOX 38456878,
ARUSHA.
nd
22 DECEMBER, 2018.
REF.NO. AT/MM/JB/96/01

THE BUSINESS MANAGER,

SAUT-MBEYA,
P.O. BOX 44344556,
MBEYA.

U.F.S
THE FINANCE MANAGER,
UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA,
P.O. BOX 500,
IRINGA.
Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF CHIEF ACCOUNTANT AT SAUT-MBEYA.

With reference to your advertisement which was advertised in the “Daily News” of 10 th
December, 2018, I would like to apply for the post of Chief Accountant at your institution. I am
accountant by professional holding Masters Degree in accounts and finance from University of
Dar es salaam. I have served as Assistant Finance Manager at University of Iringa for eight
years. Nevertheless, I have experience of three years worked as Chief Accountant at Mbeya
Cement Company effectively from 2015 up to 2018.
I have enclosed this letter with my CV and copies of my testimonials or certificates as a
reference and I am ready to attend any interview that I might be asked to attend. I am looking
forward hearing from you soon.
Yours faithfully,

Signature
Mapelestino .S. Maparatino

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WRITING MINUTES
Minutes are written document that are used to inform people of what happened during the
meeting and the action to be taken next. Minutes are tangible record of the meeting for its
participants and a source of information for members who were unable to attend. In some
cases, minutes can act as a reference when the organization wants to make decision. The
minutes reflect only decision rather than discussion thus capturing everything that people say
[verbatim] is not necessary. Minutes are legal document. They are used to establish an
organization’s historical record of activities; hence it is better to maintain a professional tone.
Never use inflammatory language rather than persuasive language. Avoid the use of colloquial
language, abusive language and slang. The language to be used must be in the past
tense/reported speech.
Before the meeting, you need to prepare different topics to be addressed during the meeting.
In most the chairperson works with the secretary to develop a detailed agenda. Agenda is a list
of topics/subject matter to be discussed during a forthcoming meeting; agenda are usually
circulated before the meeting so as to enable the members to be aware and prepare
themselves for the coming meeting. Meeting occur for a reason, thus the issues to be
addressed and decided upon need to be listed down to alert the attendees. Drafting agenda
helps in assigning times to each topic to keep the meeting moving on. Here you have to note
them down in order to save time and to be able to focus on important topics to be shared by
the members in the meeting. The listed agenda will serve as the outline and guideline for the
meeting minutes.
During the meeting, it is very important for a secretary to record every contribution particularly
taking notes by focusing only important information agreed by all members in the meeting. The
minutes must be well organized in a sense that they can be easily revised later; the secretary of
the meeting must be able to differentiate actions from remarks as well as noting down various
information being agreed by all members who attended the meeting. The best minutes taker
must be a good listener, a good and quick typist, tolerant and familiar with the discussed
topics/agenda so as to grasp the subject matter in a good manner. The chair person must
control the meeting by giving everybody the chance to speak as he/she wish with limited time.
There is nothing more annoying than a meeting that goes on and on and on; as a chairperson
you have to manage time by ignoring the repetition of the same idea being addressed as well as
endless speeches.
Therefore minutes provides a written record of what was agreed in the meeting. It tells people
of what was decided and what need to be achieved. In some instances, minutes can be
required for legal reasons or disciplinary meetings with employees thus it is very important to
include various kind of information including the reason for the meeting, what it was about,
where and when it was held. Also it is important for the secretary to record what was achieved,
decision that were made and the action that were agreed. Good minutes capture the purpose
of the meeting and its agreed outcomes; also good minutes are concise and stay to the point

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but at the same time they do not leave out critical information. The following are the common
types of minutes that vary depending on the nature of the institution and its preferences.
Verbatim Minutes
This is a kind of minutes where the secretary captures word by word from the speaker; all that
are said by the members are recorded. Verbatim minutes are usually recorded as evidence in
taking action or making decision. This kind of minutes is almost written in places such as
parliament, courts and government committee.
Verbatim minutes can have a negative impact on the quality of discussions and the decision
made by the group members. Verbatim minutes provide the transcript of the meeting including
the names of every speaker, the motion they propose and the motions agreed. It is not very
useful for the meeting that need collective measures in addressing and solving the existing
problem within the institution; as a matter of facts most of members may not participate freely
for fearing that they might be noted down their names and being recorded of whatever they
contribute particularly when the subordinates are lamenting or striking towards the top
management or the existing government.
Resolution minutes
This kind of minutes records all agreements or decisions reached and approved by the
participating members of the meeting. Normally the secretary captures the main conclusions
and resolutions reached. These minutes are commonly used in Annual general meeting or large
gathering meeting. Resolution minutes serve as the governing principles towards the problems
being addressed without attaching the names of members who contribute ideas during the
discussion of agenda.
Narrative minutes
This kind of minutes records the summary of what happens in the discussion and the decision
that have been made. It is a concise summary of the discussions which took place, decision
made and the action to be taken. The minutes also attach the names of people who proposed a
certain idea during a discussion and provide the context and background information of the
discussion.
PARTS OF MINUTES
Heading
The title include the time for opening the meeting, the date of the meeting, venue where the
meeting were carried out and the name of the organization under which the meeting were
conducted. In order to construct a well defined title you may ask the following questions; To
whom the records belongs, Where the minutes were taken, At what time the minutes were
recorded, Which date the minutes were taken

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Attendance lists
The minutes taker should arrive a few minutes before the meeting begins and pass around an
attendance sheet with all members’ names along with title or affiliation separated by coma or
semi colon and their contact if possible. Normally the attendees are listed alphabetically by
their last names but the circumstantial depend on the nature of the organization where the
minutes is carried out. However, in some cases it is the best to list the important persons first,
the chairperson followed by secretary and then the treasurer, lastly all members remained.
However the attendance list normally has
Present with their titles and their role in the meeting, these are the one that discuss the
tabled/listed agenda and come up with solutions or way forward.
Absentees with apology and their titles-these are attendees who planned to attend but because
of some circumstances they could not attend, thus they inform the chairperson as why they can
not attend the meeting.
In attendance with their title and contact-these are guests or invited members from outside the
organization /system; these attendees can be representatives from various organizations. They
can be given the chance to speak by the chairperson depending on the subject matter/agenda
being discussed.
Opening of the meeting
Normally this is the task of a chair to open up the discussion of the meeting. Often people
engage in normal conversation before the meeting begins, for that case the chairperson has to
draw the attention of members who are present so that the meeting can begin smoothly. Here
the chairperson introduces the agenda and invites all members by giving them a room of
freedom and confidence so that they participate actively and give their constructive ideas
towards the introduced agenda. Also the chairperson may address some announcements if any;
nevertheless the chair has the right to ask one member to open the meeting with a prayer.
Confirmation of the previous minutes
At the start of the meeting the chairperson calls for the approval of the minutes. Soon after the
chairperson opened the meeting he/she ask the secretary to read the previous minutes for
approval. Here the members are free to check and correct any error that might be arisen during
the records, including the names of members and their right title, spelling, tenses, grammar,
the language tone, format and the agenda agreed. In most cases they work out the agreed
upon changes in the meeting so that they do not spend a huge amount of time on revisions.
Always ask if there is anyone who does not approved, assuming not, then you may say “the
minutes from the previous meeting have been approved and the agreed changes have been
made”. After so doing, the chairperson and the secretary have to sign the final draft being
approved.

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Matters arising
This part presents the record of discussion and decision reports relating to the previous
meeting. Any development and changes related to any item in the minutes of the previous
meeting are presented. Here any agenda or issue being discussed and reached conclusion must
be recorded and presented as a part of the previous minutes of the previous meeting.
New business
This is the business of the day where the various outcomes of the discussion are noted and
recorded as agreed by all members who attended the meeting. In this section, the circulated
agenda and adopted agenda are discussed and the decisions made are recorded by the
secretary in a given format.
Any other business
This is the section under which the chairperson invites the new agenda/topics from members
outside of what has been discussed in the main agenda of the day. Members are free to present
various issues to be shared in the meeting as permitted by the chairperson
Adjournment
This is the section that marks the end of discussion of the meeting. It may include a word of
thanking by the chairperson, agreement on the date for the coming meeting and the closing
player.

Therefore minutes highlight the key issues that are discussed, motions proposed or voted on,
and the actions to be taken. The minutes of the meeting are usually taken by an appointed
member of the group [individual in attendance] tasked with taking minutes of what transpired
during the meeting; in normal circumstance the minutes of the meeting are kept by designated
secretary, an employee specifically tasked with taking minutes, keeping all records and files,
tracking attendance and voting records, and reporting to the appropriate responsible authority
such as board of directors/board of trustees or top management. However, the minutes can be
approved during the meeting immediately after the discussion and sent to the respective organ
within 24 hours or can be confirmed in the next proposed date of the meeting depending on
the context of the meeting and the subject matters being discussed. Minutes offers a legal
protection of the company in taking action and decisions as it contains a written proof of the
majority votes. Besides all of this, minutes of the meeting also offers insight of the meeting to
those who failed to attend the meeting.

MOLICIOUS UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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MINUTES OF ACCADEMIC EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE HELD ON MONDAY 2 ND DECEMBER, 2019 IN

THE CONFERENCE ROOM AT 10.00 AM.
1 . Attendance
Present
Partino Kujumoto : Chairperson
Swamson Rifikins : Secretary
Leslietha Bhatan : Member
Quilum Witten : Member
Atranta Boswell : Member
Elibazantha Syniora : Member
Husbandora Corrobotha : Member
Commuter Lumbergun : Member
Briford danford : Member
Drunkern Generator : Member

Absentees with Apology

Torronto Saminatha
Sympatieno Gogodo
Rukurumbuka Mpatata
Anserintiana Mpakamwez

In attendance
Fr. Severinho Yuahk-The Principle of St. Charles University
Dr. Sennioralitha Pehinihno-Senior Lecturer at Mkwawa University

Opening the meeting

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The chairperson opened the meeting at 10.00 am. The chair appointed Fr. Severinho to lead the
opening prayer. The guest were formally introduced and invited to participate fully in the
deliberations of the meeting. Thereafter the meeting received the apologies from Torronto
Saminatha, Sympatieno Gogodo, Rukurumbuka Mpatata and Anserintiana Mpakamwez. Later
on the chairperson requested the secretary to read the agenda; the agenda was proposed for
adoption without changes.
Confirmation of the previous minutes
The chairperson asked the secretary to read the minutes of the previous meeting for approval.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and agreed to be a true record of the day’s
deliberation by all members who attended the meeting. After confirmation has made, the
chairperson and secretary signed the minutes.
Matters arising
There were no any matter arisen
New business
Agenda 1.0 : Registration of students in academic year 2019/2020
The meeting observed that most of students were reluctant to register themselves because
they have not paid their fees in time. Some members concluded that most of these students
are beneficiaries from Loan board thus they have to be sanctioned for such kind of irregularity.
However the meeting decided that all students [first year, second year and third year] have to
be given another twenty days to give them a room for paying their dues; the deadline for
students’ registration will be on 20 th December, 2018. Finally it was recommended that
whoever fail to meet the deadline of the said date shall not be given a chance to attend
lectures, seminars and even doing semester examinations or sit for special examination.

Agenda 2.0 : Communication from the chair

The chairperson informed the members that the management is real appreciating the efforts
and duties performed by each and every one but the management is also insisting the lecturers
to fulfill their duties without a close supervision. The management observed that some of
lecturers are not teaching rather than giving students notes to read on their own, giving
students assignments without marking them, using abusive language when providing services
to the students and so many alike. The chairperson concluded that every member in the
institution should work hard in the best level so as to achieve organizational goals.

Agenda 3.0. Any Other Business [AOB]

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One of the members informed the meeting that the management promised to pay gratuity to
all workers before the end of this month-November, 2018. The chairperson promised that he
shall make fall up. On the other hand the second member requested the management to repair
the projector and audio devices and if possible to buy the new one because the number of
students particularly first year is bigger than what were expected which in turn make the
students difficulty to understand the communicated message.
Agenda 4.0. Adjournment
All members agreed that another meeting will be held on Saturday 21 st December, 2019 in staff
conference room at 12.00.pm. Fr. Severinho Yuahk said a closing prayer. The minutes were
approved by all members and finally signed by
Chairperson Secretary
Date………………………………………. Date…………………………………………...
Partino Kujumoto Swamson Rifikins
Signature………………………………. Signature……………………………………

WRITING MEMORANDUM OR MEMOS

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Memo transmits information relating to day-to day activities of an organization. It is generally

carries orders, instructions, policies, procedures and directives, normally information flow from
higher level to lower level of the organization. It is also used to convey information such as
suggestions, requests or criticism from lower level to upper level. However the following are
the main functions of memo
Conveying information
For better performance, organizational members require information. Memos are the tools of
conveying information to various internal parties of the organization. This information may be a
new policy, new decision, informing the changes, informing the actions taken or to be taken,
revision of an existing programmed, appointment of new managers, introduction of new staff
members, announcement of special events or occasions, a state of emergency etc.
Making request
Memo is the medium of making requests for internal and external parties. Through memos
concerned authority can request someone to attend meeting somewhere on behalf of the
management, request someone to attend seminar outside of the organization for the benefit of
the organization, request someone to chair the meeting on behalf, request someone to supply
information or request someone to act in a certain office for a certain period of time until the
new appointment is made/a right person is back.
Solving problems
Memo is very useful in solving routine and day to day operational problems. Memo is used to
address the existing problems by indicating the measures that have been taken by the
management, the way forward and the action to be taken. Memos are written to present facts
in relation to the problem being addressed and its recommendations. Thus memo is used to
respond to any request made by the subordinates or responding to any sound issue from the
subordinates. Thus the following guidelines are essential for writing effective memos:-
 Clearly indicate the place where the memo is originated
 State the subject matter to be addressed
 Address the memo to the person who will take action on the subject and a copy note
[Cc] to those who need to be aware with the action to be taken.
 Keep the language professional, simple and polite.
 Proofread before sending to the targeted audience.
 It is more objective when the memo is attached with other information relating to the
subject matter.
 Make sure that your Memo has been signed before reached to the targeted group.

PARTS OF MEMO

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The heading : the heading of the memorandum is usually written on top of the page; it is
written in capital letters, bolded and centered. It contains the name and the address of the
organization and the contact if necessary. It is also identifies the document whether it is
internal or external memo.
Informational alert : this is a formal tone that introduces from whom the memo comes and to
whom the memo is targeted or meant for as well as the date that indicate the day when the
message was written.
The subject : the subject is a brief statement telling what the memo is about. The subject line
can be a complete sentence or phrase which summarize and introduce the agenda to be
discussed in the body.
The message : the message represents the main idea or the subject matter to be addressed in
the public. It is written in paragraphs that give the background information about the subject,
details about information to support the main theme and the action statement which specify
the actions to be taken by the readers, actions that are expected to be taken by the
management or the deadline. The following is a sample of a written memo
The closing note : this part contains the name and the signature of the sender as well as a
complimentary copy [Cc]. Here the name and signature of the sender are required while the
title of the person is not included because it has already addressed in the informational section.
TYPES OF MEMO
Internal memo is a written document essential in maintaining communication between several
departments of company especially when a certain issue needs to be addressed without having
to call a meeting. Internal memo is a message from one department to another or from the top
management to the subordinates within the organization. It can be sent on a document or by
electronic mail. It often reports briefly on an action, raises a question, or asks agreement to
follow a course of action. It is less formal; there is a minimum degree of formality to be
followed.

External memos are similar to business letters or emails and are sent to either individuals or
companies outside the writer’s organization. External memo is used to send a message or note
to other organization outside of the business; the message itself is linear as it flow from the
association to the employees. The memo might have lawful standing as it often reflects policies
or procedures, and might indicate an existing or new strategy. Memos are important business
documents, so it must be well organized and well structured. However the memo should have
the name of the company, title, details of the company like [logo, address-postal and E.mail,
contact], recipient address, contact, the subject and date, the body of the message. T he
following are the samples of Internal and External Memo

MORICIOUS UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOCGY

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Money is better than education.

PO BOX 3849 TELL : +255-123525194600

BABATI-ARUSHA WEBSITe http://www.moricious.com

INTERNAL MEMO
FROM : DIRECTOR FOR ACCADEMIC AFFAIR
TO : ALL ACCADEMIC STAFF
DATE : 20TH DECEMBER, 2019
SUBJECT : SEMINAR FOR BLOCK TEACHING PRACTICE
Kindly be informed that tomorrow on Saturday, 21 st December, 2019 there will be a meeting
concerning teaching practice that will be facilitated by Dean of Faculty of Education and
assisted by Head of department of Education. The meeting will be conducted at Karume Lecture
Hall 4 at 10.00 am. You are therefore advised to attend and participate actively.
Agenda
1. Supervision of students in Micro Teaching Practice
2. Supervision of students in block teaching practice
3. Communication from the chair
Signed
………………………………………………………….
Dr. Menoricks Mwatentock
Cc:
1. Director
2. Deputy Director of Administration
2. Supervisor
3. Finance Manager

PRECIOUS UNIVERSAL COMPANY LIMITED

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PO BOX 48697560 TELL : +255-9460094600

MBOZI-MBEYA WEBSITE: http://www.moricious.com

EXTERNAL MEMORANDAM

FROM : EXCUTIVE DIRECTOR

TO : DIRECTOR OF TREASURES COMPANY
DATE : 15TH DECEMBER
SUBJECT : COLLABOLATION IN BUSINESS TRANSACTION
Kindly be informed that Precious Universal Company has a pleasure to cooperate with you in
every aspect of business transaction on the same products produced in a company and at your
company so as to increase the output and the quality of our products. Thus the board and other
stakeholders of our company agreed to combine both forces and earn together on the same
product.
We are pleased to work with you and if there is any change in plan, please notify us. Thanking
you in advance and we look forward hearing from you soon.
Signed
………………………………………………………………
Prof. Codinatory D.G
Cc:
1. The Chairperson of the Board
2. Human Resource Manager
3. Public Relation Officer
4. Financial Manager
5. Production Manager

REPORT WRITING

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A report is simply a document that is produced to convey information or analyze and address
complex issues as well as provide recommendations for course of action. It is well written,
structured and organized in a prescribed manner so that readers can easily access and assess
the given information. A report is a document that presents information in an organized format
for a specific audience and purpose.
SECTIONS OF REPORT
Title of the report
The title of the report is what tells the reader about the subject being investigated and the
institution that own such kind of a research report. It includes the name of organization under
which the study is conducted and the subject matter being discussed or investigated.
Table of content
Table of content indicates what contained in the report and it tells the reader where he/she can
find the essential aspects of the report. However this part is optional depending on the length
of the report. Normally it is used when the report contain more than 20 pages.
Executive summary
It is a brief overview of a report that designed to give the readers a quick preview of the
contents. It helps the readers to understand the main arguments and evidences of the report
before reading the whole report. It is written soon after you have completed writing the whole
report. Executive summary is usually organized according to the sequence of information
presented in the report. The summary normally explains the purpose of conducting a
research/objectives, procedures, findings, general conclusion and recommendations.
Procedures
This part indicates how information was collected, analyzed and presented. This section explain
the methods that were used in collecting data such as interviews, questionnaires, discussions,
observations etc
Discussion
This part presents information that relate to the subject matter. Here the researcher makes
more discussion with other writers who have engaged and done the same subject matter or
topic being investigated. A researcher presents factual information that was truly investigated
by other scholars on the same topic; it may include various theories that addressing the same
problem.

Findings

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This part presents what was observed, found out or proposed by the interviewers during the
collection of data. The information given here must be drawn directly from the field during
investigation. In this part Information is analyzed and presented logically, the claims are given
with evidence and theories are linked with the topic concerned. Here a writer is free to use
qualitative or quantitative approach in presenting data.
Conclusion
This part presents reasonable judgment and logical implications of the findings from the
discussion through deductive reasoning. The conclusion should summarize the central points
made in the discussion section; It should never contain surprises rather than what was
observed and discussed. The logical presentation of information should be direct related with
research objectives, discussion and findings; it should summarize the central points made in the
discussion
Recommendations
This part presents suggestions for action that need to be taken in addressing the problem being
presented in the discussion and the outcomes of the investigation. This is a place where the
writer points various responsible organs and advice them on various measures that can be
taken in solving the existing problem. Recommendations are directly drawn from the discussion
and conclusion.
References
The references section lists all resources used to research or collect data for the report. If you
have used government database or other researchers’ data when writing your report then it is
necessary to acknowledge those scholars either inside of your work [work cited] or at the end
of your work [bibliography]. References provide proof for your points and quotations.
References section act as guidelines and solid reasoning to the readers in reviewing the original
sources themselves. References protect the writer against plagiarism.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD REPORT
 It has an introduction; the report should provide background information about the
topic concerned. The summary of the study is what makes the reader more interested
in assessing and evaluating the report.
 Systematic and logical presentation of data; It should present data in logical and
systematic through the use of charts, graphs and tables [quantitative approach] and well
illustrated [qualitative approach]. Figures and tables must be well organized and contain
captions that introduce a brief description of what is contains and contributes to the
point under consideration.
 It uses formal language; Formal language must be used in addressing issues within the
report. As a researcher you should avoid the use of imperative mood as if you are giving
directions or orders while the purpose is to state what was done rather than telling
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others what they should do. Avoid the use of ambiguity vocabularies and colloquial
language, only correct grammar must be presented to enhance the clarity and the
quality of the report.
 Purposeful presentation; the objectives of the report is to channel information to the
people towards the project or problem that need immediate attention. Similarly, field
reports are the vehicles for the management in making decision. A good report presents
facts and arguments in a manner that supports the purpose of the report.
 It is more accurate and precise; a report should be based on facts, verified information
and valid proofs. A good report is straight forward and free from errors, ethical
reporting style and results oriented which in turn facilitate the decision markers in
making the right decision. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing and likely to be
misleading to make proper decision. The presentation style of a good report should be
attractive to make a clear impression in the mind of its reader.

A SAMPLE OF A REPORT
MORROCO UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA : MBEYA CENTRE
A RESEARCH REPORT ON THE IMPACT OF TRUANCY TOWARDS STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
EXCECUTIVE SUMMARY
A study to investigate the impact of truancy among the students in secondary schools. Several
methods were used in collecting data namely; questionnaire, interview and physical visits. A
total population of 30 students and teachers were interviewed. The finding has shown that
poverty of the parents, corporal punishment, notorious behaviour, unaccountability of parents
and shortage of food have been cited by respondents as the causative factor in increasing
truancy while poor academic performance, dropping from school and the increase of unwanted
pregnancies have been addressed as the main impacts associated with truancy. The research
findings indicated that truancy is a latent base for poor academic performance among students
in secondary schools. However poor performance in Tanzania is not only caused by attendance
characteristics alone but other factors such as poverty, early child pregnancy, drug abuse, poor
parental guide and peer groups. Therefore a wakeup call for government and society to
redefine the effectiveness of the current curriculum and educational policies is needed. The
community together with the government should be mobilized to build boarding schools with
all basic needs, the compulsory attendance should not left only to the teachers rather than
parents and whole community, local government at a particular area should be responsible and
the government should have proper and constructive plans with actual implementation.
PROCEDURES

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Interviews, discussions and questionnaires were used in data collection. Questionnaires were
given to the students to fill in while interview and discussion were done with teachers and
parents.
DISCUSSION
Related study about truancy based on education was done; there is significant evidence that
such an environment leads to higher understanding and transfer of learning. When this mutual
respect and cooperation are absent, tension builds up between individuals and problems of
discipline soon emerge. Most of parents do not visit schools except in response to problems.
Parents’ involvement in the school activities is likely to be related to their own educational
levels and hence many illiterate parents may need encouragement to become involved in
running of schools. Parents’ attitudes towards education particularly not encouraging girls to
acquire good education are also critical to students’ performance.
Hayden [1994] suggests that truancy is associated with undiscriminating sexual behaviour,
alcohol drug abuse and dropping out from school. Loeber [1998] states that truancy is generally
considered as a major risk factor for dropping out school and for delinquent behaviour. Truancy
has been labeled as one of the top ten major problems in this country and it is negatively
affecting the future of the youth. Absenteeism is a serious problem for most schools in
Tanzania; according to the basic Education Statistics report of 2009/2010 released by the
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training recently, Form Two students has the highest
number of dropping out. The report indicates that the main reasons behind which prompt
students to drop out of school is truancy [36.2 %] followed by pregnancies [20.4%]
Despite the counseling programs and offers in schools, it appears addressing the problem of
truancy is not easy to understand because of the type of students that are enrolled in our
schools [cited from Hayden 1994]. It is important to note the extent to which we prioritize
students’ welfare among the students among the multiple tasks that school councilors sand
social workers are required to perform. Truancy is detrimental to students’ achievements,
promotion, graduation, self-esteem and employment potential. Truancy often marks the
beginning of a criminal carrier. In this sense truancy is a risk factor for present and further
delinquent acts. Furthermore, truancy can result from difficult situation within the family and if
this a case there is a strong need for intervention and support.
It has become clear that the occurrence of truancy is encouraged by a number of negative
factors which cause the students to absent themselves habitually unofficially from mainstream
education. These factors include the influence of drugs, gangs, family pressure, the lack of
parental control and unstructured school environment [Pryor et al 2003]. Despite these
problems, the role of educators is to ensure that the educational programmes offered are
effective and meet the standards of the education system while addressing the issue of truancy.
FINDINGS

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This section presents the data obtained from the field. The first part of the section focuses on
the factors that are contributing to the existence of truancy among students, the second part
focuses on the major impacts associated with truancy among the students and the third part
spells out the solution that can be used to minimize truancy among the students. Teachers and
students of Forest Secondary School in Mbeya were the targeted population during
investigation.
1.0. The causes that are contributing to the existence of truancy among the students as
presented in table 1 and 2 below, students and teachers were asked to identify the causes that
are contributing to the existence of truancy among students. Poverty, corporal punishment,
food shortages, peer groups, unaccountability of parents and unclear school policies were
identified as the main roots in the study area. However the field data indicates that the issue of
poverty and corporal punishment were the major causes identified by students while poverty
and peer groups were addressed by teachers as main causative of truancy among students.
Table 1.1: The root causes of truancy identified by students

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Poverty 7 35
2 Corporal punishment 5 25
3 Food shortages 3 15
4 Peer groups 2 10
5 Unaccountability of parents 2 10
6 Unclear school policies 1 5
Total 20 100
Source : Field data, 2016

Table 1.2: The root causes of truancy identified by teachers

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Poverty 4 40
2 Corporal punishment - -
3 Food shortages 2 20
4 Peer groups 2 20
5 Unaccountability of parents 1 10
6 Unclear school policies 1 10
Total 20 100
Source : Field data, 2016

2.0. The major impacts associated with truancy; Students and teachers were asked to identify
the major impacts associated with truancy among the students in the study area, poor

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academic performance, increase of crimes, increase of street children, increase of unwanted

pregnancies and dropping from school were identified by the respondents as the impacts
associated with truancy among the students.
The study shows that poor academic performance, increase of unwanted pregnancies and
dropping from school were identified by the students as the main major impacts associated
with truancy among the students while poor academic performance and dropping from school
were identified by the teachers as the main major impacts associated with truancy among the
students
Table 2.1: The impacts of truancy identified by students

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Poor academic performance 8 40
2 Increase of crimes 2 10
3 Increase of street of children 2 10
4 Increase of unwanted pregnancies 4 20
5 Dropping from school 4 20
Total 20 100
Source : Field data, 2016

Table 2.2: The impacts of truancy identified by teachers

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Poor academic performance 4 40
2 Increase of crimes 1 10
3 Increase of street of children 1 10
4 Increase of unwanted pregnancies 1 10
5 Dropping from school 3 30
Total 10 100
Source : Field data, 2016

3.0. The solution that can be used to minimize the situation; the tables below indicates that
enforcement of laws, reduce poverty, reduction of corporal punishment, responsibilities of
parents to their children and avoidance of peer groups were identified by the respondents as
the main strategies in the study area. However the reduction of corporal punishment and
Reduction of poverty were proposed by the students as the major solutions to the problem
while reduction of poverty and avoiding peer groups were proposed by teachers as the major
solutions in addressing the problem.
Table 3.1: The solutions identified by students

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Money is better than education.

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Reduction of corporal punishment 7 35
2 Reduction of poverty 5 25
3 Avoiding peer group 3 15
4 Parents’ accountability 3 15
5 Enforcement of law 2 10
Total 20 100
Source : Field data, 2016

Table 3.2: The solutions identified by teachers

SN REASONS SUGGESTED BY THE STUDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1 Reduction of corporal punishment 1 10
2 Reduction of poverty 3 30
3 Avoiding peer group 3 30
4 Parents’ accountability 2 20
5 Enforcement of law 1 10
Total 10 100
Source : Field data, 2016

CONCLUSION
The findings in this research study has shown that poverty of the parents, corporal punishment
and food shortages has been cited respondents as the causative factor for an increase of
truancy. Apart from that poor academic performance, dropping from school and increase of
unwanted pregnancies were regarded as the major impacts associated with truancy.
Furthermore, accountability of parents, reduction of poverty and reduction of corporal
punishment were regarded as the best mechanisms that could reduce the incidence of truancy
in the study area.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The community together with the government should be mobilized to build boarding schools
with provision of all basic needs for reducing truancy. Indeed the government should have
proper constructive plans with the actual implementation. Also the government should enact
the law which insisting the parents to make follow up whether their children attending school
or not instead of leaving only to teachers only as their own burden.

Generally there are no identifiable types of reports to be stated as a matter of facts reports
address several issues in the universe, thus it depends on the subject matter to be addressed; if

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the report addresses issues such as economical status of the country [Economical report],
political status of a country [Political report], educational status [academic/educational report].
Also the time factor [frequency presentation-[weekly, monthly, annual report], length [short or
long report], purpose [functional, instructional, informational reports], style [narrative,
descriptive, expository argumentative report] and the tone [formal or informal report]. Those
are criteria that can be used in categorizing reports. However the tone of the report must be
formal, courtesy, legal and factual presented.

WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is a short piece of writing outlining the writer’s perspective and experience. Essay can
be formal or informal depending on the nature of the topic. Normally formal essays are
generally academic in nature and tackle serious topics. Essay must expose the background
information about the topic, presents factual and sufficient details, clearly stated, well
organized and structured in a prescribed format and include supportive evidence. An essay is an
accumulation of various paragraphs that speak about the main idea of the text. A paragraph is
an accumulation of several sentences that contain a single idea to support the central theme of
an essay.
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY
Introduction: this is a part that consist an introductory paragraph where the subject matter to
be discussed is addressed. Introductory paragraph may give out the concept of the subject,
outlining the points to be discussed in the body, may also address the participants and
periodization depending on the subject matter to be shared. An essay must begin with
informative note that grabs reader’s mind, interest and attention towards the subject matter;
your introductory paragraph should not leaves doubts in the reader’s mind rather than giving
the first impression.

The main body: this is where the writer presents the subject in a good manner. In this part the
strongest argument are spelled out in detail and significant examples are given to support the
central idea of an essay. Normally the first sentence introduces a topic sentence, the following
sentences [two or more] give more information about the topic sentence while others are
cementing the facts about the subject discussed and concluding the topic. The body of your
essay may consists of several paragraphs to support the main theme, thus it is very important
to use transitional words that distinguish one idea and another idea. Transitional phrase can be;
furthermore, apart from that, moreover, on the other hand, contrary, but also, therefore etc.
Each paragraph should carry one independent idea and not otherwise.
Conclusion: concluding paragraph must summarize the discussion so as to clear out any doubt
in the reader’s mind. However, conclusion is not a summary or repetition of the same ideas
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being discussed in the main body but it is a thesis that awakens, widens and strengthens your
arguments as well as enlightening the mindset of the reader. In this part a writer may use some
transitional words to wind up your arguments; words like therefore, by concluding, generally, in
general, lastly, frankly speaking etc. although the concluding paragraph comes at the end of
your essay, it should not be seen as an afterthought rather than giving opinions, suggestions
and point of views towards the discussion. The conclusion should include the summary,
prediction and recommendations that call for action.

Types of an essay
Narrative essay-it is a type of essay that tells a story about someone or something. It is straight
forward and well organized. Narrative essay have a simple plot starting with background
information about the characters-exposition, raising action, climax-the highest point of interest,
falling action-efforts of reaching consensus and resolution that may have a suspension. This
type of essay is always drawn from writer’s imagination but it has some sort of universal
experiences. You can write an essay about “The Hare in the Pumpkin, East or West Home is
Best, or The Living Shadow”
Descriptive essay-it focuses on details of what is happening or going on; it is the kind of essay
that create a mental picture into readers’ mind and the main purpose is to show and not to tell.
When describing about someone or something let nouns and adjectives speak on behalf. You
may write an about “A Legend Lwanda Magere, The Great Mwl. Nyerere or My Precious
Country”.
Expository essay-gives instruction on how to perform things and presents details on how
something is done. Here the process and procedures on how to do something are given. In
writing this kind of essay a writer must have extensive knowledge, experience and familiar with
the subject matter because there is no room for writer’s feelings and emotions rather than
reality that is within the body of universal knowledge. Expository essay always addresses issues
around the real world rather than imagination. You may write an essay about “Female Genital
Mutilation or Water Pollution”
Argumentative essay/persuasive essay-convince readers about some point of views. It involves
logical presentation of facts; this means that the arguments presented must flow logically and
focused in a sense that it convinces readers to take action in a reasonable manner. It normally
addresses the cause and effect of the matter through deductive reasoning or inductive
reasoning. You may write an essay about “Money is Better than Education or Women are
Inferior to Men”

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