Alternating Current

Sinusoids and Phasors

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the Lecture:

1. Understand the basic principle of a simple AC generator

and how an alternating EMF is generated
2. Explain the term “frequency” and Peak, RMS and Average
values of a sine wave
3. Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
4. Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
5. Apply phasors to circuit elements i.e. impedances
(resistances and reactance).
6. Develop and analyse impedance combinations.
7. Differentiate between single Phase and Three-Phase
systems
8. Explain and analyse Resonance circuits
Alternating current

• An alternating current (ac) is the electrical

current which varies periodically with time in
direction and magnitude.

• An ac circuit and ac generator, provide an

• alternating current.

• The usual circuit-diagram symbol for an ac

• source is .
3
 Alternating Current Generator

 The basic principle of an AC generator is shown in the figure, with

the coil ends are connected to two slip rings.
 As the coil sides A and B are rotated by an external force side A will
have an EMF induced first in one direction and then in the other
direction.
 As side A of the coil is permanently connected to one slip ring, this
ring will alternate from positive to negative as coil side A rotates past
the North and South pole faces. The same process applies to coil
side B. The generated output is therefore alternating ( AC ).
 The direction of the induced EMF in each coil side can be
determined by the use of Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 Generation of an Alternating EMF

A cross-section through a single loop generator

 Generation of an Alternating EMF

 As the single loop coil AB is being rotated anticlockwise about its

pivot we will consider a voltage, is being induced into this coil at
definite intervals throughout a 3600 cycle of rotation, starting at
positions 1 and 7.
 When the coil sides A and B are rotating parallel to the lines of
magnetic flux and hence not cutting any lines of magnetic flux no
EMF is being induced in them.
 As the coil AB is rotated further anticlockwise, it can be seen that
the coil is cutting magnetic flux lines and hence an EMF is induced
into it. This is illustrated in the figure 3, by positions 2 and 8. The
magnitude of this EMF is as shown at position 2 of the sine wave.

 As the coil AB is rotated further anticlockwise through positions 3

and 9, and then to positions 4 and 10 where the maximum flux is
being cut resulting in the maximum voltage being induced into the
coil as illustrated at position 4, see figure.

 As the induced EMF in the coil AB depends on the amount of flux

being cut, which itself depends on the position of the coil, then the
magnitude of the induced EMF can be represented by the coil
position.

 The resulting graph, indicates the EMF induced in the coil for one
complete revolution of the coil. The resultant waveform is called a
sine wave.
 A sine waveform consists of equal positive and
negative half cycles.
Hence the graph is sinusoidal showing the variation of the induced
EMF during one complete revolution of a coil and is termed one
cycle. A sine waveform consists of equal positive and negative half
cycles
• Generating a Sine
Wave
Common Signals (waveforms)
Common Signals (waveforms) …
 Alternating (AC) Waveforms

 The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates

between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence.
 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of
time; denoted by the lowercase letters (v1, v2).
 Peak amplitude: The maximum value of the waveform as measured
from its average (or mean) value, denoted by the uppercase letters Vm.
 Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a
periodic waveform.
 Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
 Frequency: (Hertz) the number of cycles that occur in 1 s f =1
T
 The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape
is unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C elements.
Alternations and Cycles
– Alternations – the positive
and negative transitions
– Cycle – the complete
transition through one
positive alternation and one
negative alternation •Insert Figure 9.3
– Half-Cycle – one alternation
Cycle Time (Period)
– The time required to complete one cycle of a signal

T = (4 div )⋅ 5
ms
= 20 ms
div
 Class work
Calculate T in ms Calculate T in ms
 Frequency

 If the loop is rotated at the speed of 2 revolutions each second, the

resultant EMF will complete 2 cycles each second. The number of
cycles each second is referred to as frequency.
 The symbol for frequency is (f). It is measured in cycles per second
(CPS) or more commonly Hertz (Hz). The time in which one cycle is
completed is known as the periodic time. A frequency of 50 Hz is
the standard for the supply system in Namibia.
Frequency
– the rate at which the cycles repeat themselves
– Unit of Measure – Hertz (Hz) = cycles/second

•T = 200 ms =
0.2s
f = 1/0.2 = 5 cps
= 5 Hz
• Relation between Cycle Time (Period) and Frequency

1 1
f = or T =
T f
•where T = the cycle time (period) of the waveform in seconds

•Another way to describe periodicity of the wave is through the

•angular frequency defined as
ω = 2π f
•where
• ω = angular velocity, in radians per second
• 2π = the number of radians in one cycle
• f = the number of cycles
EGR 101 per second (frequency)19
•19
• Note that [ f ] = 1 = Hz is not the
s
rad
same thing as [ω ] =
s

• What is a radian?

EGR 101 20
•20
 Frequency ...

1. Example 1: An alternating voltage waveform has a periodic time

of 5-ms. Calculate the frequency of the supply?

2. Example 2: Calculate the periodic time of a supply, which has a

frequency of 50 Hz.
 Sinusoids
 The sinusoidal wave form can be derived from the length of the vertical projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular motion about a fixed point.

Vm sin α

Vm cos α

 The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center, called the angular velocity, can be
determined from the following equation:

 The angular velocity (ω) is:

ω =α t
 Since (ω) is typically provided in radians per second, the angle α obtained using α = ωt is usually in
radians.
 The time required to complete one revolution is equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform. The
radians subtended in this time interval are 2π.

2π
=ω = or ω 2π f
T
 Sinusoids
 The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is: Vmsinα
 Vm is the peak value of the waveform and α is the unit of measure for the horizontal axis.

 The equation α = ωt states that the angle α through which the rotating vector will
pass is determined by the angular velocity of the rotating vector and the length of time
the vector rotates.
 For a particular angular velocity (fixed ω), the longer the radius vector is permitted
to rotate (that is, the greater the value of t ), the greater will be the number of degrees
or radians through which the vector will pass. The general format of a sine wave can
also be as: V sin(ωt )
m
 Sinusoids
 A SINUSOID is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
 The sinusoidal current is referred to as AC. Circuits driven by AC sources are referred to as AC Circuits.

 Sketch of Vmsinωt.

T Period

(a) As a function of ωt. (b) As a function of t .

• Vm is the AMPLITUDE of the sinusoid.

• ω is the ANGULAR FREQUENCY in radians/s.
in Hertz. ω 2=
• f is the FREQUENCY= π f and f 1 T
• T is the period in seconds.
 Instantaneous Value
– the value of a sinusoidal voltage or current at a
specified point in time can be expressed as:

v(t ) = VP sin(ωt )

•where VP is the
magnitude
•of the voltage.

•In terms of f, v(t ) = VP sin( 2πft )

 Class Work
1. An AC voltage in volts is given by
v(t ) = 240 sin(314t )

2. what is the unit of the number 240?

3. what is the unit of the number 314?
4. what is the angular frequency in rad/s?
5. what is the frequency in Hz or cps?
6. what is the period in ms?
 Class Work

• A device emits a sinusoidal signal that has a

magnitude of 0.5 volts and a frequency of 650 kHz.
v(t ) = A sin(ωt )
• what is the angular frequency in rad/s?
• what is the period in ms?
• Express this signal as (i.e. fill in the values for A and
W)
v(t ) = A sin(2πft )
• Express this signal as
•The Effective Value of an Alternating
Current (or Voltage)
•If the two bulbs light to the same brightness (that
is, they have the same power) then it is reasonable
to consider the current Iac to be (in some ways)
equivalent to the current Idc

•The simple average value of a (symmetrical) a.c.

is equal to zero
•The R.M.S. Value of an Alternating Current (or
Voltage)
•If an a.c. supply is connected to a component of
resistance R, the instantaneous power dissipated
is given by power = i2 R
•The mean (average) power is given by

•mean power = (mean value of i2) R

 I2
•The mean value of i2 is
2
•The square root of this figure indicates the
effective value of the alternating current
•r.m.s. = root mean square
•where I is the maximum (or peak) value of the a.c.

•The r.m.s. value of an a.c. supply is equal to the direct

current which would dissipate energy at the same rate in
a given resistor

•We can use the same logic to define the r.m.s. value of
the voltage of an alternating voltage supply.
 Vrms = V
√2
•where V is the maximum (or peak) value of the voltage

•We have been considering a sinusoidal variation

of current (or voltage)
•For this variation, the r.m.s. value would be equal
to the maximum value
 Root Mean Square (rms)

•LEARNING OUTCOMES :

•At the end of this lesson, students should

•be able to :
a) Define root mean square (rms), current and
voltage for AC source.
Io Vo
I rms = Vrms =
b) Use 2 , 2
 •Root mean square (rms)
•Root mean square current (Irms) is defined as the
effective value of AC. which produces the same
power (mean/average power) as the steady DC
when the current passes through the same resistor.
•the average or
mean value of
powerdc = average powerac current in a half-
cycle flows of
I R = I ave R
2 2
current in a certain
I = I 2 ave direction
= square root of the average
2Io Io
value of the current I av = = π
= I rms π () 2
 I = I 2 ave = I rms
• The r.m.s (root mean square) current means the
• square root of the average value of the current.
•Root mean square voltage/p.d (Vrms ) is defined as
the value of the steady direct voltage which when
applied across a resistor, produces the same power
as the mean (average) power produced by the
alternating voltage across the same resistor.
P = Pave
V
V 2 V 2 ave
=
R R
V=Vo sin ωt V = V 2 ave = Vrms
 I0 V0
I rms = Vrms =
2 2

•only for a sinusoidal

alternating current and voltage
2
V
• The average power, Pave = I rmsVrms = I rms
2
R = rms
R
I o Vo 1 Po
Pave = = I oVo =
2 2 2 2

• The peak power, Po = I oVo

• Most household electricity is 240 V AC which

• means that Vrms is 240 V.
 Example 1
•A sinusoidal, 50.0 Hz, ac voltage is read to be 230 V
by an ordinary voltmeter.
a) What is the maximum value the voltage takes on
• during a cycle?
• b) What is the equation for the voltage ?
VM
•a)Vrms =
2
VM = 2 × (Vrms ) = 2 × (230) = 325.27 V

•b) V = VM sin ωt
V = 325.27 sin 100πt
 Example 2
•A voltage V= 60 sin 100πt is applied across a 20 Ω
resistor.
a) What will an ac ammeter in series with the
• resistor read ?
• b) Calculate the peak current and mean power.

•a)V = Vo = 60 = 42.4V I = Vrms = 42.4 = 2.12 A

rms rms
2 2 R 20

Pav = (I rms ) R
2
•b) I0
I rms =
2 = (2.12) 2 (20) = 90 W
I o = 2 ( I rms ) = 2 (2.12) = 3.0 A
Example 3
V (Volt )

200

0 t (second)
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
•an
− 200 d

The alternating potential difference shown above

is connected across a resistor of 10 kΩ. Calculate
• a. the rms current,
• b. the frequency,
• c. the mean power dissipated in the resistor.
Solution 3
•R =10 x 10-3 Ω, •V0 = 200 V and T = 0.04 s
Vrms V0
•a) I rms = •and Vrms =
R 2
V0
I rms = I rms = 0.014 A
R 2

1
•b) f = f = 25.0 Hz
T

•c) Pav = (I rms )2 R Pav = 1.96 W

 Exercise 2

•An ac current is given as I = 50sin (200t) where the

clockwise direction of the current is positive. Find
a)The peak current
b)The current when t = 1/160 s
c) The frequency and period of the oscillation.

47
 Phase of Sinusoids
 A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT),
for all t and for all integers n.

1
=f =Hz ω 2π f
T

 Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
 If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is
not zero, they are out of phase.
 Phase of Sinusoids
 The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the relationship between two
sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency plotted on the same set of axes.
 The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90°.
 The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90°.
 90 is referred to as the phase angle between the two waveforms.
When determining the phase measurement we first note that each sinusoidal
function has the same frequency, permitting the use of either waveform to determine
the period.
 Since the full period represents a cycle of 360°, the following ratio can be formed:
 Phase of Sinusoids
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage having phase φ,=v(t ) Vm sin(ωt + φ )

 v2 LEADS v1 by phase φ.
 v1 LAGS v2 by phase φ.
 v1 and v2 are out of phase.
 (120 V at 60 Hz) versus (240 V at 50 Hz) AC
 In North, South America and Japan the most common available ac supply is 110V – 120V
at 60 Hz, while in Europe and the Eastern countries it is 220 – 230 VV at 50 Hz and
Namibia, 240 V at 50 Hz.
 Technically there is no noticeable difference between 50 and 60 cycles per second (Hz).
 The effect of frequency on the size of transformers and the role it plays in the generation
and distribution of power was also a factor.
 The fundamental equation for transformer design is that the size of the transformer is
inversely proportional to frequency.
 A 50 HZ transformer must be larger than a 60 Hz (17% larger) sinusoidal voltage having
phase φ.
 Higher frequencies result in concerns about arcing, increased losses in the transformer
core due to eddy current and hysteresis losses, and skin effect phenomena.
 Larger voltages (such as 240 V) raise safety issues beyond those of 120 V.
 Higher voltages result in lower current for the same demand, permitting the use of smaller
conductors.
 Motors and power supplies, found in common home appliances and throughout the
industrial community, can be smaller in size if supplied with a higher voltage.
Figure shows a pair of waveforms v1
and v2 on an oscilloscope. Each
major vertical division represents 20
V and each major
division on the horizontal (time) scale
represents 20 ms. Voltage v1 leads.
Prepare a phasor diagram using v1
as reference. Determine equations
for both voltages.
EXAMPLE
Voltage and current are out of phase by 40°, and voltage lags. Using current
as the reference, sketch the phasor diagram and the corresponding
waveforms.
 Review of Trigonometric Identities
Graphically relating sine
and cosine functions.
 Sine and cosine form conversions.

=
sin( A ± B ) sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos( A ± B ) =
cos A cos B  sin A sin B

sin(ωt ± 180°) =− sin ωt

cos(ωt − 90°) =sin ωt
cos(ωt ± 180°) =− cos ωt
sin(ωt ± 90°) =± cos ωt
cos(ωt ± 90°) = sin ωt

A cos ωt + B sin ωt = C cos(ωt − θ )

Where
B
C= A 2 + B 2 and θ =tan -1
A sin(ωt + 180°) =− sin ωt
 Complex Numbers and Phasors
• Objectives:
 Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
 Apply phasors to circuit elements.
 Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
 Learn about impedance combinations.
 Apply what is learnt to examples of AC circuits.
 •Complex Numbers
 A complex number may be written in RECTANGULAR FORM as:

RECTANGULAR FORM
z = x+ jy j= -1, x=Re ( z ) , y=Im(z)
 A second way of representing the complex number is by specifying the
MAGNITUDE and r and the ANGLE θ in POLAR form.
POLAR FORM
z = x+ jy= z ∠θ =r ∠θ
 The third way of representing the complex number is the EXPONENTIAL form.
EXPONENTIAL FORM
z = x+ jy= z ∠θ =re jθ
• x is the REAL part.
• y is the IMAGINARY part.
• r is the MAGNITUDE.
• φ is the ANGLE.
 •Complex Numbers
 A complex number may be written in RECTANGULAR FORM as:
z = x+ jy j= -1 RECTANGULAR FORM
x r= cos θ y r sin θ

z= r ∠φ POLAR FORM
y
=r x2 + y 2 θ =tan -1
x

z= re jφ EXPONENTIAL FORM
y
=r x2 + y 2 θ =tan -1
x

z = x + jy= r ∠φ = re jφ

e jφ =cosφ +jsinφ Euler's Identity

cosφ = Re {e jφ } Real part
sinφ = Im {e jφ } Imaginary part
 •Complex Number Conversions
 We need to convert COMPLEX numbers from one form to the other form.

z = x + jy = r ∠φ = re − jφ =r (cosφ + j sin φ )

z = x + jy = r ∠φ = re − jφ =r (cosφ + j sin φ )
y
r = x 2 + y 2 , φ =tan −1 Rectangular to Polar
x
=x r= cosφ , y r sin φ Polar to Rectangular
•Mathematical Operations of Complex
Numbers
 Mathematical operations on complex numbers may require conversions from one
form to other form.
ADDITION: z1 + z 2 =(x1 + x 2 )+j(y1 + y 2 )
SUBTRACTION: z1 - z 2 =(x1 -x 2 )+j(y1 - y 2 )

MULTIPLICATION: z1z 2 = r1 r2 ∠φ1 +φ2

z1 r1
DIVISION: = ∠φ1 -φ2
z 2 r2

1 1
RECIPROCAL: = ∠-φ
z r
SQUARE ROOT: z = r ∠ φ
2

COMPLEX CONJUGATE: z∗ = x − jy= r ∠ − φ= re − jφ

 •Phasors
 A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
 Phasor is the mathematical equivalent of a sinusoid with time variable dropped.
 Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.

e ± jφ =cosφ ± jsinφ Euler's Identity

cosφ = Re {e jφ } Real part
sinφ = Im {e jφ } Imaginary part

 Given a sinusoid v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+φ).

ωt +φ )
v(t ) Vm cos(ω=
= t + φ ) Re(Vm e j (= ) Re(Vm e jφ=
e jωt ) Re(Ve jωt )
V = Vm e jφ = Vm ∠φ = PHASOR REP.
v(t ) Vm cos(ωt + φ ) ⇔
= = V Vm ∠φ
(Time Domain Re pr.) (Phasor Domain Re presentation)
v(t ) = Re{Ve jωt } (Converting Phasor back to time)
 •Phasors
 Given the sinusoids i(t)=Imcos(ωt+φI) and v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+ φV) we can obtain the
phasor forms as:
 •Phasors
 Amplitude and phase difference are two principal
concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids.

 Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our

proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in
the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by
subtracting from the phase.
• Example
• Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
– i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
– v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V
Solution:
a. I = 6∠ − 40° A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V = 4∠140° V
 •Phasors
• Example 5:
• Transform the sinusoids corresponding to
phasors:
a) V = − 10∠30° V
b) I = j(5 − j12) A

Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(ωt + 210o) V
5
b) Since I = 12 + j5 = 12 2 + 52 ∠ tan −1 ( ) = 13∠ 22.62°
12
• i(t) = 13cos(ωt + 22.62o) A
 •Phasor as Rotating Vectors

v(t ) Vm cos(ωt + θ )
v(t ) = Re Vm e( jωt +θ ) 
v(t )= Re [Vm ∠( jωt + θ ) ]
Rotating Phasor
 The SINOR jωt
•Phasor Diagrams
Ve
Rotates on a circle of radius Vm at an angular velocity of ω in the counterclockwise
direction
 •Phasor Diagrams
Time Domain Re presentation Phasor Domain Re p.
Vm cos(ωt + φ ) Vm ∠φ
Vm sin(ωt + φ ) Vm ∠φ − 90°
I m cos(ωt + θ ) I m ∠θ
I m sin(ωt + θ ) I m ∠θ − 90°
•Time Domain Versus Phasor Domain
•Differentiation and Integration in Phasor Domain
 Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to multiplying its corresponding phasor by jω.
= v(t ) Vm cos(ωt= + θ ) Re  Ve jωt 
dv(t )
=−ωVm sin(ωt + θ ) =−ωVm cos(ωt + θ + 90°)
dt
dv
= Re  jω Ve jωt  ⇔ JωV
dt
 Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its corresponding phasor by jω.
(Time Domain) (Phasor Domain)
Vm cos(ωt + φ )
v(t ) = ⇔ Vm ∠φ
V=
v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + φ ) ⇔ V = Vm ∠φ − 90°
dv
⇔ JωV
dt
V
∫ vdt ⇔
Jω
Phase shift
Complex Numbers (Amplitude
& Phase shift)
Complex vector addition
Polar notation
Rectangular notation
Example: Convert from
Polar to Rectangular
Example: Convert from
Rectangular to Polar