LEDs

Light Emitting Diodes

Seriously, what’s all
this fuss about LEDs?
Since humans first interacted with a
light source, many discoveries and
technologies have been made.
For a very long time, traditional light
sources have balanced their presence
in our lives.
However, in recent times, it seems
that people do not talk about anything
but LEDs.
Why?
Short list of the main steps in (electrical) Light sources
▪ 1802: Sir Humphry Davy used a battery to let electricity pass through a filament of platinum,
which, when it burned, produced light. Plausibly, this can be considered the first incandescent
lamp in history.

▪ 1856: Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Geissler (a skilled glassblower) invented the Geissler tube, a
glass tube that contained a gas that generated an electrical glow discharge. In the beginning,
the device was only for entertainment, but in 1910, it opened the path to neon lighting.

▪ 1867: Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel demonstrates the first fluorescent lamp.

▪ After Sir Davy's experiment, many scientists threw themselves headlong into a race to develop
an incandescent light source that could enter people's homes (and be sold). Two of the most
important, in 1879 (simultaneously) patented lamps were Joseph Swan and Thomas Alva
Edison. Their commercial companies even merged to take full advantage of the technologies of
the two patents.

▪ 1894: Daniel McFarlane Moore creates the Moore tube, a precursor of electric gas-discharge
lamps.

▪ 1901: Peter Cooper Hewitt creates the first commercial mercury-vapour lamp.

▪ 1912: Charles Proteus Steinmetz invents the metal-halide lamp.

▪ 1920: Arthur Holly Compton invents the sodium-vapour lamp.

Short list of the main steps in (electrical) Light sources
▪ 1927: Oleg Losev creates the first LED (patented as “Light relay”).
▪ 1953: Elmer Fridrich invents the halogen light bulb.
▪ 1960: Theodore Harold Maiman invents the first laser.
▪ 1962: Nick Holonyak Jr. develops the first red LED.
▪ 1972: M. George Craford develops the first yellow LED.
▪ 1972: Herbert Paul Maruska and Jacques Pankove develop the first violet light-
emitting diode.
▪ 1981: Philips sells start the production of Compact Fluorescent Energy Saving
Lamps with integrated ballast.
▪ 1987: Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak create the first
organic light-emitting diode (OLED).
▪ 1995: Shuji Nakamura invents the first practical blue LED and, with additional
phosphor, the white LED. (LED Revolution – Nobel Prize).
And so it began
It took a few years of adjustment, and
the market had to decide where to go.
Leaving some sources (still viable)
was certainly not an easy choice, but
LEDs' potential was undeniable.
Around 2007, the time came.
How does it work?

With the appropriate simplifications…

 Electroluminescence
The physical principle on which the operation of LEDs is based is known as electroluminescence, an electro-optical
phenomenon for which a material emits light if it is crossed by an electric current or subjected to a strong electric field.
The phenomenon may happen after spontaneous electron-hole recombination.

Hole (positive charge)

a) Radiative recombination b) Non radiative recombination

Electron (negative charge)

 Conductivity of materials
From an electrical point of view, materials can be divided into conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

▪ The family of conductors include metals in which electrons can move freely even with the thermal energy received being at room temperature.

▪ At the opposite extreme are the insulating materials, which prevent their electrons from moving freely even when subjected to high energy levels.

▪ Between the two categories above, there is a third type of materials, namely semiconductors. These have the peculiarity of allowing full conduction only once a
minimum energy level has been exceeded. Below this level, they behave as insulators, while above, as conductors.

To better understand this phenomenon, we need to introduce the concept of energy bands. Usually, the electrons bound to their atoms in the material's crystalline structure
have lower energy values than the free electrons moving in the material. We speak of the valence band in the case of electrons bound to the crystal lattice, while we
speak of the conduction band in the case of free electrons.

Then there is a third zone called the Forbidden Gap. This area is the range of energy values that the electron cannot assume. This area's amplitude (gap energy -Eg)
depends on the energy difference between the conduction band's minimum value and the valence band's maximum value
 The PN – Junction
The heart of the LEDs is called PN-Junction and is composed of two parts made of the same semiconductor material, one of which (P-
layer, anode) has been treated to be rich in positive charges (holes) and the other (N-layer, cathode) rich in negative charges
(electrons). This treatment is achieved through a process called doping.
At the point of contact between the two parts, an energetic barrier is created, called the junction or depletion region (characterised by
the presence of positive or negative ions), which prevents the movement of charges from one side to the other and, consequently, the
recombination electron-hole. A voltage value (in Volts) characterises the junction called the diffusion voltage.

ions

-
+
+ -
- +
+ +
- +
-
- + +
- +
+ -
+
+
-
-
- +
 The PN – Junction
Let's give current to the system, adding a positive terminal to the anode, and a negative terminal to the
cathode. The result of this connection is a forward bias, which pushes the HOLES in the P-region and the
ELECTRONS in the N-region toward the junction.

-
+
+ -
- +
+ +
- +
-
- + +
- +
+ -
+
+
-
-
- +

+ -
 The PN – Junction
That is, the positive charge applied to the P-layer repels the HOLES, whereas the negative charge applied
to the N-layer repels the ELECTRONS. The net effect of the positive and negative terminal connections is
to push the electrons and holes toward the p-n junction.

-
+
+
- +-
++
-+
+-
- +-
+++ -
+-
-
-+

+ -
 The PN – Junction
The result is that the width of the depletion region is reduced to a point in which is so thin that charge
carriers in the form of ELECTRONS can tunnel across the barrier by increasing the forward bias voltage.
Thus, ELECTRONS begin to enter the P-layer and combine with HOLES.

+ -
 The PN – Junction
When an ELECTRON crosses the barrier and meets a HOLE, it falls into a lower energy level and
releases energy in the form of a PHOTON (recombination). The PHOTON is a carrier of electromagnetic
radiation of all wavelengths. The effect is called Electroluminescence.

+ -
 TJ – Junction Temperature
The temperature of the Junction is crucial in LEDs. It affects:
▪ Light flux emitted
▪ Stability of the CCT (Correlated Colour Temperature)
▪ LED life
▪ Degradation of the encapsulated components

+ -
 Semiconductors
The amount of photons released during the recombination
determine the frequency of the radiation (and so the colour of
light). Another important factor is the material of which the
semiconductor is made; these can affect colour, amount of light
emitted and general performances.

The semiconductors mainly used in LED lighting are AlInGaP

and InGaN.

▪ AlInGaP (Indium and Aluminum Gallium Phosphide): Deep

Red, Red, Orange, Amber, Yellow-green

▪ InGaN (Indium Gallium Nitride): UV, Blue (Royal blue, Dental),

Green and (with the due conversion) White.

InGaN crystal
 White Light

▪ There are no semiconductors that give white light directly. White light can be achieved
through various methods:
 White Light - Conversion
▪ Of the two system to achieve white light, the more interesting one is probably the conversion.

The LED chip emits blue or UV light, and a layer of phosphor is placed in front of him. The radiation emitted can be
either be converted in another set of wavelength (in relation of the composition of the phosphors) or passing through the
layer as blue (or UV) light. The result is that the final spectrum of the converted light will have a peak of emission in the
blue wavelength and then a hill on the other colours in relation of the specific composition of the phosphor. This
composition can also contribute to CCT and CRI.
White Light - Conversion

Different example of application of conversion (different phosphor mix)

 White Light - CCT: Planckian locus

▪ By varying the temperature of an ideal

black body from 1.000K to 20.000K
the emitted spectrum (white) vary as
well.
▪ This change can be represented as a
curve on the chromaticity diagram x,y
called Planckian locus.
▪ LED Light sources can usually span
from 2700K (warm white) up to 6500K
(cold white).
▪ High CCT LEDs are usually more
efficient than warm LEDs.
Luminous Efficacy
Luminous efficacy is a measure of how
well a light source produces visible light.
It is the ratio of luminous flux to power,
measured in lumens per watt in the
International System of Units (SI).
The lowest efficacy is usually considered
the one of the candle (0.3 lm/W).
The lowest electrical light source efficacy
is the one of the old incandescence
lamps (more or less 8 lm/W)
The highest ideal efficacy is given by a
monochromatic light source with 555 nm
of wavelength (683 lm/W).
The highest electrical light source efficacy
is the one of the LED (over 160 lm/W).
 LED families
From the iconic pin shaped LED to
COB LEDs.
There are many variety of Solid State
Lights (SSL), aka LEDs, with various
characteristics, and field of
applications.

Low-Power
LOW POWER
 LOW POWER

▪ Power absorbed by each LED usually under 0,2 W (way under 10 lm).
No need for thermal dissipation unless supercharged (increased cost / reduced life).
LOW POWER
LOW POWER
LOW POWER
LOW POWER
LOW POWER
LOW POWER
Schematic representation of the main components of an hypotetic packaged LED.
1 - LED chip, 2 - Primary optic (silicon), 3 - Bond wire, 4 - Anode lead frame, 5 - Cathode lead frame, 6 - Package, 7 - Solder pad, 8 -
Die attach (reflective, usually in silver), 9 - Thermal pad (Slug), 10 - Dielectric insulator, 11 - Printed Circuit Board (PCB), 12 - Thermal
Interface Material (TIM), 13 - Heat sink (generally in aluminium, or for specific applications in copper)

NOTE - The presence or absence of the elements depends on the type of LED.
MID POWER
 MID POWER

Mid-Power

Power range 0,25 - 1 W

Maximum efficacy 225 lm/W

Luminous flux up to 40 lm

Color Rendering Index 70 - 95

Presence of primary optics No

Type of package Plastic

Package Size from 2,4 x 2,4 mm to 5,6 x 3 mm

Presence of thermal pad (slug) No

MID POWER
MID POWER
MID POWER
MID POWER
HIGH POWER
 HIGH POWER
▪ Power absorbed by the LED usually between 1 and 10 W (roughly: 50-1000 lm)
 HIGH POWER

High-Power
Power range 1-9W
Maximum efficacy 180 lm/W
Luminous flux up to 515 lm
Color Rendering Index 70 - 90
Presence of primary optics Yes / No
Type of package Ceramic / Aluminium
Package Size from 2 x 2 mm to 5 x 5 mm

Presence of thermal pad (slug) Yes

MULTICHIP
 MULTICHIP
High-Power multichip
Power range 4 - 30 W
Maximum efficacy 170 lm/W
Luminous flux up to 3100 lm
Color Rendering Index 70 - 90
Presence of primary optics Yes / No
Type of package Ceramic
Package Size from 3.5 x 3.5 mm to 7 x 7 mm

Presence of thermal pad (slug) Yes

Lumileds Cree Nichia Osram

COB
 COB – Chip On Board (integrated array)
Chip On Board

Power range 4 - 400 W

Maximum efficacy 160 lm/W

Luminous flux up to 4900 lm

Color Rendering Index 70 - 99

Presence of primary optics No

Type of package Ceramic / Aluminium (PCB)

Package Size from 10 x 10 mm to 40 x 40 mm

Presence of thermal pad (slug) Not applicable (dissipation through PCB)

COBs with «crisp»
technology
 COB with «crisp» technology

▪ Some COBS (but also some modules) work on the activation of fluorescent whitening agents
of paint and fabric whitening agents:
▪ optical brightening agents (OBAs)
▪ fluorescent brightening agents (FBAs)
▪ fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs)
▪ These are chemical compounds (present in many substances from fabric to plastic, etc.) that
absorb light in the ultraviolet and violet region (340-370nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum
and re-emit light in the blue region (420-470nm).
COB with «crisp» technology
Quality of light
We already saw that by pushing some
wavelength more than others, we can
“cheat” the perception of certain
materials.
But there are some parameters to
evaluate the effective quality of light?
 They have the same value but they are different…

▪ Let’s take two LED light sources that seem to be identical, but if we look at them they are noticeably
different.
 They have the same value but they are different…

▪ If we measure the light with an appropriate instrument (a spectra-radiometer), we can see that while
CRI, CCT, and even the spectrum are nearly identical, one value looks different.

▪ This value is the Duv, which measures how much the light strays from the Planckian locus.
 The Planckian locus and the isotherms

▪ Along the curve of the Planckian locus, it is possible to draw straight lines in correspondence with the
CCT. These lines are called isotherms. Along these isotherms, it is possible to evaluate the Duv.
 Color consistency

▪ If you buy a stock of LEDs it is not said that all of them are perfectly identical. For sure quality helps, but
in the end, it might happen to finish in situations like these:

▪ Same type of LED, same producer, same model, but dramatically different results.
 Perceptual disuniformity of the CIE diagram
MacAdam’s ellipses
▪ There are regions of the chromaticity diagram in which the visual system does not distinguish color
differences. Within each ellipse we do not see colour differences.

On the left, the McAdam ellipses are shown on the CIE chromaticity diagram of 1931. On the right is an enlarged ellipse. The steps of
difference are always referred to as the central target. For example, point A is one step from the target but two steps from B. In practice, the
points on an eclipse (e.g., C and D) are three steps from the target but not between them.
Thank you!