Khan’s 1

NUCLEI (for 2022-23 session) PHYSICS

(Unedited/unchecked) 9811194916
Mass defect: It is found that the rest mass of the nucleus is slightly less
Syllabus: Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force,
than the sum of the rest masses of the constituent nucleon. The
mass-energy relation, mass defect, binding energy per difference is called the mass defect. It means during formation of the
nucleon and its variation with mass number, nuclear fission, nucleus (i.e. bringing the nucleons from far away distances to make the
nuclear fusion. nucleus) energy is released. Consider a nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 of rest mass M. Its
Properties of nuclear force mass defect (∆𝑀) is given by
(i) Nuclear force is independent of the charge. The nuclear forces ∆𝑀 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀
between two protons, two neutrons or a neutron and a proton are same.
(ii) Nuclear force is short ranged, acts only up to a few fermi. The nuclear Nuclear binding energy: Energy required to dissociate the nucleus (i.e.
force between two nucleons decreases rapidly with increasing separation taking the nucleons far apart) into its constituent nucleons is called the
between them. nuclear binding energy.
{The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances Since an energy, equivalent to the mass defect is released during the
of about 1 femtometre (fm) but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at formation of the nucleus, this much energy has to be supplied to the
distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear nucleus in order to dissociate it. Hence according to Einstein’s mass-
force becomes repulsive. 1 femtometre (fm), also called 1 fermi (Fm) is energy relation, the binding energy (𝐸𝑏 ) of a nucleus (𝐴𝑍𝑋) is
equal to 10-15 m.} 𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑀𝑐 2 = {𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀}𝐶 2
(iii) Nuclear force is much stronger than electrostatic force Nuclear binding energy is always positive.
(~ 50 – 60 times) in the nuclear range.
{𝐹𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 > 𝐹𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 > 𝐹𝑊𝑒𝑎𝑘 > 𝐹𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 }
Why is the mass of the nucleus less than the sum of the masses of
(iv) Nuclear force is not a central force. The force between a pair of individual nucleons?
nucleon is not solely determined by the distance between them, it also Mass of nucleus = mass of the nucleons + negative energy of the nucleus
depends upon the spins of the nucleons. The force is stronger if the spins due to attractive force among the nucleons. Or,
of the nucleons are parallel and weaker if the spins are antiparallel.
Mass of nucleus = mass of the nucleons – biding energy
The negative energy, according to Einstein’s mass-energy relation
Potential energy
of a pair of contributes to a negative mass to the nucleus. Hence mass of the nucleus
nucleons as a is less than the sum of the masses of individual nucleons.
function of their
separation. For a Binding energy per nucleon (𝑬𝒃/𝒏) is the average energy per nucleon
separation require to dissociate the nucleus in to its constituent nucleons. Thus,
Potential energy

greater than 𝑟0 ,
𝑟0 = 0.8 Fm Distance the force is 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛
attractive and for 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
=
a separation less 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
than 𝑟0 , the force 𝑬𝒃
Or, 𝑬𝒃/𝒏 = (A is mass number)
is strongly 𝑨
repulsive. Binding energy per nucleon is the measure of stability of the nucleus.
More is the binding energy per nucleons, more stable is the nucleus.

Atomic mass unit (u) = One-twelfth of the mass of 126𝐶 atom

Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number:
1 𝑢 = 1.660565 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔.

A graph showing this variation is given below.

Atomic mass: Every element consists of a mixture of several isotopes
having different masses and different relative abundance. The weighted
average of the masses of the isotopes of an element is the atomic mass
of that element. This explains why the atomic masses of certain elements
are not near integers. (More to be discussed during the lecture)

Size of the nucleus: The radius of a nucleus of mass number A is given

by
𝒓 = 𝒓𝟎 𝑨𝟏⁄𝟑 (r0 = 1.2 fm or 1.2 × 10−15 m)

Density of the nuclear matter: Density of the nuclear matter is

independent of the size of the nucleus.
Let average mass of each nucleon be m then the density of the nucleus
of mass number A can be found as
mass of the nucleus mA 3mA Important features of the graph:
𝜌= = = = A constant (i) The binding energy per nucleon (Eb/n) is practically constant, i.e.
volume of the nuclus (4⁄3)πr 3 πr03 A
Hence the density of nuclear matter is independent of the size (mass practically independent of the mass number for middle mass nuclei
number or radius) of the nucleus. Nuclear matter behaves as a liquid (30 < A < 170). The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56
of constant density. (More about this during the lecture) which is the mass number of iron nucleus Fe56. It’s one of the most stable
nuclides that exist. This explains why there is so much of it in the
Nuclear density 𝜌 ≈ 2.3 × 1017 kgm3 which is larger than ordinary universe.
matter, say water by an order of 1014 .
 Khan’s
PHYSICS 2
9811194916
No. of Energy 𝑬𝒃 𝑬𝒃/𝒏
(ii) Eb/n is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170)
Nucleons pairs (K is the = 𝑬𝒃 ⁄𝑨
(iii) The curve has a zig zag shape i.e. it has some local maxima. E.g. (A) energy per
Eb/n of 4He, 12C or 16O etc. is higher than that of their neighbouring pair)
nuclides 1 0 0 0
Conclusions from these two observations and their explanations:
2 1 k 0.5k
(i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a
binding energy per nucleon of a few MeV 3 3 3k 1.0k
Since Eb/n is positive, energy of the nucleons is negative and a negative
energy is due to attractive forces. Further binding energy per nucleon is 4 6 6k 1.5k
of the order of MeV. Compare this with the binding energy of the electrons
in the atoms which is of the order of eV and is due to electrostatic forces. 5 10 10k 2.0k
Hence nuclear force is much stronger than electrostatic force.
(ii) Nuclear force is short ranged
6 ~14 14k 2.3k
Actually, many features of the curve can be explained by the fact that
nuclear force is short ranged.
(a) Consistency of Eb/n in the range 30 < A < 170:
Consider a nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It makes energy (iii) There is some shell-like structure in the nucleus
pairs only with its neighbouring nucleons which are in the range of its This conclusion is drawn from the zig zag shape of the curve. Recall the
nuclear force. Let this nucleon makes energy pairs with 𝑝 neighbouring curve of the ionization energies of elements, given below for your quick
nucleons, its energy will be 𝑝𝑘 where 𝑘 is the energy per pair. Now if we reference. You can see that some configurations are more stable than
add more nucleons on the surface of this their nearby elements on both the sides. This is because of the shell
nucleus, they will not change the binding structure in the atoms.
energy of the nucleons inside. Since most of
the nucleons inside a sufficiently large
nucleus reside inside it and not on the
surface, the change in binding energy per
nucleon will be small. It will remain almost
constant and approximately equal to 𝑝𝑘.
(b) Binding energy per nucleon decreases for A > 170:
Binding energy per nucleon is the average of the energy due to attractive
nuclear force between the nucleons (i.e. neutrons and protons) and
electrostatic repulsive force between the protons. The repulsive force
contributes a negative factor in the binding energy per nucleon. In a large The protons and neutrons inside a nucleus move in well-defined quantum
size nucleus, a proton (shown in red in the figure) is attracted by a few states. Because of the Pauli Exclusion Principle, each quantum state can
neighbouring nucleons, because the contain at the most two protons (with opposite spins) and two neutrons
nuclear force is short ranged while it is (again with opposite spins). Thus nuclear force favours pairing of two
repelled by all the protons of the nucleus protons and two neutrons together. This combination is more stable as
because electrostatic force is long compared to others because each proton finds a neutron as its partner
ranged. Thus, in a large size nucleus, the of same spin. Now notice the mass numbers of He, C, O, S etc. They are
role of electrostatic repulsive force in multiple of four and have even and equal number of protons and
increases and the biding energy per neutrons. Got the point?
nucleon decreases. (iv) Energy can be obtained by fission of heavier nuclei
(This also makes the heavier nuclei unstable. Some stability is achieved Heavier nuclei have lower binding energy per nucleon as compared to
by increasing the number of neutrons because this increases the middle mass nuclei. Thus, if a heavy nucleus breaks into two middle
distance between the protons and decreases the repulsive force to some mass nuclei, energy is released. This is the principle of obtaining energy
extent. That is why there are more neutrons than protons in heavier by a process known as fission. Energy in nuclear reactors and atom
nuclei) bombs is obtained by this process.
(c) Binding energy per nucleon is small and increases with increasing (v) Energy can be obtained by fusion of lighter nuclei
number of nucleons for A < 30: Lighter nuclei have lower binding energy per nucleon as compared to
heavier nuclei. Thus, if two light nuclei fuse together to make a heavier
In smaller nuclei, there are more nucleon on the surface than that in the
nucleus, energy is released. This is the principle of obtaining energy by
interior. Nucleons on the surface makes fewer energy pairs as compared
a process called fusion. Energy in the sun and in a hydrogen bomb is
to those in the interior. Hence for smaller nuclei the binding energy per
released by this process.
nucleon is small.
{Nature of the curve of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number
Further, if a nucleon is added to a small nucleus, it makes energy pairs can be understood in another way: The net binding energy of a nucleus
with all the existing nucleons. Consequently, number of energy pairs is that of the nuclear attraction, minus the disruptive energy of the electric
increase more rapidly as compared to the number of nucleons. Hence force. As nuclei get heavier than helium, their net binding energy per
binding energy per nucleon increases for increasing mass number in nucleon (deduced from the difference in mass between the nucleus and
smaller nuclei. A highly simplified explanation of this is given in the table the sum of masses of component nucleons) grows more and more slowly,
below where electrostatic forces has not been taken into consideration. reaching its peak at iron. As nucleons are added, the total nuclear binding
energy always increases—but the total disruptive energy of electric
forces (positive protons repelling other protons) also increases, and past
iron, the second increase outweighs the first.}

Nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear fission: When a heavier nucleus splits into two middle mass
nuclei, energy is released. The process is called nuclear fission. For
example, when 23592𝑈 is bombarded with a neutron, 92𝑈 breaks into two
235

middle mass nuclear fragments. The fragments are not necessarily same
every time. Here are a few examples.
1 235 236 144 89 1
0𝑛 + 92 𝑈 → 92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄
1 235 236 133 99 1
0𝑛 + 92 𝑈 → 92𝑈 → 51𝑆𝑏 + 41𝑁𝑏 + 4 0𝑛 + 𝑄

The energy released (the Q value) is of the order of 200 MeV per fission.
Nuclear fission is the source of energy released in nuclear reactors and
nuclear bombs.
The energy released by fission in reactors heats water into steam. The
steam is used to spin a turbine to produce electricity.
Nuclear fusion: When two smaller nuclei fuse to form a bigger nucleus,
energy is released. The process is called nuclear fusion. A few examples
are
1 1 2 +
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 𝑒 + 0.42 𝑀𝑒𝑣
2 2 3 1
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 1𝐻 + 4.03 𝑀𝑒𝑣

Energy released in the stars and hydrogen bombs is due to fusion

reactions.