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Introduction
Heat Engine

Internal Combustion Engine External combustion engine

What is IC Engine?
Internal combustion engines are thermal machines that use the chemical energy of fuel to produce motive
work.

Why are they called 'Internal combustion Engines'?

They are called 'Internal combustion Engines', because the combustion actually
takes place inside the engine. The fuel used in internal combustion engine is a motive fuel, which
is used to produced motive work
An example for IC Engine
Let us consider petrol engines. As the combustion takes place inside the cylinder,
the pressure suddenly rises. The high pressure gaseous mixture pushes the engine
piston, causing direct motive work.

What is External Combustion Engine?

In external combustion engine the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer
heat to second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
An example for External Combustion Engine
As in case of steam engine or a steam turbine plant where the heat of combustion is
employed to generate steam which is used in a piston engine or in turbine.

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Comparison of ICE & ECE

SN ICE ECE
The fuel used in internal combustion In external combustion engine the products
1 engine is a motive fuel, which is used to of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat
produced motive work to second fluid which is the working fluid
of the cycle.

ICE has higher overall efficiency. Overall efficiency is lower compared to

2 ICE.
Fuel used in ICE is costly. Cheaper fuels can be used including solid
3 fuels.
Internal combustion engines are External combustion engines are used for
4 generally used for transport vehicles- large electric power generation.
automobiles, locomotives, aircrafts etc.
5 The internal combustion engine has External combustion engine has many
greater mechanical simplicity auxiliary parts like boiler, condenser etc.

Classification of internal combustion engine

Engines are classified in many different ways as they have many attributes, which
help them meet a variety of needs and requirements.
(1) According to basic engine design
(a) Reciprocating engine (b) Rotary engine
(2) According to working cycle
(a) Engine working on Otto cycle (b) Engine working on diesel cycle
(3) According to number of stroke
(a) Four stroke engine (b) two stroke engine
(4) According to fuel supply and mixture preparation
(a) Carbureted type (b) injection type
(5) According to method of ignition
(a) Battery ignition (b) magneto ignition
(6) According to method of cooling
(a) Water cooled (b) air cooled
(7) According to cylinder arrangement
(a) Inline (b) V (c) radial (d) opposed
(8) According to valve or port design and location
(a) Over head(I head) (b) side head(L head)

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Terminology used in ICE

(1) Cylinder bore (D): the nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
(2) Piston area (A) : the area of the circle of diameter equal to the cylinder
bore
(3) Stroke (L): the nominal distance through which a working piston moves
between to successive reversal of its direction of motion.
(4) dead centre : the position of the working piston and moving parts which
are mechanically connected to it at the moment when the direction of the
piston motion is reversed
(5) Bottom dead centre (BDC): dead centre position when the piston is
nearest to the crank shaft. In horizontal engine it is also called outer dead
centre.
(6) Top dead centre (TDC): dead centre position when the piston is farthest
from the crank shaft. In horizontal engine it is also called inner dead
centre.
(7) Displacement volume or piston swept volume: the nominal volume
generated by the piston when the piston moves from one dead centre to
another dead centre.
(8) Clearance volume: the nominal volume of the space on the combustion
side of the piston at the top dead centre.
(9) Cylinder volume: the sum of swept volume and clearance volume.
(10) Compression ratio: the ratio of the swept volume to the clearance
volume is known as compression volume.

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Two stroke & four stroke engine

Two stroke engine
In two stroke engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e., one revolution of
the crank shaft .crank shaft rotates 360 degree during two stroke of the cycle.
Means 180 degree in per stroke. The power is obtained in one revolution of the
crank shaft.

Crank

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Four stroke engine

In four strike engine the cycle is completed in four strokes, i.e., two revolution of
the crank shaft. Crank shaft rotates 720 degree during four strokes. The power is
obtained in two revolution of the crank shaft

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Comparison between two stroke & four stroke engine

SN Two stroke engine Four stroke engine

The cycle is completed in two strokes, In four strike engine the cycle is completed
1 i.e., one revolution of the crank shaft in four strokes, i.e., two revolution of the
.crank shaft rotates 360 degree during crank shaft. Crank shaft rotates 720 degree
two stroke of the cycle. Means 180 during four strokes. The power is obtained
degree in per stroke. The power is in two revolution of the crank shaft
obtained in one revolution of the crank
shaft.

Because of one power stroke for one Because of one power stroke for two
2 revolution, greater cooling and revolution, lesser cooling and lubrication is
lubrication is required required

3 Greater rate of wear and tear Lesser rate of wear and tear

4 Two stroke engines have no valves but Four stroke engines have valves but have
have ports no ports

5 More uniform turning movement and Turning movement is not uniform and hence
hence lighter flywheel is needed heavier flywheel is needed

6 Because of one power stroke for one Because of one power stroke for two
revolution, power produced for same revolution, power produced for same size of
size of the engine is more the engine is small
7 Volumetric efficiency is less due to the Volumetric efficiency is more due to the
lesser time of induction greater time of induction

8 Thermal efficiency lower, part load Thermal efficiency higher, part load
efficiency lesser. efficiency better.

9 Used where compactness and Used where efficiency is important. in cars

lightweight important low cost. In ,buses ,trucks, industrial engines ,aero
mopeds, scooters, motorcycles. planes , power generation etc

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Spark ignition engine & compression ignition engine

Spark ignition engine (SI)

Spark ignition engine is based on Otto cycle.

Fuel used in Si engines is petrol, which desire high self ignition temperature.
Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous mixture in the suction stroke.
Proper mixing of fuel and air is done by carburetor.
SI engines require an ignition system which is known as spark plug.
Spark plug initiates the ignition process.
Fuel used in S I engine has a compression ratio of about 6 to 10.

Compression ignition engine (CI)

Compression Ignition Engine Is Based On Diesel Cycle

Fuel used in C I engines is diesel, which desire low self ignition temperature.
Only air is introduced during compression stroke and compressed in compression
stroke.
Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at high pressure at the end of
compression stroke.
Carburetor is eliminated but a high pressure fuel pump and injector necessary.
CI engines do not required any ignition system, self ignition due to high
temperature caused by high compression of air.
Fuel used in C I engine has a compression ratio of about 14 to 22.

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Comparison between S I engine & C I engine

SN S I engine C I engine

1 Based on Otto cycle Based on diesel cycle

2 Fuel used in Si engines is petrol, which Fuel used in C I engines is diesel, which
desire high self ignition temperature. desire low self ignition temperature.

3 Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous Only air is introduced during compression
mixture in the suction stroke. stroke and compressed in compression stroke.

4 Proper mixing of fuel and air is done by Carburetor is eliminated but a high pressure
carburetor. fuel pump and injector necessary.

5 SI engines require an ignition system CI engines do not required any ignition

which is known as spark plug. system, self ignition due to high temperature
Spark plug initiates the ignition process. caused by high compression of air.

6 Fuel used in S I engine has a compression Fuel used in C I engine has a compression
ratio of about 6 to 10. ratio of about 14 to 22.

7 Due to lower compression ratio, Due to higher compression ratio, maximum

maximum efficiency is lower efficiency is higher

8 Light in weight Heavier due to higher pressure

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Working of four stroke SI engine

The engine in which the cycle of operations is completed in two revolutions (720º)
of the crank shaft or four strokes of the piston is known as the four stroke engine.
One stroke is completed when the piston moves from Top dead centre to Bottom
Dead Centre or when the crank rotates through 180º.
If the combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place with the help of spark plug
then it is known as four strokes Spark Ignition Engine. The SI engine operates at a
compression ratio of 6 to 10.
A four stroke engine SI consists of the following four strokes.
1. Suction or Intake stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Expansion or power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

1. Suction Stroke:
This stroke starts when the piston is at the top dead centre. When it moves
downwards it will create suction and draw the fuel air mixture into the
cylinder. The inlet valve is open at this time and exhaust valve is closed.
When the piston reaches at the bottom dead centre the inlet valve closes
and the suction stroke ends. It all takes place in 180º of the crankshaft
rotation.
Inlet valve open Exhaust valve closed
Mixture of fuel
and air
Piston moves
from TDC to
BDC during
suction stroke

2. Compression stroke:
In this stroke the piston starts moving upward. During this stroke both the
inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The fuel-air mixture is compressed by
the upward movement of the piston. At the end of the compression stroke

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the fuel-air mixture is ignited by the spark plug. Burning of fuel-air mixture
takes place instantaneously when the piston is at the top dead centre.

Inlet valve close Exhaust valve close

Fuel-air mixture is compressed in Piston moves

the cylinder from BDC to
TDC during
compression
stroke

3. Expansion or Power Stroke

Due to the high pressure of the burnt gases the piston moves towards
bottom dead centre. Both the inlet and exhaust valve remains closed during
the stroke.

Inlet valve close Exhaust valve close

Piston moves
from TDC to
BDC during
expansion
stroke

4. Exhaust stroke:
When the piston is at the bottom dead centre the exhaust valve opens. As
the pressure falls to atmospheric level. The piston moves from bottom dead
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centre to top dead centre and sweeps the products of discharge out at nearly
atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes at the end of exhaust
stroke. The gases are not fully exhausted. Some of the burnt gases stills
remains in the clearance volume.

Inlet valve close Exhaust valve open

Piston moves
from BDC to
TDC during
exhaust
stroke

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Working of four stroke CI engine

The engine in which the cycle of operations is completed in two revolutions
(720º) of the crank shaft or four strokes of the piston is known as the four stroke
engine. One stroke is completed when the piston moves from Top dead centre to
Bottom Dead Centre or when the crank rotates through 180º. In four strokes CI
engine the combustion of fuel-air mixture takes place with compression. The
engine operates at a high compression ratio of the order of 16 to 20. Due to high
compression ratio the mixtures reaches its ignition temperature and the combustion
takes place.

A four stroke CI engine consists of the following four strokes.

1. Suction or Intake stroke

2. Compression Stroke
3. Expansion or power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

1. Suction Stroke:

This stroke starts when the piston is at the top dead centre. When it moves
downwards it will create suction and only air enters the cylinder. The inlet
valve is open at this time and exhaust valve is closed. When the piston reaches
at the bottom dead centre the inlet valve closes and the suction stroke ends. It
all takes place in 180º of the crankshaft rotation.

Air in Piston
moves from
TDC to BDC
during
suction
stroke

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2. Compression stroke:

In this stroke the piston starts moving upward. During this stroke both the
inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The air is compressed by the upward
movement of the piston. At the end of the compression stroke the fuel is
injected into the combustion chamber. An injector is provided to inject the
fuel. At the end of compression stroke the temperature is sufficient to ignite
the fuel and the combustion of fuel-air mixture takes place.

Piston
moves from
BDC to TDC
during
compression
stroke

3. Expansion or Power Stroke:

Due to the high pressure of the burnt gases the piston moves towards bottom
dead centre. Both the inlet and exhaust valve remains closed during the
stroke.

Piston
moves from
TDC to BDC
during
expansion
stroke

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5. Exhaust stroke:
When the piston is at the bottom dead centre the exhaust valve opens. As
the pressure falls to atmospheric level, the piston moves from Top dead
centre to bottom dead centre and sweeps the products of discharge out at
nearly atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes at the end of exhaust
stroke. The gases are not fully exhausted. Some of the burnt gases stills
remains in the clearance volume.

Exhaust gases out to atm

Piston
moves from
BDC to TDC
during
exhaust
stroke

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Working of two stroke SI engine

In two strokes SI engine a cycle is completed in two stroke of a piston or one
complete revolution (360º) of a crankshaft. In this engine the suction stroke and
exhaust strokes are eliminated and ports are used instead of valves. Petrol is used
in this type of engine.

Working:
When the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre, the fresh air
and fuel mixture enters the crank chamber through the port. The mixture enters due
to the pressure difference between the crank chamber and outer atmosphere. At the
same time the fuel-air mixture above the piton is compressed.

Ignition with the help of spark plug takes place at the end of stroke. Due to the
explosion of the gases, the piston moves downward. When the piston moves
downwards the port closes and the fuel-air mixture inside the crank chamber is
compressed. When the piston is at the bottom dead centre, the burnt gases escape
from the exhaust port.

At the same time the transfer port is uncovered and the compressed charge
from the crank chamber enters into the combustion chamber through transfer port.
This fresh charge is deflected upwards by a hump provided on the top of the
piston. This fresh charge removes the exhaust gases from the combustion chamber.

Again the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and the
fuel-air mixture gets compressed when the both the Exhaust port and Transfer
ports are covered. The cycle is repeated.

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Working of two stroke CI engine

In two strokes Compression ignition engine a cycle is completed in two stroke of a
piston or one complete revolution (360º) of a crankshaft. In this engine the suction
stroke and exhaust strokes are eliminated and ports are used instead of valves. The
fuel used in this type of engine is diesel.

Working:
When the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre, the fresh air
enters the crank chamber through the valve. The air enters due to the pressure
difference between the crank chamber and outer atmosphere. At the same time the
air above the piton is compressed.

Fuel with the help of fuel injector is admitted into the combustion chamber
at the end of stroke. The combustion takes place as the temperature of the fuel-air
mixture reaches its ignition point. Due to the explosion of the gases, the piston
moves downward. When the piston moves downwards the valve closes and the
fresh air inside the crank chamber is compressed. When the piston is at the bottom
dead centre, the burnt gases escape from the exhaust port.

At the same time the transfer port is uncovered and the compressed air from
the crank chamber enters into the combustion chamber through transfer port. This
fresh air is deflected upwards by a hump provided on the top of the piston. This
fresh air removes the exhaust gases from the combustion chamber.

Again the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and the
air gets compressed when the both the Exhaust port and Transfer ports are covered.
The cycle is repeated.

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Valve timing diagram for SI & CI engine

Valve timing diagram is regulation of point in a cycle at which the valves are set
to open and close.in ideal cycle the valves are set to open at dead centres but in
actual cycle they open or close before or after dead centers.

Four stroke SI engine

Low speed SI engine : The valve timing diagram for low speed SI engine is shown
below:

IVO: 10o before TDC

IVC: 10o after BDC
EVO: 25o before BDC
EVC: 5o after TDC

High speed SI engine: The valve timing diagram for low speed SI engine is shown
below:

IVO: 10o before TDC

IVC: 60o after BDC
EVO: 55o before BDC
EVC: 20o after TDC

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Four stroke CI engine: Diagram is shown below

IVO: 30o before TDC

IVC: 50o after BDC
EVO: 45o before BDC
EVC: 30o after TDC

For two stroke SI & CI engine: Diagram is shown below

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Why valves are set to open and close before and after DEAD centre
The valves are set to open before and after dead centre because of following factors
(1) Mechanical factor
(2) Dynamic factor
(1) Mechanical factor: The valves of internal combustion engine are operated by cam
and follower mechanism. The valve cannot lift suddenly due to the problem of
acceleration involved. If the sudden change in acceleration from the positive to negative
values are encountered in the design of cam, the follower may lose the contact with the
cam and then be forced back to close contact by the valve spring, resulting in the blow
against the cam. This type of action must be avoided and, hence, cam contour are so
designed as to produce gradual and smooth change in the directional acceleration. As a
result the opening time of valve must commence ahead of the time at which it is fully
opened. The same reason is for closing time also.

(2) Dynamic factor: At low speed engine, the charge is moving into the cylinder
relatively slowly, and the inertia is relatively low. If the intake valve will remain open
much beyond BDC, the up moving piston during compression stroke will tend to force
some of the charge back to the intake manifold. Hence the intake valve is closed
relatively early after BDC for a slow speed engine. In high speed engine ,the charge in
through the intake manifold at greater speed, and the charge has greater inertia .As the
piston moves up during compression stroke , there is “ram “effect produced by the
incoming fresh air which tends to pack more charge into the cylinder.in the high speed
engone therefore intake valve closing is delayed for a greater period of timeafter BDC in
order to take advantages of this “ram “effect and induct the maximum quantity of charge.

Effect of valve timing and engine speed on volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is defined as ratio of volume of air actually inducted to the swept
volume. However it may also be defined on the mass basis as the ratio of actual mass of
air drawn into the engine to the theoretical mass.

The volumetric efficiency is affected by many parameters, some of are:

(1) The density of fresh charge

(2) The exhaust gas in the clearance volume
(3) The design of the intake and exhaust manifold

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(4) The intake and exhaust valve timings

(5) The engine speed

(1) The density of fresh charge: As the fresh charge is inducted into the cylinder, the
heat is transferred to it from the hot chamber walls and hot residual gases. Due to the
transfer of heat to the fresh charge the temperature of fresh charge increases, which
decreases the density of fresh charge resulting in decrease in the mass of charge and
volumetric efficiency decreases.
To increase the volumetric efficiency the heat transfer to the charge must be minimum,
which will reduce the temperature of fresh charge and volumetric efficiency will
increase.

(2) The exhaust gas in the clearance volume: when the piston moves from TDC to
BDC during intake stroke, the exhaust gases remains in the clearance volume expands
and occupies some space in the cylinder. Thus reducing the space for incoming fresh
charge. Therefore the mass of the fresh charge decreases which decreases the volumetric
efficiency.
In addition this exhaust gases tends to increase the temperature of fresh charge, which
again tends to decrease the volumetric efficiency.

(3) The design of intake and exhaust manifold : The intake manifold should be
designed so as to bring in maximum possible charge and the exhaust manifold should be
so designed so as to exhaust the maximum amount of product of combustion from
exhaust manifold

(4) The intake and exhaust valve timing: the valve timings are regulation of the points
in the cycle at which the valves are set to open and close. The valves are generally open
before dead center and closed after dead center. When the piston moves from TDC to
BDC during intake stroke the fresh charge drawn into the cylinder. Due to inertia effect
the fresh charges continue to drawn into the cylinder in the compression stroke also.
During compression the piston forces some of the charge to the intake manifold, which
decreases the mass of the charge and decreases the volumetric efficiency. Therefore the
inlet valve is closed earlier after TDC so that the piston could not force the charge into
intake manifold and maximum mass should be there in the cylinder.

(5) The engine speed:

For low speed engine: for low speed engine, the charge is moving into the cylinder
relatively slowly, and the inertia is relatively low. If the intake valve were to remain open

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much beyond BDC, the up moving piston during compression stroke tends to push some
of the charge toward the intake manifold, which will decrease the volumetric efficiency.
Hence the intake valve should be closed relatively early after BDC for low speed engine.
For high speed engine: at high speed engine, the charge is moving into the cylinder at
greater speed, and the charge has greater inertia. As the piston moves up during
compression, there is ram effect produced by the incoming mixture which tends to pack
more charge into the cylinder .there fore in the high speed engine the intake valve is
closing is delayed for a greater period of time after BDC in order to take more charge into
the cylinder.
For either a low speed or high speed engine there is some point at which charge per
cylinder per cycle becomes maximum. If the revolutions of low speed engine are
increased beyond this point, the intake valve will close too soon and charge per cylinder
per cycle will reduce. This will reduce the volumetric efficiency. Similarly if the speed of
high speed engine is increased beyond the maximum limit then the flow may chock and
again the charge per cylinder per cycle falls off.

Duel fuel engine, Multi fuel engine and wankel rotary engine
Dual fuel engine:
Dual-Fuel engines operate on both natural gas and diesel fuel
simultaneously. The majority of the fuel burned is natural gas and Diesel
fuel is used to ignite the mixture. This allows retention of the diesel
compression ratio and it's efficiency while burning cheap and clean natural
gas. The natural gas mixture does not ignite spontaneously under
compression, so the Dual-Fuel™ engine uses a small injection of diesel fuel,
around 10% of the total energy of the fuel, to ignite the main charge of gas
and air. This small "pilot" injection acts like a multitude of microscopic
spark-plugs, setting off clean and efficient combustion of the lean gas-air
mixture.
Natural gas burns cleaner than diesel due to its inherently low carbon
content. When Natural gas replaces 90% of the diesel through Dual-Fuel it
can reduce CO2 emissions by up to 25%, yet fuel-efficiency and power
remain equivalent to that of the original diesel engine.

Multi fuel engine

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The multifuel engine is basically a four-stroke cycle diesel engine with

the capability of operating on a wide variety of fuel oils with out
adjustment or modification. The fuel injection system is equipped with a
device called a fuel density compensator that varies the amount of fuel
to keep the power output constant regardless of the type fuel being
used. The multifuel engine uses a spherical combustion chamber that aids in
thorough fuel and air mixing.

Wankel rotary engine

Diagram :

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