History

The Mughal Empire

 Introduction
With the eventual collapse Of the Gupta Empire in the sixth century, the classic age of Ancient India
came to an end and North India got fragmented into smaller kingdoms. It was towards the end of ninth
century that the Rajputs became an influential force in the culture and politics Of India. The Mughal
rulers valued India's rich heritage and its sophisticated textile culture.

The Six greatest Mughal emperors Of this empire were Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan
and Aurangzeb. In 1526, Babur founded the Mughal Empire. His grandson, Akbar reigned from 1556-
1605 and expanded the empire.

 Sources:
The main sources of information about the Michael are:

1. Ain-i-Akbari:
Ain-i-Akbari is a detailed document that forms part of the Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazl, the court
historian of Emperor Akbar. It provides an account of the administration, culture, and economy of the
Mughal Empire under Akbar’s rule.

The Ain-i-Akbari is the third volume of the Akbarnama and consists of five books, detailing various
aspects of Akbar’s empire.

The Court of Akbar, an illustration from a manuscript of the Akbarnama.

1. First Book: Describes the imperial household, including the rules and regulations governing the court,
royal guards, and the emperor’s personal attendants.

2. Second Book: Focuses on the military, including the organization of the army, the ranks of officers,
and the system of land grants (jagir).

3. Third Book: Contains information on the administration, including revenue systems, taxation, and the
distribution of land among the nobility.

4. Fourth Book: Describes the culture, including Hindu and Muslim festivals, beliefs, customs, and
scientific knowledge during Akbar’s reign.

5. Fifth Book: Offers biographical sketches of notable figures in Akbar’s court and the intellectual
achievements of the time.

Significance:
  The Ain-i-Akbari provides valuable insights into the political, economic, and cultural life of the
Mughal Empire.
 It is a significant historical source for understanding Akbar’s governance and his emphasis on
administrative efficiency and cultural tolerance.

2. The Taj Mahal [Agra]:

The Taj Mahal was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal,
is located in Agra, India. It was designed by Israel Issac Khan. Construction began in 1632 and took
around 22 years to complete, with over 20,000 workers contributing to the project. The Taj Mahal is an
iconic symbol of love and one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture, blending elements from
Islamic, Persian, Ottoman, and Indian architectural styles.

The structure is made primarily of white marble, adorned with intricate carvings, inlaid with precious
and semi-precious stones such as jade, crystal, turquoise, and lapis lazuli. Its central feature is a large,
white marble dome surrounded by four minarets, while the complex also includes a mosque, guest
house, and vast gardens laid out in the classic Persian Charbagh (fourfold garden) style.

The Taj Mahal is not only admired for its architectural beauty but also for its perfect symmetry and
balance. It is considered a masterpiece of world heritage and draws millions of visitors annually from
around the globe.

The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and was declared as one of the
Seven Wonders of the World in 2007.

3. The Jama Masjid:

The Jama Masjid, located in Delhi, India, is one of the largest and most famous mosques in India. It was
built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan between 1650 and 1656. The mosque features stunning Mughal
architecture, with a large courtyard that can accommodate over 25,000 worshippers.

The Jama Masjid is an architectural marvel with three grand marble domes, two towering minarets
standing at 40 meters, and a vast central courtyard. Constructed with red sandstone and white marble,
the mosque has three large domes, two towering minarets, and an impressive prayer hall. The Jama
Masjid is not only a place of worship but also a historic monument, reflecting the grandeur of Mughal
architecture.

4. The Red Fort [Delhi]:

The Red Fort, located in Delhi, India, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a symbol of India’s rich
history. Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in 1648, it served as the main residence of Mughal
emperors for around 200 years. Constructed with red sandstone, the fort exhibits stunning Mughal
architecture, with features like the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience), Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private
Audience), and beautiful gardens.

The Red Fort also played a significant role in India’s independence, as the Prime Minister hoists the
national flag here every Independence Day [August 15]. Its architecture reflects a blend of Persian,
Timurid, and Indian styles, showcasing the grandeur of the Mughal Empire.
  Mughal Dynasty
Babur:
Babur , full name Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (14 February 1483 – 26 December 1530) was the
founder of the Mughal Empire in South Asia. He was the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, governor of
Farghana. He fought and won in the first battle of Panipat.

He was the fifth-generation descendant of the Turkic conqueror Timur, the empire built in the 14th
century covering almost the entire Central Asia and Iran. A military adventurer, great politician, poet,
and brave soldier, the magnetic leadership of Babur inspired multiple generations of the Mughal dynasty
even after his death.

After defeating Ibrahim Lodi (emperor of Delhi Sultanate) at the First battle of Panipat in April 1526 CE, a
new empire, the Mughal, was established in place of the Delhi Sultanate.

Babur, the first Mughal emperor, made Agra his capital and set about ruling Northern India but was
stiffly opposed by the Hindu Rajput princess.

Babur extended his domain in 1527 when, fighting with an outnumbered army, he defeated Rana Sanga
in the Battle of Khanwa, who led an army formed by a confederacy of Indian kingdoms. In 1529 Babur
subdued the last major resistance in northern India.

Babur’s prose memoirs, the Babur-nameh, were translated from Turki into Persian (1589) during Akbar’s
reign and later into English as Memoirs of Babur (1921–22). His poems and diaries show him to be a man
of wit, generosity, and culture. Babur died in Agra, India, on December 26, 1530.

Akbar
He was thc greatest of Mughal rulers of India. He was only thirteen years old when he ascended the
throne and was guided by his tutor, Bairam Khan. Akbar succeeded to a difficult position and had to
virtually reconquer his empire. The Afghans were regrouping their forces under the leadership of Hemu,
the Wazir of Adil Shah, for a final showdown with the Mughals. In the Second Battle of Panipat, the
Mughal forces led by Bairam Khan defeated Hemu. After having established himself in Delhi and Agra,
Akbar captured Malwa and Gondwana, Bengal, Gujarat, Kashmir and Kabul. He ventured beyond the
Vindhyas in Deccan and after a stiff resistance, defeated many local rulers. Finally Ahmadnagar, Berar
and Khandesh were annexed to the Mughal empire. He also subdued the Rajput princes, except Mewar.
As a result, the famous Battle of Haldighati was fought in 1576 between Maharana Pratap, the ruler of
Mewar and the Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh. Maharana Pratap fought with matchless courage
but had to escape from the battlefield when he was heavily wounded.

Akbar died in 1605. By the time Akbar died, his authority had extended from Assam in the east to the
areas beyond the north-western frontier, i.e., Kabul and Kandahar in the west. In the Deccan his
dominions included Ahmadnagar, Khandesh and Berar. The Kingdoms of Multan, Sindh, Gujarat, Kashmir
and Bengal ceased to exist.

Akbar's Rajput Policy:

Akbar's Rajput Policy (1556-1605) was aimed to integrate the Rajput states into the Mughal Empire
while ensuring stability and loyalty. Here are the key elements of this policy:

1. Marriage Alliances: Akbar strategically married Rajput princesses, notably his marriage to Mariam-uz-
Zamani, a Rajput princess, which helped foster goodwill and strengthen ties with Rajput clans.

2. Diplomacy and Respect: Akbar adopted a policy of respect and diplomacy toward the Rajputs. He
recognized their importance in the social and political landscape of India, treating them as equals rather
than subordinates.

3. Inclusion in Administration: Akbar appointed many Rajputs to high positions in his administration and
military. This not only enhanced their loyalty but also facilitated the integration of their martial skills into
the Mughal army.

4. Religious Tolerance: Akbar's policy of religious tolerance, including the abolition of the jizya tax on
non-Muslims and the promotion of the Din-i Ilahi, helped to win the hearts of the Rajput rulers and their
subjects, fostering a sense of unity.

5. Military Campaigns: While Akbar preferred diplomacy, he also engaged in military campaigns against
rebellious Rajput states when necessary. However, he often sought to negotiate terms that would lead
to peaceful coexistence rather than outright conquest.

Overall, Akbar’s Rajput policy successfully integrated the Rajputs into the Mughal Empire, creating a
sense of shared identity and cooperation that contributed to the empire’s stability and prosperity.

Steps Towards Integration:

Akbar the Great, one of the most influential rulers of the Mughal Empire, took significant steps toward
integration of diverse religious, cultural, and ethnic groups within his realm. His policies and reforms
were aimed at creating a cohesive and unified empire. Here are some key steps he took towards
integration:

1. Religious Tolerance: Akbar promoted religious tolerance through his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and sought to create an atmosphere where different
faiths could coexist peacefully. His court welcomed scholars from various religions, fostering interfaith
dialogues.

2. Din-i Ilahi: In 1582, Akbar introduced a syncretic religion known as Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God), which
aimed to blend the best elements of various faiths, including Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, and
Christianity. This was an attempt to promote a common identity among his subjects.

3. Marriage Alliances: To strengthen ties with influential Rajput clans and other regional powers, Akbar
arranged marriages with Rajput princesses. These alliances helped to secure loyalty and establish
peaceful relationships with powerful Rajput states.

4. Inclusion in Administration: Akbar included members of various communities, particularly Rajputs, in

his administration and military. By appointing them to high positions, he ensured their loyalty and
participation in governance, thereby integrating them into the Mughal power structure.
5. Cultural Integration: Akbar encouraged the flourishing of a composite culture by promoting arts,
literature, and architecture that blended Indian and Persian influences. He established a new style of
Mughal painting and supported literary works in various languages, including Persian, Hindi, and Urdu.

6. Promotion of Local Languages: Akbar recognized the importance of local languages and encouraged
the use of Hindi and other regional languages in administration and literature. This helped to make
governance more accessible and relatable to the common people.

7. Administrative Reforms: Akbar implemented a centralized administration with a bureaucratic system

that included local leaders from diverse backgrounds. This ensured effective governance and
representation of various groups in the empire.

8. Land Revenue System: The introduction of the Zabt system, which assessed land revenue based on
productivity rather than arbitrary measures, helped to integrate agricultural communities into the
Mughal economy. This policy encouraged agricultural development and increased revenue for the
empire.

Through these steps, Akbar not only strengthened the Mughal Empire but also laid the foundation for a
diverse and harmonious society, making him one of the most revered rulers in Indian history.

Social and Educational reforms

Akbar, the Mughal emperor who ruled from 1556 to 1605, is often regarded as one of the most
enlightened rulers in Indian history. His social and educational reforms significantly influenced the
culture and society of the Mughal Empire. Here are some of his key contributions:

Social Reforms

1. Religious Tolerance:

- Akbar promoted the idea of Sulh-e-Kul, or "peace to all," which encouraged tolerance among
different religions. He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and invited scholars from various faiths to
discuss religious matters.

2. Din-i Ilahi:

- In 1582, he founded a new religious movement called Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God), which aimed to
blend the best elements of various religions, promoting unity and understanding among different
communities.

3. Marriage Reforms:

- Akbar discouraged child marriages and promoted the marriage of widows, allowing for a more
progressive approach to women's rights in his time.

4. Status of Women:

- He worked to improve the status of women by prohibiting practices like **sati** (the burning of
widows) and encouraging their education.

5. Caste System:
 - Akbar's policies aimed to reduce the rigidity of the caste system, promoting a sense of equality
among his subjects.

Educational Reforms

1. Promotion of Education:

Akbar established madrasas(educational institutions) throughout his empire, encouraging education

for both boys and girls, regardless of their social status.

2. Language and Literature:

He recognized the importance of language in education. Akbar commissioned translations of

important texts and encouraged the use of Persian and Hindi as languages of administration and culture.

3. Encouragement of Arts and Culture:

Under his reign, the arts flourished, and he supported poets, painters, and scholars. The Akbarnama, a
historical account of his reign, was written during this time, promoting the cultural legacy of the
Mughals.

4. Library Establishment:

Akbar established a large library at his court, containing works in various languages, promoting a
culture of reading and scholarship.

Akbar's social and educational reforms laid the foundation for a more inclusive and culturally rich society
in the Mughal Empire. His emphasis on tolerance, education, and cultural exchange contributed to a
legacy that resonated through Indian history, fostering an environment of relative harmony and
intellectual advancement during his reign.

Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor, ruled from 1658 to 1707 and is known for expanding the Mughal
Empire to its greatest territorial extent, including regions in South and Central India. However, his reign
is often marked by controversy due to his orthodox Islamic policies. He reintroduced the jizya tax on
non-Muslims, which had been abolished by his predecessor Akbar, and ordered the destruction of
several Hindu temples. These actions fueled communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims,
significantly affecting the socio-religious dynamics of the time.

In terms of administration, Aurangzeb implemented a centralized system, emphasizing the emperor's

power and maintaining control over the vast empire through a network of loyal governors. While he
focused on revenue collection and was known for his frugality, his harsh taxation practices often led to
discontent among the populace. Although his court continued to support the arts, Aurangzeb's cultural
patronage was less prominent compared to previous emperors, as he favored a more conservative
approach.

The later years of Aurangzeb's reign were characterized by significant challenges, particularly from the
rising dissent of the Marathas, led by figures like Shivaji. These conflicts drained the empire’s resources
and weakened Mughal authority, contributing to its decline. Aurangzeb's death in 1707 marked the
beginning of a rapid disintegration of Mughal power, paving the way for British colonial influence in
India. His legacy remains a topic of debate among historians, reflecting the complexities of his rule and
its lasting impact on Indian society.

 Administrative System of the Mughals

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) is known for its rich culture and monumental architecture. Founded by
Babur, it peaked under Akbar and Shah Jahan. Its centralized administration included provincial
divisions, efficient taxation, and a strong military, alongside policies of religious tolerance and cultural
patronage, significantly influencing Indian history.

Monarch:
In the Mughal administrative system, the monarch, or emperor, held supreme authority and played a
vital role in governance. As the absolute ruler, the emperor made final decisions on military, economic,
and administrative matters, ensuring that provincial and local officials operated under his directives. This
centralization of power allowed the emperor to maintain control over the vast empire.

The emperor served as the commander-in-chief of the military, leading campaigns and overseeing the
loyalty of mansabdars (military officials) responsible for commanding troops. He also had judicial
authority, acting as the highest judge and ensuring justice was administered according to Islamic law.
Additionally, the emperor promoted religious policies that influenced the empire’s socio-religious
landscape, ranging from tolerance during Akbar's reign to stricter practices under Aurangzeb.

Cultural patronage was a key aspect of Mughal rule, with emperors commissioning grand architectural
projects and supporting the arts. While the emperor maintained ultimate authority, he delegated
powers to officials like nawabs (provincial governors) and diwans (finance ministers) for efficient
administration. Overall, the Mughal monarch was a multifaceted leader whose central role significantly
shaped the empire's history and legacy.

Ministers:
In the Mughal administrative system, ministers played vital roles in assisting the emperor with
governance.

1. Diwan (Finance Minister): Responsible for managing the empire's finances, including revenue
collection and budget allocation, ensuring economic stability.

2. Wazir (Chief Minister): The primary advisor to the emperor, overseeing overall administration and
implementing policies across various departments.

3. Subahdar (Provincial Governor): Governed provinces (subahs), maintained law and order, collected
taxes, and executed the emperor's directives at the regional level.

4. Mir Bakshi (Military Minister): Managed military affairs, including recruitment, resource allocation,
and maintaining records of the mansabdars.

5. Qazi (Judicial Officer): Administered justice according to Islamic law, handling legal disputes and
ensuring the law was upheld.
These ministers formed a crucial bureaucratic structure that facilitated effective governance, allowing
the Mughal emperor to focus on higher-level decision-making and policy development.

Judiciary
The judiciary in the Mughal administrative system was vital for maintaining law and order. The emperor
served as the highest judicial authority, with final decisions on legal matters. Local judges, known as
Qazis, adjudicated civil and criminal cases based on Islamic law (Sharia) and local customs.

The judicial system had a hierarchical structure, with Qazis handling minor disputes in local courts and
higher courts addressing serious cases. The Wazir (chief minister) oversaw legal matters and ensured the
emperor's directives were implemented. Additionally, Qazis also played a role in revenue collection,
integrating legal and administrative functions. Overall, the judiciary contributed significantly to
upholding justice and stability in the Mughal Empire.

Provincial Government
The provincial government in the Mughal administrative system was essential for managing the vast
empire. The empire was divided into provinces called subahs, each governed by a Subahdar appointed
by the emperor. The Subahdar acted as the emperor's representative, overseeing military,
administrative, and revenue matters.

Each subah was divided into sarkars (districts) and parganas (smaller units) for efficient local
governance. The Subahdar was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and leading
local military forces. He worked alongside amils (revenue officials) and local Qazis (judges) to ensure
justice and effective administration.

Overall, the provincial government was crucial for maintaining stability and governance throughout the
Mughal Empire.

Mansabdari System
The Mansabdari system was a key feature of the Mughal administrative system, serving as a framework
for the military and civil administration of the empire. Here are its main characteristics:

The term "mansab" refers to a rank or position. The Mansabdari system organized the nobility and
military officials based on ranks, determining their status, responsibilities, and the number of soldiers
they were required to maintain.

1. Rank Structure:

- Officials were assigned a mansab, which could range from 10 to 10,000, indicating the number of
troops they were responsible for. Higher ranks came with greater prestige, power, and financial
remuneration.

2. Appointment and Loyalty:

- Mansabdars were appointed by the emperor and were expected to remain loyal to him. This system
helped ensure a direct connection between the ruler and the military commanders, fostering loyalty and
reducing the power of regional nobles.
3. Dual Role:

- Mansabdars served both military and administrative functions. In times of peace, they managed
administrative duties, while during war, they led their troops into battle, making them integral to both
governance and defense.

4. Pay and Benefits:

- Mansabdars received salaries and grants of land (known as jagirs) as compensation for their service.
The revenue generated from these jagirs was used to support the soldiers under their command.

5. Cohesion and Control:

- The system allowed the Mughal emperors to maintain control over a vast empire by creating a loyal
and organized military structure. It helped integrate various ethnic and regional groups into the imperial
administration.

The Mansabdari system was a crucial aspect of the Mughal Empire’s governance, providing a structured
military and administrative hierarchy. By linking rank with military service and loyalty to the emperor,
this system enhanced the effectiveness of the Mughal administration and contributed to the stability of
the empire.

Land Revenue System

The land revenue system in the Mughal administrative framework was vital for the empire’s economy,
as agriculture was its primary source of income. Here are its main features:

1. Revenue Sources:

- The system primarily collected taxes from farmers based on agricultural produce, which was the
backbone of the Mughal economy.

2. Zamindars:

- Zamindars were local landlords responsible for tax collection from peasants, acting as intermediaries
between the government and farmers.

3. Types of Revenue:

- Taxes included crop taxes based on the type and amount of produce and land revenue, assessed as a
percentage of the harvest.

4. Assessment and Collection:

- Revenue assessment, often conducted through a system called lagan, estimated land yield to
calculate taxes, managed by local officials.

5. Akbar’s Reforms:

- Akbar introduced the Ain-i-Dahsala system, which standardized revenue assessment based on
average yields to create a more equitable taxation process.
The land revenue system was essential for funding the Mughal administration and military. By utilizing
zamindars and implementing reforms, the system aimed to balance the financial needs of the empire
with the welfare of the agricultural community.

 ART AND CRAFT DURING MUGHAL ERA

The Mughal era was the golden period in the history of Indian art, craft and culture. The Mughals not
only invaded India and ruled it but also brought with them a rich heritage, which they had acquired from
Persia. They introduced new techniques like inlay work, glass engraving, carpet weaving, brocades,
enameling etc. The Mughal miniature paintings influenced many schools of Rajasthani paintings and the
Kangra Pahari schools of miniatures. The famous Peacock Throne Of the Mughals is one Of the finest
examples of gem inlay work and metal craft, having few parallels in world art. They also laid the
foundation for the famous Mughal miniature painting, Petra Dura or inlay work, enameled jewellery and
a host of other craft traditions many Of which continue today.

 MINIATURE PAINTINGS: IMPORTANT SOURCE FOR MUGHAL COSTUMES

Mughal painting is a particular style of South Asian painting, generally confined to miniatures, which
emerged from Persian miniature painting and developed during the period of the Mughal Empire(16th
19th centuries), miniature paintings were a variety of Islamic paintings done during the reign of the
Mughal Emperors. The Mughal paintings often covered scenes from the court and help our
understanding of how the court functioned. These paintings also provide us with information on what
the emperors looked like.

The mughal miniature paintings had depicted the costumes and ornaments which were prevalent in the
time of medieval India. Mughal artists had rendered exquisite detail of the costume of the people of that
period.

The three dancing ladies depict the exotic costumes used during the medieval period of India. The
central 1 is dressed in such manner that we can say that she belongs to the royal family.

The mughal Emperors who helped the art of painting to flourish were Akbar Jahangirand Shah Jahan.

 Conclusion