Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C.

Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 1: Properties of Fluids

Concept Formula Notes

W
Unit Weight γ = = ρg
V
M
ρ= J
Mass Density V R air = 287
p kg − °K
ρgas =
RT
1
Specific Volume Vs =
ρ
ρliquid γliquid ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
sliquid = =
ρwater γwater γwater = 9810 N/m3
Specific Gravity ρgas γgas ρair = 1.225 kg/m3
sgas = = γair = 12 N/m3
ρair γair
Dynamic τ F/A
μ= = 0.1 Pa − s = 1 poise
Viscosity dV/dy U/y
Kinematic μ
ν= 0.0001 m2 /s = 1 stoke
Viscosity ρ
4σ
Droplet Pressure p=
d
4σcos (θ)
Capillarity h=
dγ
ΔV
Compressibility β=− V
Δp
Bulk Modulus of 1
EB =
Elasticity β
EB
Celerity c=√
ρ
p1 V1 p2 V2
Gas Law = T = °K = °C + 273
T1 T2
Gas Law p1 V1 = p2 V2k
k

k−1
(Adiabatic, T2 p2 k k = adiabatic exponent
Isentropic) =( )
T1 p1

Page 1 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 2: Principles of Hydrostatics

Concept Formula Notes

F
Pressure p= Acts normal to the area
A

Pressure on a fluid is equal in all

Pascal’s Law directions and in all parts of the
container

Pressures above or below the atmosphere and

Gage Pressure can be measured by pressure gauges or
manometer
Atmospheric
patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi
Pressure

Absolute
pabs = patm + pgage
Pressure

Any change in pressure at point A

would cause an equal change at
another point B

If a point lies on the free liquid surface,

Fluid Pressure p = γh then the gage pressure at that point is
zero

If two points lie on the same elevation,

then their pressure is also the same
Pressure Below
p = ∑ γn hn
Layers of Fluids

Page 2 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 3: Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Concept Formula Notes

Force due to
F = pA Acts normal to the area
Pressure

F = γh̅A
Hydrostatic Force or
F = pcg A
on Inclined
Surfaces Icg
e=
Ay̅

Hydrostatic Force
FH = γh̅A or FH = pcg A
on Curved
FV = γV
Surfaces

“Any body immersed in a fluid is acted

Archimedes’ upon by an upward force (buoyant
Principle force) equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid”
BF = γVD

Buoyant Force Buoyant Force only happens when

liquid is also present under a body
MG = MB ± GB
+MG = stable, −MG = unstable

I
Stability of MB =
VD
Floating Bodies B2 tan2 θ
MB ′ = (1 + )
12D 2

RM or OM = Wx = W(MGsinθ)

Page 3 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 4: Relative Equilibrium of Liquids

Concept Formula Notes

Horizontal
a
Rectilinear tan θ =
g
Translation

Inclined
ax
Rectilinear tan θ =
g ± ay
Motion

Vertical
a
Rectilinear p = γh (1 ± )
g
Motion

ω2 x
tan θ =
g
ω2 x 2
y=
2g

For Closed Cylindrical Vessel:

H2
when y > 2D
Rotating Motion
D H2
yib = (y − )
H 2D

Depth of Water in the Tank when

Rotation Stop:
H2
hf =
2y

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Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 5: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Concept Formula Notes

Q = Av Q = volume flow rate
Discharge or
M = ρQ M = mass flow rate
Flow Rate W = weight flow rate
W = γQ
Incompressible Fluids:
Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2 = constant
Continuity
Equation Compressible Fluids:
Q = ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 = constant
Q = γ1 A1 v1 = γ2 A2 v2 = constant
v2
E1 = E2 2g
= kinetic head
Bernoulli’s 2
v1 p1 v22 p2 p
= pressure head
Energy Theorem + + z1 = + + z2 γ
2g γ 2g γ
z = elevation head
P = γQE
Power and
Output E = energy head
Efficiency Eff =
Input
HP = pump head gain
Energy Head
E1 + HP − HF − HT = E2 HF = friction head loss
Gains and Losses HT = turbine head loss

Page 5 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 6: Fluid Flow Measurement

Concept Formula Notes

Discharge: Contraction: Velocity: Actual
Device a v Coefficient =
Q Theoretical
Coefficients C= Cc = Cv = C = Cc Cv
QT A vT
When A1 is significantly
Head Loss
1 A2 2 v 2 greater than A2 make
through Device HL = ( 2 − 1) [1 − ( ) ] A2 2
Cv A1 2g [1 − ( ) ] = 1
Coefficient A1
H = total head producing flow
Orifice Velocity v = √2gH vA 2 pA pB
H=h+ +( − )
2g γ γ
D Section at which the contraction of the
Vena Contrata Occurs at 2 from the upstream face jet ceases
From: Q = CAv
dQ = CdAv → dQ = CdA√2gH
Orifices under 2 where:
Q = C√2gL[H1 3/2 − H2 3/2 ] dA = LdH → dQ = C(LdH)√2gH
Low Heads 3
H1
Q = CL√2g ∫ √H dH
H2
From: V = Qt
dV = dQdt → dt = dV/dQ
Unsteady Flow 2As where:
t= (√H1 − √H2 )
Discharge Time CAo √2g dV = As dH → dQ = CAo √2gH
H1
As dH As 1
dt = → t= ∫
CAo √2gH CAo √2g H2 √H
Unsteady Flow
Two Connected 2AHS As1 As2
t= (√H1 − √H2 ) AHS =
Tanks Discharge CAo √2g As1 + As2
Time
Discharge General Formula: From:
H1 Q = CAv → Q = CA√2gH
Weirs
dQ = CdA√2gH → Q = ∫ CA(H)√2gHdH
H2 Express area A as a function of head H
2
Discharge: Cw = C√2g
3
2 For Contracted Weirs:
Q= C√2g ∙ LH 3/2 = Cw LH 3/2
Rectangular 3 Le = L − 0.1H → Singly Contracted
Le = L − 0.2H → Doubly Contracted
Weirs
Francis Formula: Considering Velocity of Approach:
3/2 3/2
Q = 1.84LH 3/2 va2 va2
use [(H + ) −( ) ] as H 3/2
2g 2g

Discharge:
4
Q= C√2g ∙ LH 3/2 = Cw tan(θ/2) H 5/2 L = 2 Htan(θ/2)
Triangular Weirs 15 8
Cw = C√2g
For 90° Weirs: 15

Q = 1.40H 5/2
Trapezoidal Cipolletti Discharge:
Cipolletti Weirs have 1H:4V slopes
Weirs Q = 1.86LH 3/2
From:
H1 V V
Unsteady Flow in As dH Q= →t=
t=∫ t Q
Weirs H2 Q Express V and Q as a function of head
H

Page 6 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 7: Fluid Flow in Pipes

Concept Formula Notes

v = mean velocity
μ
ν = = kinematic viscosity
ρ
Reynold’s v
Re = D μ = dynamic viscosity
Number ν D = pipe diameter

For non-circular pipes: D = 4R

R e < 2000 → Laminar From other sources:
Flow Type R e > 2000 → Turbulent Transition to Turbulence is at
R e = 2000 → Critical Velocity Re = 2300

For Laminar Flow:

64
f=
Friction Factor Re
Values For Turbulent Flow:
−2
ε = absolute roughness
ε/D 5.74 ε
f = 0.25 [log ( + )] = relative roughness
D
3.7 R e 0.9
For Laminar Flow:
Le = 0.06DR e
Entrance Length
For Turbulent Flow:
Le = 4.4DR e1/6
For Laminar Flow:
1
v = vc
2
γh r2
u = vc − 4μLL r u = vc (1 − R2 )
Velocity v = average velocity
Distributions in For Turbulent Flow: vc = max velocity
Pipes τ u = velocity at distance r
v = vc − 3.75√ po vc = v(1 + 1.33√f)

τo R
u = vc − 5.75√ log
p R−r
γhL
τs = r
2L
Shearing Stress Max shearing stress is at pipe walls:
in Pipes τo f r=R
vs = √ = v√
p 8
General: For circular pipes:
Major Head Loss:
fL v 2 0.0826fLQ2
Darcy-Wiesbach hf = hf =
D 2g D5
Derived from:
1 2 1
For circular pipes: v = R3 S 2
General: n
Major Head Loss: 6.35n2 Lv 2 10.29n2 LQ2
Manning hf = 4 hf = 16
Area
R=
D3 D3 Wetted Perimeter
hf
S=
L
General: For circular pipes:
Major Head Loss: Derived from:
1.354LQ1.85 10.67LQ1.85
Hazen Williams hf = 1.85 1.167 1.85 hf = 1.85 4.87 v = 0.849C1 R0.63 S 0.54
C1 R A C1 D
2
Minor Head v
hf = k m k m = minor hf coefficient
Losses 2g

Page 7 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Q = Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3
Pipe in Series
hf = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Pipe in Parallel
hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3

Page 8 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 8: Open Channel

Concept Formula Notes

v2 Energy per unit weight relative to the
Specific Energy H= +d bottom of the channel
2g
A = area
A
v = CR1/2 S1/2 R = hydraulic radius =
Pw
Chézy Formula
Q = ACR1/2 S1/2 S = slope =
hL
L
C = Ché zy coefficient
Kutter and Ganguillet Formula:
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
C= n S
n 0.00155
1+ (23 + )
√R S
Manning Formula: n = roughness coefficient
1 m = Bazin coefficient
Chézy C = R1/6 R = hydraulic radius
n
Coefficients ε = roughness
Bazin Formula: R e = Reynolds number
87 S = slope of energy grade line
C= m
1+
√R
Powell Formula:
C ε
C = −42 log ( + )
Re R
The velocity, depth of flow, and cross-
Uniform Flow S = So (slope of channel bed) sectional area of flow at any point of the
stream is constant.
Boundary Shear
τo = γRS
Stress
Normal Depth dn occurs when S = So
Note that A, n, and S are constant,
Using Chézy-Manning Formula: therefore, to maximize Q, R must be
Most Efficient
1 1 maximized. R can be maximized when
Cross Sections v = R2/3 S1/2 Q = A R2/3 S1/2 Pw is minimum for a given A.
n n
Q ∝ R → Q ∝ A/Pw
Rectangular Section:
T = top width
T = 2d d = depth
R = d/2
Triangular Section:
Proportions for T = top width
T = 2d
d = depth
Most Efficient θ = 90° R = d/2√2
Sections
Trapezoidal Section:
(Top Width = T = top width
Sum of Sides) T = 2s s = sides
R = d/2
Circular Section:
d = depth of flow
Qmax = occurs when d = 0.938D D = diameter
vmax = occurs when d = 0.820D
y = depth of water in channel
u = velocity at distance y ′ from bed
Velocity K = Ká rmá n constant
1 y′
Distribution in u=v+ √gyS (1 + 2.3 log ) 0.40 for clear water
K y 0.20 sediment laden water
Open Channel
v = mean velocity of flow
S = slope of EGL

Page 9 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

v = √2g(H − d) From:
v2
H = 2g + d
Q = A√2g(H − d)

Alternate Stages
of Flow

Alternate Stages:
When plotting a d-Q diagram it can be observed that when d =
Upper Stage (Tranquil/Subcritical)
0, Q = 0 and when d = H, Q = 0. Notice that there are two
FN < 1
depths at which any given discharge will flow with the same
Lower Stage (Rapid/Supercritical)
energy content. These are called alternate stages.
FN > 1
v v Ratio of inertia force to gravity force
Froude Number FN = = v = mean velocity of flow
√gD √g(A/T)
D = hydraulic depth = A/T
Depth at which Q max and Emax occurs
Rectangular Section:
2 3 q2 From:
dc = H or dc = √ Q = A√2g(H − d) → divide by 1 unit b
3 g
Q
q = Unit flow → → d√2g(H − d)
gn2 b
Sc = dq
dc1/3 =0
Critical Depth dd
General: Q = discharge = Avc
Q2 A3c g = acceleration due to gravity
=
g Tc Ac = critical cross − sectional area
Tc = critical top width
Ac
vc = √g
Tc Express A and T in terms of d

The velocity, depth of flow, and cross-

Non-Uniform or
S ≠ So (slope of channel bed) sectional area of flow at any point of the
Varied Flow stream is not the same.

v1 2 n2 v12
At 1: H1 = + d1 S1 =
2g R1 4/3
v2 2
n2 v22
At 2: H2 = + d2 S2 =
2g R 2 4/3
S1 + S2
Length of Reach S̅ = mean slope =
2
So = slope of channel bed

Note that the Slope formula is derived

H2 − H1 from Chézy Formula using Manning’s C
L=
So − S̅

Page 10 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

The abrupt increase in depth of rapidly

flowing water, flow at the jump changes
from a supercritical to a subcritical
stage with an accompanying loss of
kinetic energy.

Height of Jump = d2 − d1
Unbalanced Force = Momentum Rate of Change
Hydraulic Jump Δv F = γAh̅ = total hydrostatic force
ΔF = m Q
v = = velocity of flow
Δt A
F2 − F1 = ρQ(v1 − v2 )
For Rectangular Sections:
q2 d1 + d2 Q
= d1 d2 ( ) q= = unit flow
g 2 b
(d2 − d1 )3 d = water depth
HL =
4d1 d2
θ = angle that the waterline
v2 makes with the horizontal
tan θ = v = velocity of flow
Flow Around gr
2
r = radius of curvature
Channel Bends v T y = height of water rise
y=
gr due to banking
T = waterline width

Page 11 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Chapter 9: Hydrodynamics

Concept Formula Notes

From:
v2 − v1
F = ma = (ρV) ( ) = ρQv
t

ρ = density of fluid
Q = discharge
Reaction Against
For Fixed Plates: v = velocity of liquid
Flat Plates v′ = velocity of plate
R = ρQv
u = relative velocity = v − v′
Q′ = relative discharge = Au

For Moving Plates: Work Done:

R = ρQ′u P = ρAu2 (1 − cos θ)v′

Force Against For Fixed Vanes: ρ = density of fluid

Vanes Fx = ρQ(v1x − v2x ) Q = discharge
v = velocity of liquid
Fy = ρQ(v1y − v2y ) v′ = velocity of plate
Fy u = relative velocity = v − v′
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( ) Q′ = relative discharge = Au
Fx
For Moving Vanes: For Fixed Vanes:
Fx = ρQ′(v1x − v2x ) θ
F = 2ρAv 2 sin ( )
Fy = ρQ′(v1y − v2y ) 2
For Moving Vanes:
Fy Fy = ρAu2 (1 − cos θ)
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( )
Fx Fy = −ρAu2 sin θ

Forces Developed
in Pipes

∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x )

∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y ) F = pA
Ry
R = √R x 2 + R y 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( )
Rx

Page 12 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

For Rigid Pipes: Δp

EB =
ΔV
EB V
c=√ For water at 30°C:
ρ EB = 2.25 MPa
1 1 d
Celerity = +
EC EB Et
For Non-rigid Pipes:
1 d −1
EC = ( + )
EC EB Et
c=√ For steel:
ρ
E = 200 GPa
t = thickness of pipe
Time required from valve to reservoir and back
to the valve:
2L
T=
c From:
Distance where pressure rise cannot extend all d
t=
the way to the reservoir: v
ct c
xo = L = valve to reservoir distance
Water Hammer 2 c = celerity
Rapid Closure Pressure Increase: (t c < T) ρ = density
ph = ρcv v = velocity of flow
Slow Closure Pressure Increase: (t c > T) t c = time for closure
2L
ph = ρ ( ) v
tc
Instantaneous Partial Closure:
ph = pcΔv

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