Industrial Hygiene Sampling

Exposure Assessment
Sept 13, 2007
 Objectives
• Introduce “Industrial
Industrial Hygiene”
Hygiene
• Establish context with respect to Risk
Assessment
• Overview of Sampling
– Purpose
– Methods
– Data
• Implications
p
 Industrial Hygiene
Definition
• Industrial Hygiene: Science and art
devoted to the anticipation, recognition,
evaluation prevention
evaluation, prevention, and control of
those environmental factors or stresses
arising in or from the workplace which may
cause sickness, impaired health and well
being or significant discomfort among
being,
workers or among citizens of the
community.
community
 Industrial Hygiene
• Sometimes referred to as “occupational
occupational “
hygiene (e.g. UK)
• Predates “Risk
Risk Assessment”
Assessment as defined by
NAS
• Combines
C bi elements
l t off Ri
Risk
kAAssessmentt
 Comparison IH and Risk
Assessment
Industrial Hygiene Risk Assessment

Anticipation and Recognition Hazard Identification

Evaluation Toxicity and Exposure Assessment and

Risk Characterization

Control Risk Management

Hazard Communication Risk Communication

 Industrial Hygiene Exposure
• Industrial Hygiene focus is on exposure
assessment
– Historically the occupational environment
– Expanded to home and community

Note: As the applications of exposure data

grew in various fields
fields, many new “specialties”
specialties
formed ( i.e. environmental engineering,
radiation safety,
y, risk assessment etc)) and
separated from Public Health
 Evaluation -
Air Sampling and Analysis

“ The purpose of industrial hygiene

sampling is to represent the
important components to the
physiology of the worker and not to
demonstrate the prowess of the
chemist”

SLIDE 7
Paraphrase from Hatch
 Exposure Assessment Overview
• Exposure Assessment is NOT universally
defined by users
• Exposure is not DOSE but seeks to
estimate it
• Approaches
A h and d examples
l
– Exposure Assessment in “Risk Assessment”
– Occupational settings
Evolution of Exposure Assessment
• 1920’s
– Occupational Exposures began to be quantified and
related to workplace health (risk)
– Result-
Result Exposure limit values
• 1950,60’s
– Environmental concerns
concerns, air and water pollution
– Waste site Clean-up
• 1983
– NAS “Risk Assessment Paradigm
– “RAGS”
Why is Exposure Important?

Hatch
 Exposure Assessment Goal

We can also consider

Impairment as a
function of increasing
DOSE

SLIDE 11
Puttingg It All Together
g
 Exposure Measurement
• Measurement at the point of contact while
exposure occurs
• Estimation from a scenario that evaluates
contact variables
• Estimated
E ti t d from
f biomarkers
bi k related
l t d tto
uptake

EPA Exposure Assessment Guideline

Point of Contact Measurements
• Advantages
Advantages- • Disadvantages
– Direct – Subject to analytical
– Accounts for micro prowess
environmental – Models can be
variables incomplete or highly
– Specific to activity complex
level – Must be
– Direct relationshipp to comprehensive or
biomarkers extrapolated to others
– Preferred over models – COST
 Industrial Hygiene Sampling
Unique Value
• Representative monitoring data is
preferred over models
• Industrial Hygiene data gathering has a
long history and extensive technology
• Relates
R l t specifically
ifi ll tto ““exposure lilimit
it
values” (TLV, PEL, OEL)
• Relates to historical biomarker information
(Biological Exposure Indices – BEI)
 IH DATA METRICS
• Time weighted average
Time-weighted
• Peak Exposure
• Sh t t
Short-term exposure
• Units
– Ppm v/v in air
– Mgg /M3
– Historical mmpcf
 Exposure Assessment Strategy –
IH P
Paradigm
di

SLIDE 20
AIHA Guidelines
 Exposure Assessment Strategy –
IH Paradigm

SLIDE 21
 Some Exposure Variables

• Acute Exposure
• Chronic Exposure
• Source of the Agent
• Pathway for Exposure
SLIDE 22
 Exposure Assessment Strategy

T
Terminology
i l

SLIDE 23
 Occupational Exposures

• “Often” air mediated – emphasis on “air

p g
sampling
• Usually a substantial dermal
p
component that is not readily
y
characterized
• “Skin notation”

SLIDE 24
 STATES OF MATTER
• Dust
• Fume
• Mi t
Mist
• Vapor
• Gas
• Aerosol
 Walk Through Survey

• Become familiar with plant

processes
• ID process chemicals and
materials,
• Obse
Observe e worker
o e actactivities
t es
• ID and examine existing
exposure controls
SLIDE 26 • Start data collection record
 Exposure Assessment Strategy
Industrial Hygiene Monitoring

SLIDE 27
 SAMPLE ?
• Why sample?
• Who to sample?
• Where to sample?
• What to sample for?
• When to sample?
• How long to sample?

SLIDE 28
 Evaluation of Workplace Hazards –
Characterization of the Environment
OBJECTIVES OF AIR SAMPLING
(WHY)

• Workplace Characterization
• I
Investigate
ti t employee
l complaints
l i t
• Effectiveness of engineering controls
• Effectiveness of administrative controls
• Maintain a history of worker exposure

SLIDE 29
 Step #2: Selecting Air Sampling
Methods

• Inventory Chemicals / Agents to

which workers are exposed
• Number
N b off employees
l tto b
be
evaluated
• Frequency of cyclic work process
• Duration of exposure(s)
p ( )
SLIDE 30
 Step #2: Selecting Air
Sampling Methods

• Consistency y of exposures
p
• Mobility of workers in relation to
process
• Control measures in effect
• Employee
E l b
breakk andd llunch
hhhabits
bit

SLIDE 31
 Step #3
#3-Determine
Determine Relevant
Exposure Factors
Acute Effects
Sub Acute
Sub-Acute
Chronic
1 8-hour time-weighted averages
1.
(TWAs)
2. Short
Short-Term
Term Exposure Limits (STELs)
3. Ceiling Values
4 Life
4. Life-Weighted
Weighted Average
SLIDE 32
 Step
p #4: Selecting
g Air
Sampling Equipment
• Personal Monitors (preferred)
• Area Samples (Zones)
• D t ,Fume,
Dust F Mist,
Mi t Gas
G or Vapor
V
• Direct Reading
g Instrument
• Detector Tubes
• Diffusion Badges
• Sample Collection Media
SLIDE 33
 Sampling Selection Criteria

COMPREHENSIVE SENSITIVE
CONVENIENT SELECTIVE
COST EFFECTIVE
RAPID

SLIDE 34
 Comprehensive

† SENSITIVE TO ALL CONTAMINANTS

THAT COULD RESULT IN ADVERSE
HEALTH EFFECTS.

SLIDE 35
 Convenient

† PORTABLE, RUGGED and QUIET

† EASILY WORN WITHOUT CHANGES
IN NORMAL BEHAVIOUR
† LOW POWER CONSUMPTION
† BATTERY OPERATED
† STABILIZATION
S O TIME < 15 minutes
† TEMPERATURE RANGE -20o to 40o
C
SLIDE 36
† HUMIDITY RANGE 0 - 100 %
 Cost Effective

† NOT PROHIBITIVE TO BUY

† INEXPENSIVE TO OPERATE
† READILY AVAILABLE COMPONENTS
† FEW CONSUMABLE PARTS
† LOW MAINTENANCE

SLIDE 37
 Sensitive

† LoD < HEALTH EFFECTS LEVEL

† 0.1
0 1 TIMES LEVEL OF INTEREST
† RANGE 0.1 - 10 X LEVEL OF INTEREST
† PRECISION AND ACCURACY +/- 5%
† EASY AND ACCURATE CALIBRATION

SLIDE 38
 Selective

† LIMITED RESPONSE TO CHEMICALLY

SIMILAR COMPOUNDS PRESENT WITH
ANALYTE OF INTEREST

SLIDE 39
 Rapid

‡ SHORTER SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

TIMES COMPARED WITH BIOLOGICAL
RESPONSE
‡ FAST RESPONSE TO CONCENTRATION
CHANGES
‡ RESPONSE TIME 90% < 30 seconds
‡ RS-232 OR EQUIVALENT OUTPUT

SLIDE 40
 Step #5: Establish Sampling
Protocol

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED
† Data to be collected (who, what)
† Location to sample (where)
† Time to sample (when)
† Collection technique
q (how)
( )
† Analytical technique (how)
† Number of samples (how many)
SLIDE 41 † Data analysis techniques (what
kind)
 Personal Monitors
ADVANTAGES
†Measure contaminant at or near
b
breathing
thi zone
†Worn by an individual during their daily
activities
†Provides an integrated measure of
exposure
†Useful in epidemiological studies

SLIDE 42
 Personal Monitors
DISADVANTAGES
†Collecting a sufficient mass of specific
contaminants
†Specific, detailed sampling and analytical
methods must be developed to characterize
chemicals
h i l
†Time Delay in receiving analytical results
from lab
†Sampler size and weight and fragility
†W k may be
†Worker b reluctant
l t t to
t wear sampler l
†Test equipment may alter workers routine
SLIDE 43
 Step #6-Consult With a Qualified
L b t
Laboratory
A qualified
lifi d analytical
l ti l llaboratory
b t can
assist you in choosing sampling
methods most appropriate to the
environment being g sampled.
p

SLIDE 44
 Step #7-Choose An Approved
Air Sampling Method
US AGENCIES THAT PUBLISH AIR
SAMPLING METHODS
• National
N ti l IInstitute
tit t for
f Occupational
O ti l
Safety and Health (NIOSH)
• Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)
• Environmental Protection Agency
((EPA))
SLIDE 45
 Step
p #8-Contact Lab For
Additional Assistance
• L
LabbCCatalogs
t l often
ft contains
t i airi
sampling guides that summarize
sampling methods for individual
chemicals published by NIOSH, OSHA
and EPA.
• All critical parameters such as exposure
limits, recommended sampling time, flow
rate and air volume are listed.
• Collection media is clearly specified.

SLIDE 46
 Step #9-Choose Your
Equipment
An IH utilizes all resources available to
d t
determine
i ththe b
bestt air
i sampling
li
method. Several methods may be
required
i d iin th
the same workplace.
k l
• Active Samplers
– Air Sampling Pumps
– Pump Flowmeters (Calibrators)
– Collection Media
• Passive Samplers
p
SLIDE 47 – Diffusion badges
 ACTIVE SAMPLING
...is the collection of airborne hazards by
means of a forced movement of air by an
air sampling pump through the appropriate
sampling media. The pump is used to
collect and/or concentrate the chemical of
interest onto the sampling media.

SLIDE 48
 THREE KEY ELEMENTS OF
ACTIVE SAMPLING
• A sampling pump
Something to pull or push air
• The
Th sampling
li media
di
Something to pull or push the air through
• A calibrator
Something to indicate how much air has
been pulled or pushed

SLIDE 49
 PASSIVE SAMPLING
...is
is defined as the collection of airborne
gases and vapors at a rate controlled by a
physical process such as diffusion through
a static air layer or permeation through a
membrane WITHOUT the active
movement of air through an air sampling
pump.
pump

SLIDE 50
 Types of Passive Samplers

Organic Vapor Sampler Inorganic Mercury Sampler

Aldehyde Sampler

SLIDE 51
7
 MOST PASSIVE SAMPLERS
OPERATE BY DIFFUSION.
DIFFUSION
Diffusive samplers
rely
on the movement of
contaminant
molecules
l l
across a
concentration
gradient which can be
defined by Fick’s First
Law of Diffusion
Diffusion.

SLIDE 52
 IN OTHER WORDS
WORDS...
Chemicals will diffuse
from an area of high
concentration in the air
to an area of low
concentration on the
sampler and the rate of
diffusion for individual
chemicals
h i l can b be
determined.

SLIDE 53
 WHEN CHOOSING A PASSIVE
SAMPLER
• Be sure that it has been tested and
verified to work effectively for the chemical
of interest.
interest Otherwise,
Otherwise you should use a
validated active sampling method for
compliance purposes
purposes.
• Be sure to note the sampling rate in
ml/min given by the supplier along with the
minimum and maximum sampling times.

SLIDE 54
 TO COLLECT A PASSIVE
SAMPLE
• Simply open the sampler at the sampling
site and attach it to the worker in the
breathing zone or hang in an area
area.
• It is important that there be some degree
of air movement at the sampling site
site.
Placement of the sampler in stagnant air
will cause “starvation”
starvation and will cause low
results to occur.

SLIDE 55
 Read On for Further
Information
The following
sections
describe sampling
using a variety of
sampling media:
• Sorbent Tubes
• Filters
• Impingers
p g Bags
• Sampling g
SLIDE 56
• Passive Samplers
 ACTIVE SAMPLING OF GASES
AND VAPORS

Many sampling methods require the use

of sorbent tubes for sampling gases and
vapors.

A sorbent tube is a small glass tube normally

filled with two layers of a solid sorbent
material.

SLIDE 57
Sorbent Sample Tube With Backup Sorbent
Layer

SLIDE 58 5
COMMON SORBENT MATERIALS
• Activated Charcoal
• Silica Gel
• T
Tenax
• XAD-2
• Chromosorbs

The sorbent used to collect specific chemicals

will be specified in the sampling method
method.
SLIDE 59
TO COLLECT A SAMPLE WITH
SORBENT TUBES

• The end tips of the tube are broken and

a known volume of air is drawn through
the tube using an air sampling pump that
has been calibrated to the flow rate
specified in the sampling method.
• Airborne
Ai b chemicals
h i l are ttrapped dbby th
the fifirstt
layer with the back-up layer assuring
complete removal of chemicals from the
SLIDE 60 air.
 SORBENT TUBE SAMPLING TRAIN

SLIDE 61
 OSHA Versatile Samplers
A Breakthrough for Multi-Phase Sampling

• Sorbent and Filter

combined in one tube
• Collects vapors and
aerosols
• Available with a variety
of sorbents
• For pesticides, TNT,
DNT,, and phthalates
p
SLIDE 62
 Multiple Bed Tubes
A Advancement
An Ad t for
f Environmental
E i t l
Sampling

• Tubes contain multiple layers of different

types of sorbent
• Different classes of chemicals can be
trapped in different layers of sorbent
• Tubes available for solvent or thermal
desorption
• Custom tubes are available from SKC with
almost any sorbent
SLIDE 63
 THERMAL DESORPTION

• Allows for improved

sensitivity--down to
sub-ppb
• Nearly 100%
recovery from
media
• Suitable for
ambient indoor air
ambient,
and environmental
studies

SLIDE 64
 Precautions When Using
Thermal Desorption
• Make sure size of tubes
is compatible with
thermal desorber being
used
• Remember that tubes
must be heat purged
before use
• Do not use solvent
desorption tubes for
thermal desorption
applications
SLIDE 65
 SKC VOST SAMPLERS
For Sampling Stationary Sources

V o l a t i l e
O r g a n i c
S a m p l i n g
T r a i n s

For For EPA Methods 0030 and 0031

SLIDE 66 EPA Method 0031
 POLYURETHANE FOAM
A Novel New Sorbent
• Specified in EPA Methods for
Organochlorine Pesticides , PCBs , PNAs
and PCDDs
• PUF/Sorbent Combinations Available with
Tenax XAD-2
Tenax, XAD 2 or other sorbents
• High Volume and Low Volume Tubes
A il bl ffrom SKC
Available
• SKC PUF Sorbent Refilling Service Saves
You Money
SLIDE 67
POLYURETHANE FOAM (PUF)
TUBE

SLIDE 68
 PUF “SANDWICHES”
Combine PUF and Sorbent
• Extends applications
to more volatile
compounds
• Standard sorbents are
Tenax or XAD-2
• Low volume tubes
used with personal
pumps
• High volume tubes
usedd with
ith GMW
SLIDE 69 Sampler
 COATED FILTERS
A Great Media to Trap Unstable Compounds

Liquid mediums on
filters derivatize the
chemical of interest

This produces a
more
stable compound for
storage and analysis
SLIDE 70
 COATED FILTERS
AVAILABLE FROM SKC
To Sample for a Variety of Chemicals

• Fl
Fluorides
id • Mercaptans
• Diisocyanates • Hydrogen Sulfide
• Methylene
M th l • Acetic Anhydride
Bisphenyl • Chlorine
Isocyanate • B
Bromine
i
• Glutaraldehyde • Sulfur Dioxide
• Organic Amines
SLIDE 71
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION
The tube is capped and sent to a qualified
laboratory for analysis.

There the sorbent is removed and the trapped

chemicals are extracted using either solvents or
heat and identified and quantified using gas
chromatography or other laboratory equipment.

SLIDE 72
 ACTIVE SAMPLING OF GASES
AND VAPORS (GAS BAGS)

In some cases, it may y be desirable to

collect the entire air sample in a
special
bag designed for that purpose.

This type of sample is termed a grab

or
SLIDE 73
instantaneous sample.
 GRAB SAMPLES

• Are usually taken for short periods

off time
ti to
t indicate
i di t peakk airborne
ib
concentrations
• Can be used to determine TWA
exposures in areas where chemical
levels remain constant

SLIDE 74
 TO COLLECT A SAMPLE WITH
SAMPLE BAGS
• Pumps with an exhaust or pressure port
can be used to push air into a sampling
b th
bag thatt iis connected
t d tto th
the pump with
ith
teflon tubing.
• Alternatively, bags can be placed into
a chamber which is evacuated using a
pump to fill the bag by negative pressure.

SLIDE 75
 FILLING A BAG BY POSITIVE
PRESSURE

SLIDE 76
 FILLING A BAG BY NEGATIVE
PRESSURE

SLIDE 77
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION
• Bags containing the sample can be
analyzed in the field using direct reading
i t
instruments.
t

• Bags can also be shipped to the

laboratory where they can be analyzed by
gas chromatography or other laboratory
equipment.
i t
SLIDE 78
 ACTIVE SAMPLING OF GASES
AND VAPOR S (IMPINGERS)
Some chemical hazards such as acids
acids,
ozone, chlorine and formaldehyde can
b sampled
be l d using
i iimpingers.
i

Impingers are specially designed glass

bottles that are filled with a collection
liquid specified in the sampling method for
specific
ifi chemicals.
h i l
SLIDE 79
 IMPINGERS

SLIDE 80
 NOTES ABOUT IMPINGERS
In some cases
cases, the
impinger nozzle is
fritted or modified with
thousands of small
holes This disperses
holes.
the air and allows for
better contact between
the air sample and the
p g liquid.
impinger q
SLIDE 81
 TO COLLECT A SAMPLE WITH
IMPINGERS
A sample pump is used to bubble air
through the impinger which contains a
li id medium
liquid di th
thatt h
has b
been specified
ifi d iin
the method.

The liquid will physically dissolve or

chemically react with the chemical of
i t
interest.
t
SLIDE 82
 IMPINGER SAMPLING TRAIN

SLIDE 83
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION
• The liquid is removed from the impinger
and sent to the laboratory for analysis.

• The impinger can then be cleaned and

reused for future samples.

SLIDE 84
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION

• Cover the sample

opening to stop
sample collection.
• Properly label the
sample.
l
• Ship to the
l b t
laboratory ffor
chemical analysis.

SLIDE 85
 List of Analytical Methods and Examples
off Common
C Analytes

Analytical Method Examples of Analyte Compounds

GC/ flame ionization detector PAHs, ketones, halogenated hydrocarbons,

alcohols, ethers, aromatic hydrocarbons

GC/ photoionization detector ethylene oxide, tetraethyl lead, tetramethyl lead

GC/ nitrogen phosphorus detector acrolein, nicotine, acetone cyanohydrin,

organophosphate pesticides

GC/ electron capture detector butadienes, pentadienes, chlordane,

polychorinated benzenes, PCBs

GC/ flame photometric detector mercaptans, carbon disulfide,

nitromethane, tributylphosphate

GC/ thermal conductivity detector carbon dioxide

SLIDE 86
 Analytical Approach Diversity
Analytical Method Examples of Analyte Compounds

GC/ mass spectrometry aldehyde screening

HPLC/ ultraviolet detector acetaldehyde, anisidine, p-chlorophenol, diethylenetriamine,

ethylenediamine, maleic
anhydride p
anhydride, p-nitroanaline
nitroanaline

HPLC/ electrochemical detector isocyanates

Visible absorption spectrophotometry acetic anhydride, ammonia, formaldehyde, hydrazine,

nitrogen dioxide,
dioxide phosphine

Ion chromatography aminoethanol compounds, chloroacetic acid, inorganic acids, iodine,

chlorine,
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide

Source: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods, 4th Ed. (DHHS [NIOSH] Pub. No. 94–113). Cincinnati: NIOSH, 1994.

SLIDE 87
 A clear and
complete
“chain of
custody must
be observed

Layout of cover
page for NIOSH
sampling and
analytical methods.
methods

SLIDE 88 3
 Typical Chromatogram Produced Using a
FID

FID Response, counts

N-pentadecane
15 573 min
15.573
N-tetradecane
14.540 min N-hexadecane
Solvent Peak 16.802 min

Retention Time, minutes

Typical chromatogram produced using a FID and showing separation of n-tetradecane

(retention time 14.540 min), n-pentadecane (retention time 15.573 min), and n-hexadecane
(retention time 16
16.802
802 min)
min).

SLIDE 89 5
 Typical Mass Spectrum for Tetradecane
Showing the Relative Abundance of Each
Mass Fragment

Abundance

Tetradecane
et adeca e

Mass/Charge Ratio
SLIDE 90 6
 Commonly Used Direct-Reading
I t
Instruments
t for
f Gases
G and
d Vapors
V

Instrument Common Analytes Principle of Operation Range

Combustible Combustible gases and vapors Hot

wire—test gas is passed over a heated Usually measured in
gas detectors (nonspecific) wire (sometimes in the presence of a catalyst).
catalyst)
percentage of the
The test gas burns, changing the temperature
lower explosive limit.
of the filament, and the electrical resistance of
Some models
the filament is measured. measure
down to
1 ppm.

Colorimetric Various vapors p including

g formalde- Reaction
of the test gas with a chemical Variable
detectors hyde, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur diox- reagent
(either as a liquid or in some cases an
ide, toluene diisocyanate (specific)
impregnated paper or tape) and measurement
off the
th color
l produced
d d

SLIDE 91 Electrochemical Carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitro- 2

Chemical oxidation of test gas 1 to 3000 ppm
sensors gen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
di id ( ifi )
 Commonly Used Direct-Reading
I t
Instruments
t for
f Gases
G andd Vapors
V (continued)

Instrument Common Analytes Principle of Operation Range

Infrared gas Organic and inorganic gases and

Measures infrared absorbance of test gas Sub-ppm
to low
analyzers vapors (specific) percent
levels

Metal oxide Hydrogen sulfide, nitro, amine, Metal oxide sensor is chemically reduced 1 to 50
ppm
sensors alcohol, and halogenated by the gas, increasing its electrical resistance
hydrocarbons (specific)

Thermal Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Uses

specific heat of combustion of a gas or Percentage gas
conductivity nitrogen, oxygen, methane, ethane, vapor
sensors propane, and butane

Portable gas Organic and inorganic gases and Uses a

packed column to separate complex 0 1 to 10
0.1 10,000
000 ppm
chromatographs vapors (specific) mixtures
of gases. Detectors available include
SLIDE 92 flame ionization, electron capture, thermal 3
conductivity, flame photometric, and photoionization
 Commonly Used Direct-Reading
I t
Instruments
t for
f Gases
G andd Vapors
V (continued)

Instrument Common Analytes Principle of Operation Range

Detectors for Gas Chromatographs

Electron capture Halogenated hydrocarbons, Uses a

radioactive source such as 63Ni to 0.1 ppb to low ppm
detector nitrous oxide, and compounds supply energy to the detector that monitors
containing cyano or nitro groups the intensity of the electron beam arriving at
a collection electrode. When an electron-
capturing species passes through the cell the
intensity of the electron beam decreases.

Flame ionization Organic compounds including Creates

organic ions by passing a hydrogen 0.1 to 100,000 ppm
detectors aliphatic and aromatic hydro
hydro- gas through flame
flame. Measures conductivity of
carbons, ketones, alcohols, and the flame.
halogenated hydrocarbons

Photoionization Most organic compounds, Creates ions by exposing test gas to 0.2 to
2000 ppm
detectors particularly aromatic compounds ultraviolet
light. Measures conductivity of
SLIDE 93 the gases in the light field. 4
 Commonly Used Aerosol Monitors

Instrument Sample Flow Size Range Concentration

Range

Light-scattering photometers passive to 100 L/min 0.1 to 20 μm 0.0001 μm/m3 to

200 g/m3

Light-scattering particle counters 0.12 L/min to 28 L/min 0.1 to 8000 m (up to 1 particle/L to
105 particles/cm3
32,000 μm for drop
size analyzers)
Condensation nucleus counters 0.003
0 003 L/min to 4
4.2
2 L/min 1
1.6
6 nm to 20 nm 0 1 to 106
0.1
particles/cm3

Single Particle Aerosal Relaxation

Time (SPART) 0.5 to 5 L/min <
0 3 to 10 μm
0.3 NA
Beta attenuation aerosol mass 15 L/min <
10 μm 10 mg/m3 max
monitors
Piezoelectric crystal microbalance 0.24 to 1 L/min 0.05 to 35 μm 100 g/m3 to
100 mg/m3

SLIDE 94 Tapered Element Oscillating

Microbalance (TEOM) NA 0.5 to 35 μm 5 μg/m3 to
2000 mg/m3
 Gases Detectible by Electrochemical
Sensors

Ammonia Hydrazine Oxygen

Arsine Hydrochloric Ozone
Bromine acid Phosgene
Carbon dioxide H d
Hydrogen Phosphine
Carbon monoxide Hydrogen Silane
Chlorine chloride Silicon tetrafluoride
Ethylene oxide Hydrogen
y g Sulfur dioxide
cyanide
Fluorine Tetrachloroethylene
Hydrogen
Formaldehyde fluoride Trichloroethylene
Formic acid Hydrogen sulfide Tungsten
g hexafluoride
Freon Nitric acid
Germane Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
SLIDE 95 Nitrous oxide
 A Typical Electrochemical Sensor

SLIDE 96 7
 A Wheatstone Bridge

SLIDE 97 8
Combustible gas instrument response curve
for conversion of a meter reading to
concentration.
A B
1
HOT
BURNING
GASES
0 C
ADING % LEL

0
D
METER REA

COOL
0 BURNING
GASES

6 20 40 60 80 100
ACTUAL CONCENTRATION %
LEL
SLIDE 98 0 9
Sensor response range from lower explosive
li it tto upper explosive
limit l i lilimit.
it

SLIDE 99 10
 Ionization Potentials of Selected Chemicals

Compound IP Compound IP Compound IP

(eV) (eV) (eV)

Acetaldehyde 10.21 Dimethyl amine 8.24 Methyl ethyl ketone

Acetic acid 10.37 y acetate
Ethyl 10.11 9.53
Acetone 9.69 Ethyl amine 8.86 Methyl mercaptan 9.44
Acrolein 10.10 Ethyl benzene 8.76 Morpholine 8.88
Allyl alcohol 9.67 Ethyl bromide 10.29 Nitrobenzene 9.92
Allyl chloride 10.20 Ethyl butyl ketone 9.02 Octane 9.9
Ammonia 10.15 Ethyl chloride 10.98 Pentane 10.35
A ili
Aniline 7 70
7.70 Eth l
Ethylene chlorohydrin
hl h d i 2P t
2-Pentanone 9 39
9.39
Benzene 9.25 10.90 Phosphine 9.96
Benzyl chloride 10.16 Heptane 10.07 Propane 11.07
1,3-Butadiene 9.07 Hydrogen cyanide13.91 n-Propyl acetate 10.04
n-Butyl amine 8.71 Hydrogen sulfide 10.46 n-Propyl alcohol 10.20
Carbon disulfide 10.13
10 13 Isoamyl acetate 9.90
9 90 Propylene dichloride
Chlorobenzene 9.07 Isoamyl alcohol 10.16 10.87
Crotonaldehyde 9.73 Isopropyl acetate 9.99 Propylene oxide 10.22
Cyclohexane 9.98 Isopropyl alcohol 10.16 Styrene 8.47
Cyclohexanone 9.14 Isopropyl amine 8.72 Toluene 8.82
Cyclohexene 8.95 Isopropyl ether 9.20 Triethylamine 7.50
Diborane 11.4 Methanol 10.85 Vinyl chloride 10.00
1,1-Dichloroethane Methyl acetate 10.27 Water 12.61
11.06 Methyl acrylate 10.72
SLIDE 100 m-Xylene 8.5611
 PID: The HNU 101 Models

SLIDE 101 12
 PID: The Photovac 2020

SLIDE 102 13
 Relative Response of the OVA (FID
Instrument) to Different Chemicals
(if Calibrated to Methane)

Compound Relative Response (%) Compound Relative Response (%)

Acetaldehyde 25 Ethylene 85
Acetic acid 80 Ethylene oxide 70
Acetone 60 Hexane 75
Acetylene 225 Isopropyl alcohol 65
Acrylonitrile 70 Methane (calibrant) 100
Benzene 150 Methanol 12
n-Butane 63 Methyl ethyl ketone 80
1 3 Butadiene 28
1,3-Butadiene Methylene chloride 90
Carbon tetrachloride 10 Octane 80
Chloroform 65 Phenol 54
Cyclohexane 85 Tetrachloroethylene 70
Diethylamine 75 Toluene 110
Diethyl
y ether 18 Trichloroethylene
y 70
Ethane 110 Vinyl chloride 35
Ethanol 25 o-Xylene 116
Ethyl acetate 65

SLIDE 103 14
 Organic Vapor Analyzers (OVA):
Th C
The Century
t TVA 1000

SLIDE 104 15
 Specific Infrared Absorption Bands for
H d
Hydrocarbons
b

Chemical Groups Absorption Band

(µm)

Alkanes (C-C) 3.35–3.65

Alkenes (C=C) 3.25–3.45
Alkynes (C_C) 3.05–3.25
Aromatic 3.25–3.35
Substituted aromatic 6.15–6.35
6 15–6 35
Alcohols (-OH) 2.80–3.10
Acids (C-OOH) 5.60–6.00
Aldehydes (COH) 5.60–5.90
Ketones (C=O) 5.60–5.90
Esters (COOR) 5.75–6.00
Chlorinated (C-Cl) 12.80–15.50

SLIDE 105 16
An Infared Spectrum for the Chemical Sulfur
H
Hexafluoride.
fl id

Y axis is absorbance unit.

600 800 1000 1200
Absorbance/Wavenumber (cm-1)

SLIDE 106 17
 Portable Infared Analyzer:
Th MIRAN S
The Sapphire
hi AAnalyzer
l

SLIDE 107 18
Schematic for a Typical Gas Chromatograph

SLIDE 108 19
 Portable Field Gas Chromatograph: The
Ph t
Photovac V
Voyager

SLIDE 109 20
 Detector Tubes, or Colormetric Indicator
T b
Tubes, and
dPPumps F From National
N ti lD
Draeger

SLIDE 110 26
 A New Generation of Tubes and Pumps
F
From National
N ti lD
Draeger

SLIDE 111 27
 Multiple Particle Optical Monitor:
Th MINIRAM
The

SLIDE 112 28
 Selecting Sampling Method /
E i
Equipmentt
• Is it comprehensive?
• Is it convenient?
• I it costt effective?
Is ff ti ?
• Is it sensitive enough?
• Is it selective enough?
• Does it provide rapid response/results?

SLIDE 113
 AIRBORNE PARTICULATE
HAZARDS
Airborne particulate hazards
may include:
• Dusts
• Fumes
• Mists
• Smokes
SLIDE 114
 THE HAZARD POTENTIAL OF
AIRBORNE PARTICULATES
Is determined by several
parameters including:
p g

• Chemical
Ch i l composition iti
• Mass concentration
• Size characteristics
 Instruments to Classify Particle
Size
Si
Determine the
deposition site in
the respiratory tract.
tract
Smaller particles
will tend to deposit
deep intoo the
e gas
exchange region of
the lung
lung.
 Characteristic
s of Particles
and Particle
p
Dispersoids

((Source: C.E. Lappler,

pp , SRI Journal 5:94 [[1961].)
])

SLIDE 117 2
SIZE-SELECTIVE EXPOSURE
GUIDELINES

To more appropriately
pp p y assess
the possible health effects of
airborne particulate matter,
exposure guidelines have
typically been issued for
different aerodynamic sizes of
particles.
ti l [[example
l USBM]
 Regions of the Respiratory Tract

(a) Nasopharyngeal Inhalable fraction

(NP) region

( )
(b)
Thoracic
Th i
Tracheobronchial
fraction
(TB) region

Respirable
(c) Pulmonary fraction
(P) region
(a) the NP region conditions inhaled air to body temperature and essentially 100% relative humidity and
efficiently removes larger particles; (b) the TB region conducts inhaled air quickly and evenly from the
mouth and nose to the pulmonary spaces; (c) the P region performs the gas exchange function of
respiration.
p

SLIDE 119 4
 WORKPLACE EXPOSURE
GUIDELINES

• Have traditionally been expressed as

– *TOTAL DUST
– *RESPIRABLE DUST
 TOTAL DUST
• Is collected by using a filter of a type and
pore size appropriate to the particulate
being sampled.
sampled
• The filter is loaded into a cassette and
connected to a sampling pump that has
been calibrated to a flowrate of at least
1 L/
L/min.
i
• Samples are collected in an area or in the
breathing zone of workers.
 Aerosol Particle Collection Mechanisms

Fluid Drag
Force

Buoyant
Force

Gravitatio
nal Force

A B C
(a) sedimentation — at terminal (maximum) settling velocity, the fluid drag and buoyant forces will
exactly offset the particle’s weight; (b) inertial impaction — the particle’s inertia carries it across airflow
streamlines as the air changes direction; and (c) interception — the flow streamline passes the collecting
bodyy ((such as a filter fiber)) within a distance of one-half the p
particle’s diameter.

SLIDE 122 3
 ACTIVE SAMPLING FOR
PARTICULATES

• To sample for particulates, a filter

loaded into a filter cassette will be
used.
• The
Th filt
filter diameter,
di t type
t and
d pore
size will vary depending on the
chemical being sampled and will be
specified
spec ed in tthe
e sa
sampling
p g method.
et od
SLIDE 123
 Filter Cassettes

A B
Commonly used filter holders include (a) the 37-mm three-piece styrene acrylonitrile cassette
used as shown or in open-face mode with one end removed, and (b) the polypropylene 25-mm
cassette with cowl, specifically for use in asbestos sampling (end cap shown is removed during
sampling)
p g) (g
(graphics
p courtesyy SKC,, Inc.,, Eighty
g y Four,, Pa.).
)

SLIDE 124 6
 FILTER SAMPLING TRAIN

SLIDE 125
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION

Filters can be analyzed by a variety of

methods depending upon the chemical:
• Gravimetric-Weighing the sample
before and after collection
• Atomic Absorption/ICP-Performing
chemical
h i l analysis
l i tto d
determine
t i specificifi
compounds
• Microscopic-Counting individual fibers
SLIDE 126
 RESPIRABLE DUST
• Is collected onto a filter of a type and pore
size that is appropriate for the particulate
being sampled.
sampled
• Preceding the filter, however, is a particle
size selective device
size-selective device, typically a cyclone
cyclone,
that will separate the respirable fraction
from the non
non-respirable
respirable fraction when
connected to a pump sampling at the
designated flow rate
rate.
RESPIRABLE DUST CYCLONES
 Cyclone
y Separator
p
Partially
cleaned air

Particle-laden
air

Suspended particles are captured by

increasing centrifugal forces as the air
spirals down the cone of the cyclone; the
airflow and uncaptured particles spiral
back up the central axis and exit through
Captured the top. In a personal respirable aerosol
particles sampler the exiting air, carrying the
respirable particle fraction, passes
through a cassette filter, where the
particles are captured
p p for g
gravimetric or
other analysis.

SLIDE 129 9
 Some regulations require the
measurementt off respirable
i bl d dust.
t

Respirable dust is dust so small in size

th t it can gett through
that th h the
th protective
t ti
mechanisms of the human body and get
down deep into the gas exchange region
of the lung.
lung To sample respirable dust
dust,
you will need to use a cyclone.

SLIDE 130
 When sampling with cyclones

The smaller respirable particles will be

collected
ll t d onto
t th
the filt
filter ffor subsequent
b t
analysis.

Larger particles will fall into the grit pot

and will be discarded.

SLIDE 131
 Personal
Cassette Outlet Cyclone
Support Pad

Filter

Cassette Ring
(middle)

Cyclone
Exploded view of a personal
respirable dust sampling assembly
incorporating an SKC aluminum
cyclone and 37-mm three-piece filter
cassette Nonrespirable particles are
cassette.
collected in the grit pot at the base of
the cyclone, and the respirable
Grit Pot fraction is collected on the filter for
subsequent weighing or chemical
y (g
analysis (graphic
p courtesyy SKC,,
Inc.).

SLIDE 132 10
 Note About Cyclone Sampling

• Be sure to calibrate your

y
pump to the flow rate
specified to achieve the
d i d 50% cut-point.
desired t i t

• Cut-point is the size of dust

that the cyclone will collect
with 50% efficiency.
efficiency
SLIDE 133
 NOTE ABOUT CYCLONE
SAMPLING

• NIOSH and ACGIH

recommend d a 4 micron
i
cut-point.

• To achieve this cut-point, a

flow rate of 2
2.5
5 l/min is
recommended using the
SKC aluminum cyclone.
cyclone
SLIDE 134
 NEW WORKPLACE
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES

• Inhalable Particulate Mass

• Thoracic Particulate Mass
• Respirable Particulate Mass

Adopted by several
International agencies:
 INHALABLE DUST
• Is a new term used to
describe dust that is
hazardous when
deposited anywhere
in the respiratory tree
i l di th
including the nose
and mouth
• Includes the larger
and the smaller
particles
SLIDE 136
 IOM Inhalable
D tS
Dust Sampler
l

Collar Clip

Developed by J.H. Vincent and D.

Housing Body Mark at the Institute of Occupational
Medicine, Edinburgh, Scotland. For
gravimetric analysis the interior
cassette containing the filter
cassette, filter, is
weighed before and after sampling.
The sampler meets international
O-ring Cassette Cassette Cover sampling criteria for inhalable
Bottom Top Cap particulate matter (graphic courtesy
Transport Clip SKC,, Inc.).
)

SLIDE 137 7
 TO COLLECT A SAMPLE FOR
INHALABLE DUST
• A 25-mm filter is loaded into the
cassettett using
i forceps
f andd wearing
i
gloves.
• The
Th filter
filt and d cassette
tt are equilibrated
ilib t d
to standard laboratory conditions then
weighed as a unit
unit.
• The sample is collected at 2 L/min.
• The sample is weighed again following
the procedures described above.

SLIDE 138
 AFTER SAMPLE COLLECTION
• Remove the cassette containing the
filter from the sampling head and
equilibrate the cassette and filter again
for 24 hours to get a post-sample
eg t
weight.
• Alternatively, chemical analysis can be
done on the filter sample
sample.

SLIDE 139
 Inertial Impactors

Total flow

Major flow

Minor flow

A B C

(a) conventional jet-to-pate impactor collecting a single size fraction (say all particles over 10 µm); (b)
multistage or cascade impactor in which each stage collects a different size fraction; and (c) virtual
impactor or dichotomous sampler in which size fractions are separated but not removed from the
airstream.

SLIDE 140
 Liquid Impingers

A B

(a) multistage impinger in which a jet impinges on a wet surface, and (b) all glass impinger in
which a jjet impinges
p g on a liquid
q surface or a submerged
g jjet impinges
p g on the bottom of the
impinger.

SLIDE 141
 Analysis of Particle Count Data

Lower Upper Midpoint Number in FractionCumulative

Interval SizeInterval SizeInterval Size Interval Interval Fraction less
(µm) (µm) di (µm) ni (%) Than di (%)

0.46 0.54 0.50 3770 0.74 0.74

0.54 0.63 0.585 13,000 2.56 3.30
0.66 0.74 0.685 55,100 10.84 14.14
0.74 0.86 0.80 62,900 12.38 26.52
0.86 1.0 0.93 98,800 19.44 45.96
1.0 1.2 1.1 109,000 21.45 67.41
1.2 1.4 1.3 98,800 19.44 86.85
1.4 1.6 1.5 37,200 7.32 94.17
1.6 1.8 1.7 17,000 3.35 97.52
1.8 2.2 2.0 9710 1.91 99.43
2.2 2.5 2.35 2850 0.56 99.99
2.5 2.9 2.7 52 0.01 100
508,182
SLIDE 142
 Than Stated Siize

Aerosol Size
Distribution
Cumulative Frraction Less T

Cumulative
Probability Plot
The aerosol particle sizes are
approximately lognormally distributed if
a straight line provides a good fit to the
measurement data.
data CMD and GSD are
determined from the plotted line. Count-
based distributions result from optical
measurement instruments that estimate
particle size by examining particle light
Particle Diameter (μ
(μm)) scatteringg behavior.

SLIDE 143
 Sampling Gases and Vapors

For most industrial hygiene applications-

applications
GASES AND VAPORS are sampled at
l
low flflow rates
t tto allow
ll effective
ff ti adsorption
d ti
to occur onto the sorbent material.
PARTICULATES are sampled at high flow
rates so that airborne particles can be
effectively trapped onto the filter material.

SLIDE 144
 LOW FLOW PUMP

SLIDE 145
 HIGH FLOW PUMP
also
l with
ith llow flflow capabilities
biliti

SLIDE 146
 Calibration Standards
• Exposure Chambers
• Primary Standards
• S
Secondary
d St
Standards
d d
• Calibration Gases
• Calibration Curves
• Ambient Measurements
• Standard Blanks

SLIDE 147
 Manual
Flowmeter Kit
Model 302 With
a Range of 100
to
4000 ml/min

SLIDE 148
 An Electronic
S
Soap Bubble
B bbl
Flowmeter

The Gilibrator-2, shown

being used to calibrate
a personal air sampling
pump using one of
three possible
interchangeable cells
(courtesy Sensidyne
Inc., Clearwater, Fla.).

SLIDE 149
 Field
Rotameters

A variety of lightweight
(acrylic plastic), single
float, field rotameters
(courtesy Key
Instruments, Trevose,
Pa.).

SLIDE 150
 Commonly Used Aerosol
Monitors
Instrument Sample Flow Size Range
Concentration Range

Light-scattering photometers passive to 100 L/min 0.1 to 20 μm 0.0001 μm/m3

g/m3
to 200 g

Light-scattering particle counters 0.12 L/min to 28 L/min 0.1 to 8000 m (up to 1 particle/L
to 105 particles/cm3
32,000 μm for drop
size analyzers)
y )
Condensation nucleus counters 0.003 L/min to 4.2 L/min 1.6 nm to 20 nm 0.1 to 106
particles/cm3

Single Particle Aerosal Relaxation

Time (SPART) 0 5 to 5 L/min
0.5
< 0.3 to 10 μm NA
Beta attenuation aerosol mass 15 L/min
< 10 μm 10 mg/m3 max
monitors
Piezoelectric
Pi l t i crystal
t l microbalance
i b l 0
0.24
24 tto 1 L/
L/min
i 0 05 tto 35 μm
0.05 / 3 to
100 g/m t
100 mg/m 3

SLIDE 151
Tapered Element Oscillating
Microbalance (TEOM) NA 0.5 to 35 μm 5 μg/m3 to
2000 / 3
 Multiple Particle Optical Monitor:
Th MINIRAM
The

SLIDE 152 The Occupational Environment -- Its Evaluation and 28

Control
MICROENVIRONMENTAL
MONITOR (MEM)
 EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
FOR AMBIENT OR INDOOR AIR

• PM 10-Particulate Matter
less than 10 um in
aerodynamic diameter

• PM 2.5-Particulate Matter
less than 2
2.5
5 um in
aerodynamic diameter
PERSONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITOR (PEM)
 Exposure Assessment
Strategy
Log-Normal Distribution

SLIDE 157
 Exposure Assessment Strategy

SLIDE 158
 Exposure Assessment Strategy

SLIDE 159
 Mistakes
• A compilation of 50 common mistakes is
included in reference file. Example:
• Collection of an air sample in the work environment is
rarely a simple, straightforward task. Virtually every
method has recommended protocols covering the flow
rate,
t the
th minimum
i i andd maximum
i sample
l volumes,
l and d
the preparation, handling, and storage of collection
media. Competent project preparation must include
research into these details. It is often desirable to call a
trusted technical consultant at the laboratory you are
using to update information found in standard
references.
Sampling, Calibration and Errors.ppt
USE DATA WITH CAUTION
 DATA REPORTING
PROBLEMS
• Incomplete record of current or historical
exposures
• Incomplete / inaccurate exposure
assessment for risk assessment
• Poor
P regulatory
l t decisions
d i i
• Failure to protect individuals

AIHCE 07 posterV3-1a.ppt
 Assignment
• Read
– “Lessons Learned While Compiling a
Quantitative Exposure Database fro
Published Literature”
– “Characterizing
Characterizing Historical Industrial Hygiene
Data: A Case Study Involving Benzene
Exposures at a Chemical Manufacturing
Facility (1957 – 1987)
– Convert 100 ppm xylene to mg / M3