ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE

PERIODIC TABLE
Preface
The structure of the atom is extensively covered here. The periodic table is the
arrangement of atoms of elements based on their atomic structure. Emphasis
on the trends across and down the periodic table of atoms is important for the
teacher facilitator. This work should be covered before “Chemical bonding
and structure”. The two complements each other in understanding periodicity.
Candidate-user preparing for any secondary level chemistry from members of
A.ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The atom is the smallest particle of an element that take part in a chemical
reaction.The atom is made up of three subatomic particle:
(i)Protons
(ii)Electrons
(iii)Neutrons

(i) Protons
1. The proton is positively charged
2. Is found in the centre of an atom called
nucleus 3.It has a relative mass 1
4.The number of protons in a atom of an element is its Atomic number

(ii) Electrons
1. The Electrons is negatively charged
2. Is found in fixed regions surrounding the centre of an atom called
energy levels/orbitals.
3. It has a relative mass 1/1840
4. The number of protons and electrons in a atom of an element is always equal

(iii) Neutrons
1.The Neutron is neither positively or negatively charged thus neutral.
2.Like protons it is found in the centre of an atom called nucleus
3. It has a relative mass 1
4. The number of protons and neutrons in a atom of an element is its
Mass number

Diagram showing the relative positions of protons ,electrons and neutrons

in an atom of an element
 2

Diagram showing the relative positions of protons, electrons and neutrons

in an atom of Carbon

The table below show atomic structure of the 1st twenty elements.

Symbol Protons Electrons Neutrons Atomic Mass number

Element number

Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 9
Boron B 5 5 6 5 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 20
 3

Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 28
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 31
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 35
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 40

Most atoms of elements exist as isotopes.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, having the same number of
protons/atomic number but different number of neutrons/mass number.
By convention, isotopes are written with the mass number as superscript and
the atomic number as subscript to the left of the chemical symbol of the
element. i.e.
mass number
n X
m
atomic number symbol of element
Below is the conventional method of writing the 1st twenty elements showing
the mass numbers and atomic numbers;
1 4 7 9 11 12
1H 2He 3Li 4Be 5B 6C

14 16 199 2010 2311 2412

7N 8O F Ne Na Mg
27 28 31 32 35 40
13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar
39 40
19K 20

The table below shows some common natural isotopes of some elements
Element Isotopes Protons Electrons Neutrons Atomic Mass
number number
1
Hydrogen 21H 1 1 0 1 1
1 H(deuterium) 1 1 2 1 2
3
1H(Tritium) 1 1 3 1 3

Chlorine 35
17Cl 17 17 18 17 35
37
17Cl
17 17 20 17 37

Potassium 39
19K 19 19 20 19 39
40
19K
19 19 21 19 40
 4

41
19K 19 19 22 19 41

Oxygen 16
8O 8 8 8 8 16
18
8O 8 8 10 8 18

Uranium 235
92U 92 92 143 92 235
238
92U 92 92 146 92 238

Neon 22
10Ne 10 10 12 10 22
20
10Ne 10 10 10 10 20
21
10Ne 10 10 11 10 21
-22
The mass of an average atom is very small (10 g).Masses of atoms are
therefore expressed in relation to a chosen element.
The atom recommended is 12C isotope whose mass is arbitrarily assigned as
12.0 atomic mass units(a.m.u) .
All other atoms are compared to the mass of 12C isotope to give the relative
at The relative atomic mass(RAM) is therefore defined as “the mass of
average atom of an element compared to 1/12 an atom of 12C isotope
whose mass is arbitrarily fixed as 12.000 atomic mass units(a.m.u) ” i.e;

RAM = mass of atom of an element

1
/12 of one atom of 12C isotope

Accurate relative atomic masses (RAM) are got from the mass spectrometer.
Mass spectrometer determines the isotopes of the element and their relative
abundance/availability.
Using the relative abundances/availability of the isotopes, the relative atomic
mass (RAM) can be determined /calculated as in the below examples.
a) Chlorine occurs as 75% 3517Cl and 25% 3717Cl isotopes. Calculate
the relative atomic mass of Chlorine.

Working
100 atoms of chlorine contains 75 atoms of 3517Cl
isotopes 100 atoms of chlorine contains 75 atoms of
37
17Cl isotopes Therefore;
RAM of chlorine = ( 75/100 x 35) + 25/100 x 37 = 35.5
Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of chlorine exist as 35 Cl(75%) than as 37 Cl(25%)
17 17
therefore RAM is nearer to the more abundant isotope.

b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of potassium given that it exist as;
 5

93.1% 39 19K , 0.01% 40

K
19 , 6.89% 41
K
19 ,

Working
100 atoms of potassium contains 93.1 atoms of
39 K isotopes
19
100 atoms of potassium contains 0.01 atoms of
40 K isotopes
19
100 atoms of potassium contains 6.89 atoms of
41 K isotopes
19
Therefore;
RAM of potassium = (93.1/100 x39) + (0.01/100 x 40) +(6.89 /100 x 39)
=
Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of potassium exist as K (93.1%) therefore RAM is
39
nearer to the more abundant
39 K 19
isotope.
19

c) Calculate20the relative atomic mass of Neon given that it exist as;

90.92% 10Ne , 0.26% 21 Ne , 8.82% 22 Ne,
10 10

Working
100 atoms of Neon contains 90.92 atoms of 10Ne isotopes
20

100 atoms of Neon contains 0.26 atoms of 2110Ne

isotopes 100 atoms of Neon contains 8.82 atoms of 2210 Ne
isotopes Therefore;
RAM of Neon = (90.92/100 x20) + (0.26/100 x 21) +(8.82 /100 x 22)
=
Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of Neon exist as 2010 Ne (90.92%) therefore RAM
is nearer to the more abundant1020 Ne isotope.

d) Calculate20the relative atomic mass of Argon given that it exist as;

90.92% 10Ne , 0.26% 21 Ne , 8.82% 22 Ne,
10 10
NB
The relative atomic mass is a measure of the masses of atoms. The higher the
relative atomic mass, the heavier the atom.

Electrons are found in energy levels/orbital.

An energy level is a fixed region around/surrounding the nucleus of an atom
occupied by electrons of the same (potential) energy.
By convention energy levels are named 1,2,3… outwards from the region
nearest to nucleus.

Each energy level is occupied by a fixed number of electrons:

The 1st energy level is occupied by a maximum of two electrons
 6

The 2nd energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons

The 3rd energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons( or
eighteen electrons if available)
The 4th energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons( or
eighteen or thirty two electrons if available)

This arrangement of electrons in an atom is called electron configuration /

structure.
By convention the electron configuration / structure of an atom of an element
can be shown in form of a diagram using either cross(x) or dot(●) to

Practice examples drawing electronic configurations

a) 11H has - in nucleus1proton and 0 neutrons

- 1 electron in the 1st energy levels thus:
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons(represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Hydrogen is thus: 1:

b) 42He has - in nucleus 2 proton and 2 neutrons Kommentar

[s1]:
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
thus:

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Helium is thus: 2:

c) 73Li has - in nucleus 3 proton and 4 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-1 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Lithium is thus: 2:1

 7

d) 94Be has - in nucleus 4 proton and 5 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-2 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Beryllium is thus: 2:2

e) 11 5B has - in nucleus 5 proton and 6 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-3 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Boron is thus: 2:3

12
f) 6 C has - in nucleus 6 proton and 6 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-4 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Carbon is thus: 2:4

g) 14 7N has - in nucleus 7 proton and 7 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-5 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
 8

Electronic structure of Nitrogen is thus: 2:5

h) 16 8O has - in nucleus 8 proton and 8 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-6 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Oxygen is thus: 2:6

i) 19 9F has - in nucleus 9 proton and 10 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-7 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Fluorine is thus: 2:7

i) 20 10Ne has - in nucleus 10 proton and 10 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)

Electronic structure of Neon is thus: 2:8

j) 23 11Na has - in nucleus 11 proton and 12 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
 9

-1 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)

Electronic structure of Sodium is thus: 2:8:1

k)
24
Mg has - in nucleus 12 proton and 12 neutrons
12
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-2 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)

Electronic structure of Magnesium is thus: 2:8:2

l) 27 13Al has - in nucleus 13 proton and 14 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-3 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)

Electronic structure of Aluminium is thus: 2:8:3

m) 28 14Si has - in nucleus 14 proton and 14 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-4 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
 10

Electrons (represented by dot(.)

Electronic structure of Silicon is thus: 2:8:4
n) 31 P has - in nucleus 14 proton and 15 neutrons
15
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-5 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Phosphorus is thus: 2:8:5
o) 32 S has - in nucleus 16 proton and 16 neutrons
16
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-6 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Sulphur is thus: 2:8:6
p) 35 Cl has - in nucleus 18 proton and 17 neutrons
17
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-7 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Chlorine is thus: 2:8:7
p) 40 Ar has - in nucleus 22 proton and 18 neutrons
18
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
 11

Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Argon is thus: 2:8:8
q) 39 K has - in nucleus 20 proton and 19 neutrons
19
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels
-1 electron in the 4th energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Potassium is thus: 2:8:8:1
40
r) 20 Ca has - in nucleus 20 proton and 20 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels
-2 electron in the 4th energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot(.)
Electronic structure of Calcium is thus: 2:8:8:2
 12

B.PERIODIC TABLE

There are over 100 elements so far discovered. Scientists have tried to group
them together in a periodic table.
A periodic table is a horizontal and vertical arrangement of elements according
to their atomic numbers.
This table was successfully arranged in 1913 by the British scientist Henry
Moseley from the previous work of the Russian Scientist Dmitri Mendeleev.
The horizontal arrangement forms period. Atoms in the same period have the
same the same number of energy levels in their electronic structure. i.e.
The number of energy levels in the electronic configuration of an element
determine the period to which the element is in the periodic table.
e.g.
Which period of the periodic table are the following isotopes/elements/atoms?
a) 12 6C

Electron structure 2:4 => 2 energy levels used thus Period 2

23
b) 11Na

Electron structure 2:8:1 => 3 energy levels used thus Period 3

39
c) 19K

Electron structure 2:8:8:1 => 4 energy levels used thus Period 4

d) 11H
Electron structure 1: => 1 energy level used thus Period 1

The vertical arrangement of elements forms a group. Atoms in the same

have the same the same group have the same number of outer energy level
electrons as per their electronic structure. i.e.
The number of electrons in the outer energy level an element determine the
group to which the element is ,in the periodic table.
 13

12
a) 6C
Electron structure 2:4 => 4 electrons in outer energy level thus Group IV
23
b) 11C
Electron structure 2:8:1 => 1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I
39
c) 19K

Electron structure 2:8:8:1=>1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I

1
d) H
1
Electron structure 1: => 1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I

By convention;
(i) Periods are named using English numerals 1,2,3,4,…
(ii) Groups are named using Roman numerals I,II,III,IV,…

There are eighteen groups in a standard periodic table.

There are seven periods in a standard periodic table.

THE STANDARD PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

When an atom has maximum number of electrons in its outer energy level, it
is said to be stable.
When an atom has no maximum number of electrons in its outer energy level,
it is said to be unstable.
All stable atoms are in group 8/18 of the periodic table. All other elements are
unstable.
 14

All unstable atoms/isotopes try to be stable through chemical reactions. A

chemical reaction involves gaining or losing outer electrons (electron transfer)
.When electron transfer take place, an ion is formed.

An ion is formed when an unstable atom gain or donate electrons in its

outer energy level inorder to be stable. Whether an atom gain or donate
electrons depend on the relative energy required to donate or gain extra
electrons i.e. Examples
1. 19 9 F has electronic structure/configuration 2:7.
It can donate the seven outer electrons to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:.
It can gain one extra electron to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:8. Gaining requires less energy, and thus
Fluorine reacts by gaining one extra electrons.
2. 2313 Al has electronic structure/configuration 2:8:3
It can donate the three outer electrons to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:8.
It can gain five extra electrons to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:8:8. Donating requires less energy, and thus
Aluminium reacts by donating its three outer electrons.

Elements with less than four electrons in the outer energy level donates /lose the
outer electrons to be stable and form a positively charged ion called cation.
A cation therefore has more protons(positive charge) than electrons(negative
charge)
Generally metals usually form cation
Elements with more than four electrons in the outer energy level gain /acquire
extra electrons in the outer energy level to be stable and form a negatively
charged ion called anion.
An anion therefore has less protons(positive charge) than electrons(negative
charge)
Generally non metals usually form anion. Except Hydrogen
The charge carried by an ion is equal to the number of electrons
gained/acquired or donated/lost.

Examples of ion formation

1.11H
H -> H+ + e
(atom) (monovalent cation) (electrons donated/lost)
Electronic configuration 1: (No electrons remains)
 15

27
2. 13 Al
Al -> Al3+ + 3e
(atom) (trivalent cation) (3 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:3 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

3. 2311 Na
Na -> Na+ + e
(atom) (cation) ( 1 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:1 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

4. 2412Mg
Mg -> Mg2+ + 2e
(atom) (cation) ( 2 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:1 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

5. 168O
O + 2e -> O2-
(atom) ( 2 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:6 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

6. 147N
N + 3e -> N3-
(atom) ( 3 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:5 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

7. 3115P
P + 3e -> P3-
(atom) ( 3 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:5 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

8. 199F
F + e -> F-
(atom) ( 1 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:7 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

9. 3517Cl
 16

Cl + e -> Cl-
(atom) ( 1 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:8:7 2:8:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

3. 3919 K
K -> K+ + e
(atom) (cation) ( 1 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:8:1 2:8:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

When an element donate/loses its outer electrons ,the process is called

oxidation. When an element acquires/gains extra electrons in its outer energy
level,the process is called reduction.The charge carried by an atom, cation or
anion is its oxidation state.

Table showing the oxidation states of some isotopes

Element Symbol of element / isotopes Charge of ion Oxidation state
1
Hydrogen 2
1H H+ +1
1H(deuterium) +1
3 H+
1 H(Tritium) +1
H+-
Chlorine 35
17Cl Cl -1
37
17Cl
Cl- -1

Potassium 39
19K K+ +1
40
19K +1
41 K+ +1
19K K+
Oxygen 16
8O O2- -2
18
8O O2- -2
24
Magnesium Mg
12 Mg2+ +2
23
sodium Na
11 Na+ +1

Copper Cu Cu+ +1
Cu2+ +2
Iron Fe2+ +2
+3
Fe3+
Lead Pb2+ +2
+4
Pb4+
 17

Manganese Mn2+ +2
+7
Mn7+
Chromium Cr3+ +3
+6
Cr4+6+
Sulphur S +4
+6
S6+
Carbon C2+ +2
+4
C4+
Note :
Some elements can exist in more than one oxidation state.They are said to
have variable oxidation state.
Roman capital numeral is used to indicate the oxidation state of an element
with a variable oxidation state in a compound.

Examples:
(i) Copper (I) means Cu+ as in Copper(I)oxide
(ii) Copper (II) means Cu2+ as in Copper(II)oxide
(iii) Iron (II) means Fe2+ as in Iron(II)sulphide
(iv) Iron (III) means Fe3+ as in Iron(III)chloride
(iv) Sulphur(VI)mean S6+ as in Iron(III)sulphate(VI)
(v) Sulphur(VI)mean S6+ as in sulphur(VI)oxide
(vi) Sulphur(IV)mean S4+ as in sulphur(IV)oxide
(vii) Sulphur(IV)mean S4+ as in sodium sulphate(IV)
(ix) Carbon(IV)mean C4+ as in carbon(IV)oxide
(x) Carbon(IV)mean C4+ as in Lead(II)carbonate(IV)
(xi) Carbon(II)mean C2+ as in carbon(II)oxide
(xii) Manganese(IV)mean Mn4+ as in Manganese(IV)oxide

A compound is a combination of two or more elements in fixed proportions.

The ratio of the atoms making a compound is called the chemical formulae.
Elements combine together to form a compound depending on their combining
power.
The combining power of atoms in an element is called Valency.Valency of an
element is equal to the number of:
(i)hydrogen atoms that an atom of element can combine with or
displace. (ii)electrons gained /acquired in outer energy level by non
metals to be stable/attain duplet/octet.
(iii) electrons donated/lost by outer energy level of metals to be
stable/attain octet/duplet.
(iv) charges carried by ions/cations/ions
 18

Group of atoms that react as a unit during chemical reactions are called
radicals.Elements with variable oxidation state also have more than one
valency.

Table showing the valency of common radicals.

Radical name Chemical formulae Combining power / Valency

Ammonium NH4 + 1
Hydroxide OH- 1
Nitrate(V) NO3 - 1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- 1
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) HSO4- 1
Hydrogen sulphate(IV) HSO3- 1
Manganate(VII) MnO4- 1
Chromate(VI) CrO42- 2
Dichromate(VI) Cr2O 72- 2
Sulphate(VI) SO 42- 2
Sulphate(IV) SO 32- 2
Carbonate(IV) CO32- 2
Phosphate(V) PO 42- 3

Table showing the valency of some common metal and non metals

Element/metal Valency Element/non metal Valency

Hydrogen 1 Florine 1
Lithium 1 Chlorine 1
Beryllium 2 Bromine 1
Boron 3 Iodine 1
Sodium 1 Carbon 4
Magnesium 2 Nitrogen 3
Aluminium 3 Oxygen 2
Potassium 1 Phosphorus 3
Calcium 2
Zinc 2
Barium 2
Mercury 2
Iron 2 and 3
Copper 1 and 2
Manganese 2 and 4
Lead 2 and 4
 19

From the valency of elements , the chemical formular of a compound can be

derived using the following procedure:
(i) Identify the elements and radicals making the compound
(ii) Write the symbol/formular of the elements making the
compound starting with the metallic element
(iii) Assign the valency of each element /radical as superscript.
(iv)Interchange/exchange the valencies of each element as subscript.
(v)Divide by the smallest/lowest valency to derive the smallest whole
number ratios
Ignore a valency of 1.
This is the chemical formula.

Practice examples
Write the chemical formula of
(a)Aluminium oxide

Elements making compound Aluminium Oxygen

Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al O
Assign valencies as superscript Al3 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Al2 O3
Divide by smallest valency to get whole number - -

Chemical formula of Aluminium oxide is thus: Al2 O3

This means:2atoms of Aluminium combine with 3 atoms of Oxygen

(b)Sodium oxide

Elements making compound Sodium Oxygen

Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Na O
Assign valencies as superscript Na1 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Na2 O1
Divide by smallest valency to get whole number - -

Chemical formula of Sodium oxide is thus: Na2 O

This means:2atoms of Sodium combine with 1 atom of Oxygen
(c)Calcium oxide
Elements making compound Calcium Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Ca O
Assign valencies as superscript Ca2 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Ca2 O2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio Ca1 O1
 20

Chemical formula of Calcium oxide is thus: CaO

This means:1 atom of calcium combine with 1 atom of Oxygen.

(d) Lead(IV)oxide
Elements making compound Lead Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Pb O
Assign valencies as superscript Pb4 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Pb2 O4
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio Pb1 O2

Chemical formula of Lead(IV) oxide is thus: PbO2

This means:1 atom of lead combine with 2 atoms of Oxygen.

(e) Lead(II)oxide
Elements making compound Lead Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Pb O
Assign valencies as superscript Pb2 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Pb2 O2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio Pb1 O1

Chemical formula of Lead(II) oxide is thus: PbO

This means:1 atom of lead combine with 1 atom of Oxygen.

(e) Iron(III)oxide
Elements making compound Iron Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Fe O
Assign valencies as superscript Fe3 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Fe2 O3
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio - -

Chemical formula of Iron(III) oxide is thus: Fe2O3

This means:2 atom of lead combine with 3 atom of Oxygen.

(f) Iron(II)sulphate(VI)
Elements making compound Iron sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Fe SO4
Assign valencies as superscript Fe2 SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Fe2 SO4 2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio Fe1 SO4 1
 21

Chemical formula of Iron(II) sulphate(VI) is thus: FeSO4

This means:1 atom of Iron combine with 1 sulphate(VI) radical.

(g) Copper(II)sulphate(VI)
Elements making compound Copper sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Cu SO4
Assign valencies as superscript Cu2 SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Cu2 SO4 2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio Cu1 SO4 1

Chemical formula of Cu(II)sulphate(VI) is thus: CuSO4

This means:1 atom of Copper combine with 1 sulphate(VI) radical.

(h) Aluminium sulphate(VI)

Elements making compound Aluminium sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al SO4
Assign valencies as superscript Al3 SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Al2 SO4 3
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio - -

Chemical formula of Aluminium sulphate(VI) is thus: Al2(SO4)3

This means:2 atom of Aluminium combine with 3 sulphate(VI) radical.

(i) Aluminium nitrate(V)

Elements making compound Aluminium nitrate(V)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al NO3
Assign valencies as superscript Al3 NO3 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Al1 NO3 3
Divide by two to get smallest whole number ratio - -
Chemical formula of Aluminium sulphate(VI) is thus: Al (NO3)3
This means:1 atom of Aluminium combine with 3 nitrate(V) radical.
(j)Potassium manganate(VII)
Elements making compound Potassium manganate(VII)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound K MnO4
Assign valencies as superscript K1 MnO4 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript K1 MnO4 1
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
 22

Chemical formula of Potassium manganate(VII) is thus: KMnO4

This means:1 atom of Potassium combine with 4 manganate(VII) radical.

(k) Sodium dichromate(VI)

Elements making compound Sodium dichromate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Na Cr2O7
Assign valencies as superscript Na 1 Cr2O7 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Na2 Cr2O7 1
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio

Chemical formula of Sodium dichromate(VI) is thus: Na2 Cr2O7

This means:2 atom of Sodium combine with 1 dichromate(VI) radical.

(l) Calcium hydrogen carbonate

Elements making compound Calcium Hydrogen

carbonate
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Ca CO3
Assign valencies as superscript Ca 2 HCO3 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Ca1 HCO3 2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio

Chemical formula of Calcium hydrogen carbonate is thus: Ca(HCO3)2

This means:1 atom of Calcium combine with 2 hydrogen carbonate
radical.

(l)Magnesium hydrogen sulphate(VI)

Elements making compound Magnesium Hydrogen
sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Mg HSO4
2
Assign valencies as superscript Mg HSO4 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as subscript Mg1 HSO4 2
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio

Chemical formula of Magnesium hydrogen sulphate(VI) is thus: Mg(HSO4)2

This means:1 atom of Magnesium combine with 2 hydrogen sulphate(VI)
radical.

Compounds are formed from chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is formed

when atoms of the reactants break free to bond again and form products. A
chemical reaction is a statement showing the movement of reactants to form
products. The following procedure is used in writing a chemical equations:
 23

1. Write the word equation

2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with the
lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal. This
is called balancing.
Do not change the chemical formula of the products/reactants.
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols of the reactants and
products after each chemical formula as:
(i) (s) for solids
(ii) (l) for liquids
(iii) (g) for gas
(iv) (aq) for aqueous/dissolved in water to make a solution.

Practice examples
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following
(a) Hydrogen gas is prepared from reacting Zinc granules with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Procedure

1. Write the word equation

Zinc + Hydrochloric acid -> Zinc chloride + hydrogen gas

2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
Zn + HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2

3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is

equal to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
Number of atoms of Zn on the reactant side is equal to product side
One atom of H in HCl on the reactant side is not equal to two atoms in
H2 on product side.
One atom of Cl in HCl on the reactant side is not equal to two atoms
in ZnCl2 on product side.

4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with

the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not
equal.
Multiply HCl by “2” to get “2” Hydrogen and “2” Chlorine on product
and reactant side.
Zn + 2 HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols .
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 24

(b) Oxygen gas is prepared from decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide

solution to water
Procedure

1. Write the word equation

Hydrogen peroxide -> Water + oxygen gas

2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
H2O2 -> H 2O + O2

3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is

equal to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
Number of atoms of H on the reactant side is equal to product side
Two atom of O in H2O2 on the reactant side is not equal to three atoms
(one in H2O and two in O2) on product side.

4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with

the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not
equal.
Multiply H2O2 by “2” to get “4” Hydrogen and “4” Oxygen on
reactants Multiply H2O by “2” to get “4” Hydrogen and “2” Oxygen
on product
side
When the “2” Oxygen in O2 and the“2” in H2O are added on product side
they are equal to the“4” Oxygen on reactants side.
2H2O2 -> 2H2O + O2

5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols .

2H2O2(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

(c) Chlorine gas is prepared from Potassium manganate(VII) reacting with

hydrochloric acid to form potassium chloride solution, manganese(II)
chloride solution,water and chlorine gas.

Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Potassium manganate(VII) + Hydrochloric acid ->
potassium chloride + manganese(II) chloride + chlorine +water

2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
KMnO4 + HCl -> KCl + MnCl2 +H2O + Cl2

3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is

equal to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
 25

Number of atoms of K and Mn on the reactant side is equal to

product side
Two atom of H in H2O on the product side is not equal to one atom
on reactant side.
Four atom of O in KMnO4 is not equal to one in H2O
One atom of Cl in HCl on reactant side is not equal to three (one in H2O
and two in Cl2)

4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with

the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not
equal.
Multiply HCl by “16” to get “16” Hydrogen and “16” Chlorine on
reactants
Multiply KMnO4 by “2” to get “2” Potassium and “2” manganese, “2 x4
=8” Oxygen on reactant side.
Balance the product side to get:

2 KMnO4 +16 HCl -> 2 KCl + 2 MnCl2 +8 H2O + 5 Cl2

5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols .

2KMnO4(s) +16 HCl(aq)-> 2 KCl (aq) + 2MnCl2(aq)+8 H2O(l)+5 Cl2(g)

(d)Carbon(IV)oxide gas is prepared from Calcium carbonate reacting with

hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride solution, water and
carbon(IV)oxide gas.

Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid ->
calcium chloride solution+ water +carbon(IV)oxide
2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
CaCO3 + HCl -> CaCl2 +H2O + CO2

3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is

equal to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.

4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with

the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not
equal.

5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols .

CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(d) Sodium hydroxide solution neutralizes hydrochloric acid to form salt and
water.
 26

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

(e) Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

(f) Calcium reacts withwater to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

(g) Copper(II)Oxide solid reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form

copper(II)chloride and water.
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

(h) Hydrogen sulphide reacts with Oxygen to form sulphur(IV)Oxide and

water.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(i) Magnesium reacts with steam to form Magnesium Oxide and

Hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)

(j) Ethane(C2H6) gas burns in air to form Carbon(IV)Oxide and water.

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

(k) Ethene(C2H4) gas burns in air to form Carbon(IV)Oxide and water.

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(l) Ethyne(C2H2) gas burns in air to form Carbon(IV)Oxide and water.

2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 27

C.PERIODICITY OF CHEMICAL FAMILES/DOWN

THE GROUP.

The number of valence electrons and the number of occupied energy levels in
an atom of an element determine the position of an element in the periodic
table.i.e
The number of occupied energy levels determine the Period and the valence
electrons determine the Group.
Elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties. The
trends in physical and chemical properties of elements in the same group vary
down the group. Elements in the same group thus constitute a chemical
family.

(a)Group I elements: Alkali metals

Group I elements are called Alkali metals except Hydrogen which is a non
metal. The alkali metals include:

Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency

number structure state
Lithium Li 3 2:1 Li+ 1
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1 Na+ 1
Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1 K+ + 1
Rubidium Rb 37 2:8:18:8:1 Rb 1
Caesium Cs 55 2:8:18:18:8:1 Cs+ 1
Francium Fr 87 2:8:18:32:18:8:1 Fr+ 1

All alkali metals atom has one electron in the outer energy level. They therefore
are monovalent. They donate /lose the outer electron to have oxidation state M+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Lithium to
Francium. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
size. e.g.
The atomic size of Potassium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Potassium has more/4 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).

Atomic and ionic radius

The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the
outermost energy level occupied by electron/s is called atomic radius.
Atomic radius is measured in nanometers(n).The higher /bigger the atomic
radius the bigger
/larger the atomic size.
The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an ion and the outermost
energy level occupied by electron/s is called ionic radius. Ionic radius is also
 28

measured in nanometers(n).The higher /bigger the ionic radius the bigger

/larger the size of the ion.
Atomic radius and ionic radius depend on the number of energy levels
occupied by electrons. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger
the atomic
/ionic radius. e.g.
The atomic radius of Francium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Francium has more/7 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkali metals increase down the group as the
number of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of alkali metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This is
because alkali metals react by losing/donating the outer electron and hence lose
the outer energy level.
Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of some alkali metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)
number
Lithium Li 3 0.133 0.060
Sodium Na 11 0.157 0.095
Potassium K 19 0.203 0.133

The atomic radius of sodium is 0.157nM .The ionic radius of Na+ is 0.095nM.
This is because sodium reacts by donating/losing the outer electrons and hence
the outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy levels experience more
effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the nucleus reducing the
atomic radius.

Electropositivity
The ease of donating/losing electrons is called electropositivity. All alkali
metals are electropositive. Electropositivity increase as atomic radius increase.
This is because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons decreases
with increase in atomic radius. The outer electrons experience less nuclear
attraction and can be lost/ donated easily/with ease. Francium is the most
electropositive element in the periodic table because it has the highest/biggest
atomic radius.

Ionization energy
The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
of element in its gaseous state is called 1st ionization energy. The SI unit of
ionization energy is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1 .Ionization energy depend on
atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the nuclear
attraction on outer electrons/energy level and thus the lower the ionization
energy. For alkali metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group as
 29

the atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy
level electrons decrease.
e.g. The 1st ionization energy of sodium is 496 kJmole-1 while that of
potassium is 419 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and thus
effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down the
group from sodium to Potassium. It requires therefore less energy to
donate/lose outer electrons in Potassium than in sodium.

Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkali metals are soft and easy to cut with a knife. The
softness and ease of cutting increase down the group from Lithium to Francium.
This is because an increase in atomic radius, decreases the strength of metallic
bond and the packing of the metallic structure
Appearance: Alkali metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when freshly cut.
The surface rapidly/quickly tarnishes on exposure to air. This is because the
metal surface rapidly/quickly reacts with elements of air/oxygen.
Melting and boiling points: Alkali metals have a relatively low melting/boiling
point than common metals like Iron. This is because alkali metals use only one
delocalized electron to form a weak metallic bond/structure.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkali metals are good thermal and electrical
conductors. Metals conduct using the outer mobile delocalized electrons. The
delocalized electrons move randomly within the metallic structure.

Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkali metals

Alkali Appearance Ease of Melting Boiling Conductivity 1st

metal cutting point point ionization
o o
( C) ( C) energy
Lithium Silvery Not 180 1330 Good 520
white easy
Sodium Shiny grey Easy 98 890 Good 496

Potassium Shiny grey Very 64 774 Good 419

easy

Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with air/oxygen
On exposure to air, alkali metals reacts with the elements in the air.
Example
On exposure to air, Sodium first reacts with Oxygen to form sodium oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) -> 2Na2O(s)
The sodium oxide formed further reacts with water/moisture in the air to form
sodium hydroxide solution.
 30

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq)

Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with carbon(IV)oxide in the air to form
sodium carbonate.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) -> Na2CO3(g) + H2O(l)

(ii) Burning in air/oxygen

Lithium burns in air with a crimson/deep red flame to form Lithium
oxide 4Li (s) + O2(g) -> 2Li2O(s)
Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form sodium
oxide 4Na (s) + O2(g) -> 2Na2O(s)
Sodium burns in oxygen with a yellow flame to form sodium
peroxide 2Na (s) + O2(g) -> Na2O2 (s)
Potassium burns in air with a lilac/purple flame to form potassium
oxide 4K (s)+ O2(g) -> 2K2O (s)

(iii) Reaction with water:

Experiment
Measure 500 cm3 of water into a beaker.
Put three drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
Put about 0.5g of Lithium metal into the beaker.
Determine the pH of final product
Repeat the experiment using about 0.1 g of Sodium and Potassium.
Caution: Keep a distance
Observations
Alkali metal Observations Comparative speed/rate
of the reaction
Lithium -Metal floats in water Moderately vigorous
-rapid effervescence/fizzing/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Sodium -Metal floats in water Very vigorous

-very rapid effervescence /fizzing
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
 31

phenolphthalein indicator pink

-pH of solution = 12/13/14
Potassium -Metal floats in water Explosive/burst into
-explosive effervescence /fizzing flames
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Explanation
Alkali metals are less dense than water. They therefore float in water.They react
with water to form a strongly alkaline solution of their hydroxides and
producing hydrogen gas. The rate of this reaction increase down the group. i.e.
Potassium is more reactive than sodium .Sodium is more reactive than
Lithium. The reactivity increases as electropositivity increases of the alkali
increases.
This is because as the atomic radius increases , the ease of donating/losing
outer electron increase during chemical reactions.

Chemical equations
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Cs(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2CsOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Fr(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2FrOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reactivity increase down the group

(iv) Reaction with chlorine:

Experiment
Cut about 0.5g of sodium into a deflagrating spoon with a lid cover. Introduce
it on a Bunsen flame until it catches fire. Quickly and carefully lower it into a
gas jar containing dry chlorine to cover the gas jar.
Repeat with about 0.5g of Lithium.
Caution: This experiment should be done in fume chamber because chlorine
is poisonous /toxic.
Observation
Sodium metal continues to burn with a yellow flame forming white solid/fumes.
 32

Lithium metal continues to burn with a crimson flame forming white solid /
fumes.
Alkali metal react with chlorine gas to form the corresponding metal chlorides.
The reactivity increase as electropositivity increase down the group from
Lithium to Francium.The ease of donating/losing the outer electrons increase as
the atomic radius increase and the outer electron is less attracted to the
nucleus.
Chemical equations
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2LiCl(s)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
2Rb(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2RbCl(s)
2Cs(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2CsCl(s)
2Fr(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2FrCl(s)
Reactivity increase down the group The

table below shows some compounds of the 1st three alkali metals

Lithium sodium Potassium

Hydroxide LiOH NaOH KOH
Oxide Li2O Na2O K2O
Sulphide Li2S Na2S K2S
Chloride LiCl NaCl KCl
Carbonate Li2CO3 Na2CO3 K2CO3
Nitrate(V) LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3
Nitrate(III) - NaNO2 KNO2
Sulphate(VI) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 K2SO4
Sulphate(IV) - Na2SO3 K2SO3
Hydrogen carbonate - NaHCO3 KHCO3
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) - NaHSO4 KHSO4
Hydrogen sulphate(IV) - NaHSO3 KHSO3
Phosphate - Na3PO4 K3PO4
Manganate(VI) - NaMnO4 KMnO4
Dichromate(VI) - Na2Cr2O7 K2Cr2O7
Chromate(VI) - Na2CrO4 K2CrO4

Some uses of alkali metals include:

(i)Sodium is used in making sodium cyanide for extracting gold from gold ore.
(ii)Sodium chloride is used in seasoning food.
(iii) Molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as coolant in
nuclear reactors.
(iv) Sodium is used in making sodium hydroxide used in making soapy and
soapless detergents.
 33

(v) Sodium is used as a reducing agent for the extraction of titanium

from Titanium(IV)chloride.
(vi) Lithium is used in making special high strength glasses
(vii) Lithium compounds are used to make dry cells in mobile phones
and computer laptops.

Group II elements: Alkaline earth metals

Group II elements are called Alkaline earth metals . The alkaline earth metals
include:

Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency

number structure state
Beryllium Be 4 2:2 Be2+ 2
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2 Mg2+ 2
Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2 Ca2+ 2
Strontium Sr 38 2:8:18:8:2 Sr2+ 2
Barium Ba 56 2:8:18:18:8:2 Ba2+ 2
Radium Ra 88 2:8:18:32:18:8:2 Ra2+ 2

All alkaline earth metal atoms have two electrons in the outer energy level.
They therefore are divalent. They donate /lose the two outer electrons to have
oxidation state M2+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Beryllium to
Radium. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
size. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Calcium is bigger/larger than that of Magnesium
because Calcium has more/4 energy levels than Magnesium (3 energy levels).

Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkaline earth metals increase down the group
as the number of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of alkaline earth metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This
is because they react by losing/donating the two outer electrons and hence lose
the outer energy level.

Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of the 1st three alkaline earth
metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)
number
Beryllium Be 4 0.089 0.031
Magnesium Mg 12 0.136 0.065
 34

Calcium Ca 20 0.174 0.099

The atomic radius of Magnesium is 0.136nM .The ionic radius of Mg2+ is
0.065nM. This is because Magnesium reacts by donating/losing the two outer
electrons and hence the outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy
levels experience more effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the
nucleus reducing the atomic radius.

Electropositivity
All alkaline earth metals are also electropositive like alkali metals. The
electropositivity increase with increase in atomic radius/size. Calcium is more
electropositive than Magnesium. This is because the effective nuclear attraction
on outer electrons decreases with increase in atomic radius. The two outer
electrons in calcium experience less nuclear attraction and can be lost/ donated
easily/with ease because of the higher/bigger atomic radius.

Ionization energy
For alkaline earth metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group
as the atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer
energy level electrons decrease.
e.g. The 1st ionization energy of Magnesium is 900 kJmole-1 while that of
Calcium is 590 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and thus
effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down the
group from magnesium to calcium.
It requires therefore less energy to donate/lose outer electron in calcium than in
magnesium.

The minimum amount of energy required to remove a second electron from an

ion of an element in its gaseous state is called the 2nd ionization energy.
The 2nd ionization energy is always higher /bigger than the 1st ionization
energy.
This because once an electron is donated /lost form an atom, the overall
effective nuclear attraction on the remaining electrons/energy level increase.
Removing a second electron from the ion require therefore more energy than the
first electron.
The atomic radius of alkali metals is higher/bigger than that of alkaline earth
metals.This is because across/along the period from left to right there is an
increase in nuclear charge from additional number of protons and still additional
number of electrons entering the same energy level. Increase in nuclear charge
increases the effective nuclear attraction on the outer energy level which pulls it
closer to the nucleus. e.g.
Atomic radius of Sodium (0.157nM) is higher than that of Magnesium
(0.137nM). This is because Magnesium has more effective nuclear attraction on
 35

the outer energy level than Sodium hence pulls outer energy level more nearer
to its nucleus.

Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkaline earth metals are not soft and easy to cut with a
knife like alkali metals. This is because of the decrease in atomic radius of
corresponding alkaline earth metal, increases the strength of metallic bond and
the packing of the metallic structure. Alkaline earth metals are
(i) ductile(able to form wire/thin long rods)
(ii) malleable(able to be hammered into sheet/long thin plates)
(iii)have high tensile strength(able to be coiled without breaking/ not
brittle/withstand stress)
Appearance: Alkali earth metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when their
surface is freshly polished /scrubbed. The surface slowly tarnishes on exposure
to air. This is because the metal surface slowly undergoes oxidation to form
an oxide. This oxide layer should be removed before using the alkaline earth
metals.
Melting and boiling points: Alkaline earth metals have a relatively high
melting/ boiling point than alkali metals. This is because alkali metals use only
one delocalized electron to form a weaker metallic bond/structure. Alkaline
earth metals use two delocalized electrons to form a stronger metallic bond
/structure.
The melting and boiling points decrease down the group as the atomic
radius/size increase reducing the strength of metallic bond and packing of the
metallic structure. e.g.
Beryllium has a melting point of 1280oC. Magnesium has a melting point of
650oC.Beryllium has a smaller atomic radius/size than magnesium .The strength
of metallic bond and packing of the metallic structure is thus stronger in
beryllium.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkaline earth metals are good thermal and
electrical conductors. The two delocalized valence electrons move randomly
within the metallic structure.
Electrical conductivity increase down the group as the atomic radius/size
increase making the delocalized outer electrons less attracted to nucleus.
Alkaline earth metals are better thermal and electrical conductors than alkali
metals because they have more/two outer delocalized electrons.e.g.

Magnesium is a better conductor than sodium because it has more/two

delocalized electrons than sodium. The more delocalized electrons the better
the electrical conductor.
 36

Calcium is a better conductor than magnesium.

Calcium has bigger/larger atomic radius than magnesium because the
delocalized electrons are less attracted to the nucleus of calcium and thus more
free /mobile and thus better the electrical conductor

Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkaline earth metals

Alkaline Appearance Ease Melting Boiling Conduct 1st 2nd

earth metal of point point - ivity ionization ionization
cutting (oC) (oC) energy energy
Beryllium Shiny grey Not 1280 3450 Good 900 1800
easy
Magnesium Shiny grey Not 650 1110 Good 736 1450
Easy
calcium Shiny grey Not 850 1140 Good 590 970
easy

Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with air/oxygen
On exposure to air, the surface of alkaline earth metals is slowly oxidized to
its oxide on prolonged exposure to air.
Example
On exposure to air, the surface of magnesium ribbon is oxidized to form a thin
film of Magnesium oxide
. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)

(ii) Burning in air/oxygen

Experiment
Hold a about 2cm length of Magnesium ribbon on a Bunsen flame. Stop
heating when it catches fire/start burning.
Caution: Do not look directly at the flame
Put the products of burning into 100cm3 beaker. Add about 5cm3 of distilled
water. Swirl. Test the mixture using litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium
Observations
-Magnesium burns with a bright blindening flame
-White solid /ash produced
-Solid dissolves in water to form a colourless solution
-Blue litmus paper remain blue
-Red litmus paper turns blue
-colourless gas with pungent smell of urine
Explanation
Magnesium burns in air with a bright blindening flame to form a mixture of
Magnesium oxide and Magnesium nitride.
 37

2Mg (s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)

3Mg (s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
Magnesium oxide dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide.
MgO(s) + H2O (l) -> Mg(OH)2(aq)
Magnesium nitride dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide and
produce ammonia gas.
Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Magnesium hydroxide and ammonia are weakly alkaline with pH 8/9/10/11 and
turns red litmus paper blue.
Calcium burns in air with faint orange/red flame to form a mixture of both
Calcium oxide and calcium nitride.
2Ca (s) + O2(g) -> 2CaO(s)
3Ca (s) + N2 (g) -> Ca3N2 (s)

Calcium oxide dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide.

CaO(s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)
Calcium nitride dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide and produce
ammonia gas.
Ca3N2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Calcium hydroxide is also weakly alkaline solution with pH 8/9/10/11 and turns
red litmus paper blue.

(iii) Reaction with water

Experiment
Measure 50 cm3 of distilled water into a beaker.
Scrub/polish with sand paper 1cm length of Magnesium ribbon
Place it in the water. Test the product-mixture with blue and red litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium metal.

Observations
-Surface of magnesium covered by bubbles of colourless gas.
-Colourless solution formed.
-Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing takes place in Calcium.
-Red litmus paper turns blue.
-Blue litmus paper remains blue.
Explanations
Magnesium slowly reacts with cold water to form Magnesium hydroxide and
bubbles of Hydrogen gas that stick on the surface of the ribbon.
Mg(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)
 38

Calcium moderately reacts with cold water to form Calcium hydroxide and
produce a steady stream of Hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)

(iv) Reaction with water vapour/steam

Experiment
Put some cotton wool soaked in water/wet sand in a long boiling tube.
Coil a well polished magnesium ribbon into the boiling tube.
Ensure the coil touches the side of the boiling tube. Heat the cotton wool/sand
slightly then strongly heat the Magnesium ribbon .
Set up of apparatus

Observations
-Magnesium glows red hot then burns with a blindening flame.
-Magnesium continues to glow/burning even without more heating.
-White solid/residue.
-colourless gas collected over water.
Explanation
On heating wet sand, steam is generated which drives out the air that would
otherwise react with /oxidize the ribbon.
Magnesium burns in steam/water vapour generating enough heat that ensures
the reaction goes to completion even without further heating. White Magnesium
oxide is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
To prevent suck back, the delivery tube should be removed from the water
before heating is stopped at the end of the experiment.
Mg(s) + H2O (l) -> MgO(s) + H2 (g)
 39

(v) Reaction with chlorine gas.

Experiment
Lower slowly a burning magnesium ribbon/shavings into a gas jar containing
Chlorine gas. Repeat with a hot piece of calcium metal.
Observation
-Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine with a bright blindening flame.
-Calcium continues to burn for a short time.
-White solid formed .
-Pale green colour of chlorine
fades. Explanation
Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine gas forming white magnesium oxide
solid.
Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) -> MgCl2 (s)
Calcium burns slightly in chlorine gas to form white calcium oxide solid.
Calcium oxide formed coat unreacted Calcium stopping further reaction
Ca(s) + Cl2 (g) -> CaCl2 (s)

(v)Reaction with dilute acids.

Experiment
Place about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into a test tube. Add about
1.0cm length of magnesium ribbon into the test tube. Cover the mouth of the
test tube using a thumb. Release the gas and test the gas using a burning
splint. Repeat with about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute hydrochloric/nitric(V) acid.
Repeat with 0.1g of Calcium in a beaker with all the above acid
Caution: Keep distance when using calcium
Observation
-Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with dilute sulphuric(VI) and nitric(V) acids
-Little Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with calcium and dilute sulphuric(VI)
acid.
-Colourless gas produced that extinguishes a burning splint with an explosion/
“pop” sound.
-No gas is produced with Nitric(V)acid.
-Colourless solution is formed.

Explanation
Dilute acids react with alkaline earth metals to form a salt and produce
hydrogen gas.
Nitric(V)acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It quickly oxidizes the hydrogen
produced to water.
Calcium is very reactive with dilute acids and thus a very small piece of very
dilute acid should be
used. Chemical equations
 40

Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

Mg(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble CaSO4(s) coat/cover Ca(s))
Ca(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Ba(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble BaSO4(s) coat/cover Ba(s))
Ba(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ba(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> BaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

The table below shows some compounds of some alkaline earth metals

Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Barium

Hydroxide Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
Oxide BeO MgO CaO BaO
Sulphide - MgS CaS BaS
Chloride BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 BaCl2
Carbonate BeCO3 MgCO3 CaCO3 BaCO3
Nitrate(V) Be(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 Ba(NO3)2
Sulphate(VI) BeSO4 MgSO4 CaSO4 BaSO4
Sulphate(IV) - - CaSO3 BaSO3
Hydrogen carbonate - Mg(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 -
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) - Mg(HSO4)2 Ca(HSO4)2 -

Some uses of alkaline earth metals include:

(i) Magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic/poisonous mild base used as an anti acid
medicine to relieve stomach acidity.
(ii) Making duralumin. Duralumin is an alloy of Magnesium and aluminium
used for making aeroplane bodies because it is light.
(iii) Making plaster of Paris-Calcium sulphate(VI) is used in hospitals to set
a fractures bone.
(iii) Making cement-Calcium carbonate is mixed with clay and sand then heated
to form cement for construction/building.
(iv) Raise soil pH-Quicklime/calcium oxide is added to acidic soils to neutralize
and raise the soil pH in agricultural farms.
(v) As nitrogenous fertilizer-Calcium nitrate(V) is used as an agricultural
fertilizer because plants require calcium for proper growth.
 41

(vi) In the blast furnace-Limestone is added to the blast furnace to produce

more reducing agent and remove slag in the blast furnace for extraction of
Iron.

(c) Group VII elements: Halogens

Group VII elements are called Halogens. They are all non metals. They include:

Element Symbol Atomic Electronicc Charge Valency State at Room

number configuration of ion Temperature
Fluorine F 9 2:7 F- - 1 Pale yellow gas
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7 Cl 1 Pale green gas
Bromine Br 35 2:8:18:7 Br- 1 Red liquid
Iodine I 53 2:8:18:18:7 I- - 1 Grey Solid
Astatine At 85 2:8:18:32:18:7 At 1 Radioactive

All halogen atoms have seven electrons in the outer energy level. They
acquire/gain one electron in the outer energy level to be stable. They therefore
are therefore monovalent .They exist in oxidation state X-
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Fluorine to
Astatine. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
size. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Chlorine is bigger/larger than that of Fluorine
because Chlorine has more/3 energy levels than Fluorine (2 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of Halogens increase down the group as the
number of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of Halogens is smaller than the ionic radius. This is because
they react by gaining/acquiring extra one electron in the outer energy level. The
effective nuclear attraction on the more/extra electrons decreases. The incoming
extra electron is also repelled causing the outer energy level to expand to
reduce the repulsion and accommodate more electrons.

Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of four Halogens

 42

Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)

number
Fluorine F 9 0.064 0.136
Chlorine Cl 17 0.099 0.181
Bromine Br 35 0.114 0.195
Iodine I 53 0.133 0.216

The atomic radius of Chlorine is 0.099nM .The ionic radius of Cl- is

0.181nM. This is because Chlorine atom/molecule reacts by gaining/acquiring
extra one electrons. The more/extra electrons/energy level experience less
effective nuclear attraction /pull towards the nucleus .The outer enegy level
expand/increase to reduce the repulsion of the existing and incoming gained
/acquired electrons.
Electronegativity
The ease of gaining/acquiring extra electrons is called electronegativity. All
halogens are electronegative. Electronegativity decreases as atomic radius
increase. This is because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons
decreases with increase in atomic radius.
The outer electrons experience less nuclear attraction and thus ease of
gaining/acquiring extra electrons decrease.
It is measured using Pauling’s scale.
Where Fluorine with Pauling scale 4.0 is the most electronegative element and
thus the highest tendency to acquire/gain extra electron.
Table showing the electronegativity of the halogens.

Halogen F Cl Br I At
Electronegativity (Pauling scale) 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.2

The electronegativity of the halogens decrease down the group from

fluorine to Astatine. This is because atomic radius increases down the
group and thus decrease electron – attracting power down the group from
fluorine to astatine.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table because it
has the small atomic radius.

Electron affinity
The minimum amount of energy required to gain/acquire an extra electron by
an atom of element in its gaseous state is called 1st electron affinity. The SI
unit of electron affinity is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1 . Electron affinity
depend on atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the
nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons and thus the lower the
electron affinity. For halogens the 1st electron affinity decrease down the
group as the
 43

atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level
electrons decrease. Due to its small size/atomic radius Fluorine shows
exceptionally low electron affinity. This is because a lot of energy is required
to overcome the high repulsion of the existing and incoming electrons.

Table showing the election affinity of halogens for the process

X + e -> X-
Halogen F Cl Br I
Electron affinity kJmole-1 -333 -364 -342 -295
The higher the electron affinity the more stable theion.i.e
Cl- is a more stable ion than Br- because it has a more negative / exothermic
electron affinity than Br-
Electron affinity is different from:
(i) Ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the energy required to lose/donate an electron in an
atom of an element in its gaseous state while electron affinity is the
energy required to gain/acquire extra electron by an atom of an element
in its gaseous state.
(ii) Electronegativity.
-Electron affinity is the energy required to gain an electron in an atom
of an element in gaseous state. It involves the process:
X(g) + e -> X-(g)
Electronegativity is the ease/tendency of gaining/ acquiring electrons by
an element during chemical reactions.
It does not involve use of energy but theoretical arbitrary Pauling’ scale
of measurements.

Physical properties
State at room temperature
Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a solid.
Astatine is radioactive .
All halogens exist as diatomic molecules bonded by strong covalent bond. Each
molecule is joined to the other by weak intermolecular forces/ Van-der-waals
forces.
Melting/Boiling point
The strength of intermolecular/Van-der-waals forces of attraction increase with
increase in molecular size/atomic radius.
Iodine has therefore the largest atomic radius and thus strongest intermolecular
forces to make it a solid.
Iodine sublimes when heated to form (caution: highly toxic/poisonous) purple
vapour.
 44

This is because Iodine molecules are held together by weak van-der-

waals/intermolecular forces which require little heat energy to break.
Electrical conductivity
All Halogens are poor conductors of electricity because they have no free
delocalized electrons.
Solubility in polar and non-polar solvents
All halogens are soluble in water(polar solvent).
When a boiling tube containing either chlorine gas or bromine vapour is
separately inverted in a beaker containing distilled water and
tetrachloromethane (non-polar solvent), the level of solution in boiling tube
rises in both water and tetrachloromethane.
This is because halogen are soluble in both polar and non-polar solvents.
Solubility of halogens in water/polar solvents decrease down the group.
Solubility of halogens in non-polar solvent increase down the group.
The level of water in chlorine is higher than in bromine and the level of
tetrachloromethane in chlorine is lower than in bromine.
Caution: Tetrachloromethane , Bromine vapour and Chlorine gas are all highly
toxic/poisonous.

Table showing the physical properties of Halogens

Halogen Formula Electrical Solubility Melting Boiling

of conductivity in water point(oC) point(oC)
molecule
Fluorine F2 Poor Insoluble/soluble -238 -188
in
tetrachloromethane
Chlorine Cl2 Poor Insoluble/soluble -101 -35
in
tetrachloromethane
Bromine Br2 Poor Insoluble/soluble 7 59
in
tetrachloromethane
Iodine I2 Poor Insoluble/soluble 114 sublimes
in
tetrachloromethane

Chemical properties
(i) Displacement

Experiment
Place separately in test tubes about 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Sodium bromide
and Sodium iodide solutions.
Add 5 drops of chlorine water to each test tube:
Repeat with 5 drops of bromine water instead of chlorine water
 45

Observation
Using Chlorine water
-Yellow colour of chlorine water fades in all test tubes except with
sodium chloride.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Using Bromine water
Yellow colour of bromine water fades in test tubes containing sodium
iodide.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Explanation
The halogens displace each other from their solution. The more electronegative
displace the less electronegative from their solution.
Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and iodine.
On adding chlorine water, bromine and Iodine are displaced from their
solutions by chlorine.
Bromine is more electronegative than iodide but less 6than chlorine.
On adding Bromine water, iodine is displaced from its solution but not
chlorine.
Table showing the displacement of the halogens
(V) means there is displacement (x ) means there is no displacement
F- Cl- Br- I-
Halogen ion in

solution
Halogen
F2 X
Cl2 X X
Br2 X X X
I2 X X X X

Chemical /ionic equations

With Fluorine
F2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(aq)
F2(g) + 2Cl-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Cl2(aq)
F2(g) + 2NaBr-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Br2(aq)
F2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Br2(aq)
F2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + I2(aq)
F2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + I2(aq)

With chlorine
Cl2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
 46

Cl2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)

Cl2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)

With Bromine
Br2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaBr(aq) + I2(aq)
Br2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)

Uses of halogens
(i) Florine – manufacture of P.T.F.E (Poly tetra fluoroethene) synthetic fiber.
- Reduce tooth decay when added in small amounts/quantities in
tooth paste.
NB –large small quantities of fluorine /fluoride ions in water cause
browning of teeth/flourosis.
- Hydrogen fluoride is used to engrave words /pictures in glass.

(ii) Bromine - Silver bromide is used to make light sensitive photographic

paper/films.

(iii) Iodide – Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as medicine to kill

bacteria in skin cuts. It is called tincture of iodine.

The table below to show some compounds of halogens.

H Na Mg Al Si C P
Element
Halogen (i)
F HF NaF MgH2 AlF3 SiF4 CF4 PF
Bel
3 ow is
Cl HCl NaCl MgCl AlCl3 SiCl3 CCl4 PCl
the3 tabl
Br HBr NaBr MgBr2 AlBr3 SiBr4 CBr4 PBr3
I Hl Nal Mgl2 All3 SiI4 Cl2 PBr3

e showing the bond energy of four

halogens.
Bond Bond energy k J mole-1
Cl-Cl 242
Br-Br 193
I-I 151

I. What do you understand by the term “bond

energy”
 47

Bond energy is the energy required to break/ form one mole

of chemical bond

II. Explain the trend in bond Energy of the halogens above:

-Decrease down the group from chlorine to Iodine
-Atomic radius increase down the group decreasing the energy
required to break the covalent bonds between the larger atom with
reduced effective nuclear @ charge an outer energy level that take
part in bonding.

(c)Group VIII elements: Noble gases

Group VIII elements are called Noble gases. They are all non metals. Noble
gases occupy about 1.0% of the atmosphere as colourless gaseous mixture.
Argon is the most abundant with 0.9%.
They exists as monatomic molecules with very weak van-der-waals
/intermolecular forces holding the molecules.
They include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electron structure State at room
number temperature
Helium He 2 2: Colourless gas
Neon Ne 10 2:8 Colourless gas
Argon Ar 18 2:8:8 Colourless gas
Krypton Kr 36 2:8:18:8 Colourless gas
Xenon Xe 54 2:8:18:18:8 Colourless gas
Radon Rn 86 2:8:18:32:18:8 Radioctive
st
All noble gas atoms have a stable duplet(two electrons in the 1 energy level) or
octet(eight electrons in other outer energy level)in the outer energy level. They
therefore do not acquire/gain extra electron in the outer energy level or
donate/lose. They therefore are therefore zerovalent .
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Helium to
Randon. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
size/radius. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Argon is bigger/larger than that of Neon because
Argon has more/3 energy levels than Neon (2 energy levels).
Atomic radius noble gases increase down the group as the number of energy
levels increases.
The effective nuclear attraction on the outer electrons thus decrease down the
group.

The noble gases are generally unreactive because the outer energy level has the
stable octet/duplet. The stable octet/duplet in noble gas atoms lead to a
 48

comparatively very high 1st ionization energy. This is because losing /donating
an electron from the stable atom require a lot of energy to lose/donate and
make it unstable.
As atomic radius increase down the group and the 1st ionization energy
decrease, very electronegative elements like Oxygen and Fluorine are able to
react and bond with lower members of the noble gases.e.g
Xenon reacts with Fluorine to form a covalent compound XeF6.This is because
the outer electrons/energy level if Xenon is far from the nucleus and thus
experience less effective nuclear attraction.

Noble gases have low melting and boiling points. This is because they exist as
monatomic molecules joined by very weak intermolecular/van-der-waals forces
that require very little energy to weaken and form liquid and break to form a
gas.
The intermolecular/van-der-waals forces increase down the group as the atomic
radius/size increase from Helium to Radon. The melting and boiling points thus
increase also down the group.
Noble gases are insoluble in water and are poor conductors of electricity.

Element Formula Electrical Solubility Atomic 1st Melting Boiling

of conductivity in water radius(nM) ionization point(0C) point(0C)
molecule energy
Helium He Poor Insoluble 0.128 2372 -270 -269
Neon Ne Poor Insoluble 0.160 2080 -249 -246
Argon Ar Poor Insoluble 0.192 1520 -189 -186
Krypton Kr Poor Insoluble 0.197 1350 -157 -152
Xenon Xe Poor Insoluble 0.217 1170 -112 -108
Radon Rn Poor Insoluble 0.221 1134 -104 -93

Uses of noble gases

Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent
oxidation of the bulb filament
Argon is used in arch welding as an
insulator. Neon is used in street and
advertisement light
Helium is mixed with Oxygen during deep sea diving and mountaineering.
Helium is used in weather balloon for meteorological research instead of
Hydrogen because it is unreactive/inert.Hydrogen when impure can ignite with
an explosion.
Helium is used in making thermometers for measuring very low temperatures.
 49

C. PERIODICITY OF ACROSS THE

PERIOD. (See Chemical bonding and
Structure)
PERIODICITY OF CHEMICAL FAMILES
(Patterns down the group)

The number of valence electrons and the number of occupied energy levels in an
atom of an element determine the position of an element in the periodic table. i.e
The number of occupied energy levels determine the Period and the valence
electrons determine the Group.
Elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties. The
trends in physical and chemical properties of elements in the same group vary
down the group. Elements in the same group thus constitute a chemical family.

(a)Group I elements: Alkali metals

Group I elements are called Alkali metals except Hydrogen which is a non metal.
The alkali metals include:

Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency

number structure state
Lithium Li 3 2:1 Li+ 1
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1 Na+ 1
Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1 K+ + 1
Rubidium Rb 37 2:8:18:8:1 Rb 1
Caesium Cs 55 2:8:18:18:8:1 Cs+ 1
Francium Fr 87 2:8:18:32:18:8:1 Fr+ 1

All alkali metals atom has one electron in the outer energy level. They therefore
are monovalent. They donate /lose the outer electron to have oxidation state M+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Lithium to Francium.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size. e.g.
The atomic size of Potassium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Potassium has more/4 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).

Atomic and ionic radius

The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the outermost
energy level occupied by electron/s is called atomic radius. Atomic radius is
measured in nanometers(n).The higher /bigger the atomic radius the bigger /larger
the atomic size.
The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an ion and the outermost energy
level occupied by electron/s is called ionic radius. Ionic radius is also measured in
nanometers(n).The higher /bigger the ionic radius the bigger /larger the size of
the ion.
Atomic radius and ionic radius depend on the number of energy levels occupied
by electrons. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
/ionic radius. e.g.
The atomic radius of Francium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Francium has more/7 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkali metals increase down the group as the
number of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of alkali metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This is
because alkali metals react by losing/donating the outer electron and hence lose
the outer energy level.
Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of some alkali metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)
number
Lithium Li 3 0.133 0.060
Sodium Na 11 0.157 0.095
Potassium K 19 0.203 0.133

The atomic radius of sodium is 0.157nM .The ionic radius of Na+ is 0.095nM.
This is because sodium reacts by donating/losing the outer electrons and hence
the outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy levels experience more
effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the nucleus reducing the atomic
radius.

Electropositivity
The ease of donating/losing electrons is called electropositivity. All alkali metals
are electropositive. Electropositivity increase as atomic radius increase. This is
because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons decreases with increase
in atomic radius. The outer electrons experience less nuclear attraction and can be
lost/ donated easily/with ease. Francium is the most electropositive element in the
periodic table because it has the highest/biggest atomic radius.

Ionization energy

2
The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom of
element in its gaseous state is called 1st ionization energy. The SI unit of
ionization energy is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1 .Ionization energy depend on
atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the nuclear attraction
on outer electrons/energy level and thus the lower the ionization energy. For alkali
metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group as the atomic radius
increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons
decrease.
e.g. The 1st ionization energy of sodium is 496 kJmole-1 while that of potassium is
419 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and thus effective nuclear
attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down the group from sodium to
Potassium. It requires therefore less energy to donate/lose outer electrons in
Potassium than in sodium.

Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkali metals are soft and easy to cut with a knife. The softness
and ease of cutting increase down the group from Lithium to Francium. This is
because an increase in atomic radius, decreases the strength of metallic bond and
the packing of the metallic structure
Appearance: Alkali metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when freshly cut. The
surface rapidly/quickly tarnishes on exposure to air. This is because the metal
surface rapidly/quickly reacts with elements of air/oxygen.
Melting and boiling points: Alkali metals have a relatively low melting/boiling
point than common metals like Iron. This is because alkali metals use only one
delocalized electron to form a weak metallic bond/structure.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkali metals are good thermal and electrical
conductors. Metals conduct using the outer mobile delocalized electrons. The
delocalized electrons move randomly within the metallic structure.

Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkali metals

Alkali Appearance Ease of Melting Boiling Conductivity 1st

metal cutting point point ionization
(oC) o
( C) energy
Lithium Silvery Not 180 1330 Good 520
white easy
Sodium Shiny grey Easy 98 890 Good 496

Potassium Shiny grey Very 64 774 Good 419

easy
3
Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with air/oxygen
On exposure to air, alkali metals reacts with the elements in the air.
Example
On exposure to air, Sodium first reacts with Oxygen to form sodium oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) -> 2Na2O(s)
The sodium oxide formed further reacts with water/moisture in the air to form
sodium hydroxide solution.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq)
Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with carbon(IV)oxide in the air to form sodium
carbonate.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) -> Na2CO3(g) + H2O(l)

(ii) Burning in air/oxygen

Lithium burns in air with a crimson/deep red flame to form Lithium oxide
4Li (s) + O2(g) -> 2Li2O(s)
Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form sodium oxide
4Na (s) + O2(g) -> 2Na2O(s)
Sodium burns in oxygen with a yellow flame to form sodium peroxide
2Na (s) + O2(g) -> Na2O2 (s)
Potassium burns in air with a lilac/purple flame to form potassium oxide
4K (s)+ O2(g) -> 2K2O (s)

(iii) Reaction with water:

Experiment
Measure 500 cm3 of water into a beaker.
Put three drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
Put about 0.5g of Lithium metal into the beaker.
Determine the pH of final product
Repeat the experiment using about 0.1 g of Sodium and Potassium.
Caution: Keep a distance
Observations

4
Alkali metal Observations Comparative speed/rate
of the reaction
Lithium -Metal floats in water Moderately vigorous
-rapid effervescence/fizzing/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Sodium -Metal floats in water Very vigorous

-very rapid effervescence /fizzing
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14
Potassium -Metal floats in water Explosive/burst into
-explosive effervescence /fizzing flames
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Explanation
Alkali metals are less dense than water. They therefore float in water.They react
with water to form a strongly alkaline solution of their hydroxides and producing
hydrogen gas. The rate of this reaction increase down the group. i.e. Potassium is
more reactive than sodium .Sodium is more reactive than Lithium.
The reactivity increases as electropositivity increases of the alkali increases. This is
because as the atomic radius increases , the ease of donating/losing outer electron
increase during chemical reactions.

5
Chemical equations
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Cs(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2CsOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Fr(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2FrOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reactivity increase down the group

(iv) Reaction with chlorine:

Experiment
Cut about 0.5g of sodium into a deflagrating spoon with a lid cover. Introduce it on
a Bunsen flame until it catches fire. Quickly and carefully lower it into a gas jar
containing dry chlorine to cover the gas jar.
Repeat with about 0.5g of Lithium.
Caution: This experiment should be done in fume chamber because chlorine is
poisonous /toxic.
Observation
Sodium metal continues to burn with a yellow flame forming white solid/fumes.
Lithium metal continues to burn with a crimson flame forming white solid / fumes.
Alkali metal react with chlorine gas to form the corresponding metal chlorides. The
reactivity increase as electropositivity increase down the group from Lithium to
Francium.The ease of donating/losing the outer electrons increase as the atomic
radius increase and the outer electron is less attracted to the nucleus.
Chemical equations
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2LiCl(s)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
2Rb(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2RbCl(s)
2Cs(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2CsCl(s)
2Fr(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2FrCl(s)
Reactivity increase down the group

The table below shows some compounds of the 1st three alkali metals

6
 Lithium sodium Potassium
Hydroxide LiOH NaOH KOH
Oxide Li2O Na2O K2O
Sulphide Li2S Na2S K2S
Chloride LiCl NaCl KCl
Carbonate Li2CO3 Na2CO3 K2CO3
Nitrate(V) LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3
Nitrate(III) - NaNO2 KNO2
Sulphate(VI) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 K2SO4
Sulphate(IV) - Na2SO3 K2SO3
Hydrogen carbonate - NaHCO3 KHCO3
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) - NaHSO4 KHSO4
Hydrogen sulphate(IV) - NaHSO3 KHSO3
Phosphate - Na3PO4 K3PO4
Manganate(VI) - NaMnO4 KMnO4
Dichromate(VI) - Na2Cr2O7 K2Cr2O7
Chromate(VI) - Na2CrO4 K2CrO4

Some uses of alkali metals include:

(i)Sodium is used in making sodium cyanide for extracting gold from gold ore.
(ii)Sodium chloride is used in seasoning food.
(iii)Molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors.
(iv)Sodium is used in making sodium hydroxide used in making soapy and
soapless detergents.
(v) Sodium is used as a reducing agent for the extraction of titanium
from Titanium(IV)chloride.
(vi) Lithium is used in making special high strength glasses
(vii) Lithium compounds are used to make dry cells in mobile phones and
computer laptops.

Group II elements: Alkaline earth metals

Group II elements are called Alkaline earth metals . The alkaline earth metals
include:

7
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency
number structure state
Beryllium Be 4 2:2 Be2+ 2
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2 Mg2+ 2
Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2 Ca2+ 2
Strontium Sr 38 2:8:18:8:2 Sr2+ 2
Barium Ba 56 2:8:18:18:8:2 Ba2+ 2
Radium Ra 88 2:8:18:32:18:8:2 Ra2+ 2

All alkaline earth metal atoms have two electrons in the outer energy level. They
therefore are divalent. They donate /lose the two outer electrons to have oxidation
state M2+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Beryllium to
Radium. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size.
e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Calcium is bigger/larger than that of Magnesium
because Calcium has more/4 energy levels than Magnesium (3 energy levels).

Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkaline earth metals increase down the group as
the number of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of alkaline earth metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This is
because they react by losing/donating the two outer electrons and hence lose the
outer energy level.

Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of the 1st three alkaline earth
metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)
number
Beryllium Be 4 0.089 0.031
Magnesium Mg 12 0.136 0.065
Calcium Ca 20 0.174 0.099
The atomic radius of Magnesium is 0.136nM .The ionic radius of Mg2+ is
0.065nM. This is because Magnesium reacts by donating/losing the two outer
electrons and hence the outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy levels
experience more effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the nucleus
reducing the atomic radius.

8
Electropositivity
All alkaline earth metals are also electropositive like alkali metals. The
electropositivity increase with increase in atomic radius/size. Calcium is more
electropositive than Magnesium. This is because the effective nuclear attraction on
outer electrons decreases with increase in atomic radius. The two outer electrons in
calcium experience less nuclear attraction and can be lost/ donated easily/with ease
because of the higher/bigger atomic radius.

Ionization energy
For alkaline earth metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group as the
atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level
electrons decrease.
e.g. The 1st ionization energy of Magnesium is 900 kJmole-1 while that of
Calcium is 590 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and thus effective
nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down the group from
magnesium to calcium.
It requires therefore less energy to donate/lose outer electron in calcium than in
magnesium.

The minimum amount of energy required to remove a second electron from an ion
of an element in its gaseous state is called the 2nd ionization energy.
The 2nd ionization energy is always higher /bigger than the 1st ionization energy.
This because once an electron is donated /lost form an atom, the overall effective
nuclear attraction on the remaining electrons/energy level increase. Removing a
second electron from the ion require therefore more energy than the first electron.
The atomic radius of alkali metals is higher/bigger than that of alkaline earth
metals.This is because across/along the period from left to right there is an
increase in nuclear charge from additional number of protons and still additional
number of electrons entering the same energy level. Increase in nuclear charge
increases the effective nuclear attraction on the outer energy level which pulls it
closer to the nucleus. e.g.
Atomic radius of Sodium (0.157nM) is higher than that of Magnesium (0.137nM).
This is because Magnesium has more effective nuclear attraction on the outer
energy level than Sodium hence pulls outer energy level more nearer to its
nucleus.

Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkaline earth metals are not soft and easy to cut with a knife
like alkali metals. This is because of the decrease in atomic radius of

9
corresponding alkaline earth metal, increases the strength of metallic bond and the
packing of the metallic structure. Alkaline earth metals are
(i) ductile(able to form wire/thin long rods)
(ii) malleable(able to be hammered into sheet/long thin plates)
(iii)have high tensile strength(able to be coiled without breaking/
not
brittle/withstand stress)
Appearance: Alkali earth metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when their
surface is freshly polished /scrubbed. The surface slowly tarnishes on exposure to
air. This is because the metal surface slowly undergoes oxidation to form an oxide.
This oxide layer should be removed before using the alkaline earth metals.
Melting and boiling points: Alkaline earth metals have a relatively high melting/
boiling point than alkali metals. This is because alkali metals use only one
delocalized electron to form a weaker metallic bond/structure. Alkaline earth
metals use two delocalized electrons to form a stronger metallic bond /structure.
The melting and boiling points decrease down the group as the atomic radius/size
increase reducing the strength of metallic bond and packing of the metallic
structure. e.g.
Beryllium has a melting point of 1280oC. Magnesium has a melting point of
650oC.Beryllium has a smaller atomic radius/size than magnesium .The strength of
metallic bond and packing of the metallic structure is thus stronger in beryllium.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkaline earth metals are good thermal and
electrical conductors. The two delocalized valence electrons move randomly
within the metallic structure.
Electrical conductivity increase down the group as the atomic radius/size increase
making the delocalized outer electrons less attracted to nucleus. Alkaline earth
metals are better thermal and electrical conductors than alkali metals because they
have more/two outer delocalized electrons.e.g.

Magnesium is a better conductor than sodium because it has more/two delocalized

electrons than sodium. The more delocalized electrons the better the electrical
conductor.
Calcium is a better conductor than magnesium.
Calcium has bigger/larger atomic radius than magnesium because the delocalized
electrons are less attracted to the nucleus of calcium and thus more free /mobile
and thus better the electrical conductor

Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkaline earth metals
10
Alkaline Appearance Ease Melting Boiling Conduct 1st 2nd
earth metal of point point - ivity ionization ionization
cutting (oC) (oC) energy energy
Beryllium Shiny grey Not 1280 3450 Good 900 1800
easy
Magnesium Shiny grey Not 650 1110 Good 736 1450
Easy
calcium Shiny grey Not 850 1140 Good 590 970
easy

Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with air/oxygen
On exposure to air, the surface of alkaline earth metals is slowly oxidized to its
oxide on prolonged exposure to air.
Example
On exposure to air, the surface of magnesium ribbon is oxidized to form a thin
film of Magnesium oxide
. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)

(ii) Burning in air/oxygen

Experiment
Hold a about 2cm length of Magnesium ribbon on a Bunsen flame. Stop heating
when it catches fire/start burning.
Caution: Do not look directly at the flame
Put the products of burning into 100cm3 beaker. Add about 5cm3 of distilled
water. Swirl. Test the mixture using litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium
Observations
-Magnesium burns with a bright blindening flame
-White solid /ash produced
-Solid dissolves in water to form a colourless solution
-Blue litmus paper remain blue
-Red litmus paper turns blue
-colourless gas with pungent smell of urine
Explanation
Magnesium burns in air with a bright blindening flame to form a mixture of
Magnesium oxide and Magnesium nitride.
2Mg (s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)
3Mg (s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
Magnesium oxide dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide.

11
 MgO(s) + H2O (l) -> Mg(OH)2(aq)
Magnesium nitride dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide and produce
ammonia gas.
Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Magnesium hydroxide and ammonia are weakly alkaline with pH 8/9/10/11 and
turns red litmus paper blue.
Calcium burns in air with faint orange/red flame to form a mixture of both Calcium
oxide and calcium nitride.
2Ca (s) + O2(g) -> 2CaO(s)
3Ca (s) + N2 (g) -> Ca3N2 (s)

Calcium oxide dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide.

CaO(s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)
Calcium nitride dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide and produce
ammonia gas.
Ca3N2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Calcium hydroxide is also weakly alkaline solution with pH 8/9/10/11 and turns
red litmus paper blue.

(iii) Reaction with water

Experiment
Measure 50 cm3 of distilled water into a beaker.
Scrub/polish with sand paper 1cm length of Magnesium ribbon
Place it in the water. Test the product-mixture with blue and red litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium metal.

Observations
-Surface of magnesium covered by bubbles of colourless gas.
-Colourless solution formed.
-Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing takes place in Calcium.
-Red litmus paper turns blue.
-Blue litmus paper remains blue.
Explanations
Magnesium slowly reacts with cold water to form Magnesium hydroxide and
bubbles of Hydrogen gas that stick on the surface of the ribbon.
Mg(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)

12
Calcium moderately reacts with cold water to form Calcium hydroxide and
produce a steady stream of Hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)

(iv) Reaction with water vapour/steam

Experiment
Put some cotton wool soaked in water/wet sand in a long boiling tube.
Coil a well polished magnesium ribbon into the boiling tube.
Ensure the coil touches the side of the boiling tube. Heat the cotton wool/sand
slightly then strongly heat the Magnesium ribbon .
Set up of apparatus

Observations
-Magnesium glows red hot then burns with a blindening flame.
-Magnesium continues to glow/burning even without more heating.
-White solid/residue.
-colourless gas collected over water.
Explanation
On heating wet sand, steam is generated which drives out the air that would
otherwise react with /oxidize the ribbon.
Magnesium burns in steam/water vapour generating enough heat that ensures the
reaction goes to completion even without further heating. White Magnesium oxide
is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
To prevent suck back, the delivery tube should be removed from the water before
heating is stopped at the end of the experiment.
13
 Mg(s) + H2O (l) -> MgO(s) + H2 (g)

(v) Reaction with chlorine gas.

Experiment
Lower slowly a burning magnesium ribbon/shavings into a gas jar containing
Chlorine gas. Repeat with a hot piece of calcium metal.
Observation
-Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine with a bright blindening flame.
-Calcium continues to burn for a short time.
-White solid formed .
-Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Explanation
Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine gas forming white magnesium oxide
solid.
Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) -> MgCl2 (s)
Calcium burns slightly in chlorine gas to form white calcium oxide solid. Calcium
oxide formed coat unreacted Calcium stopping further reaction
Ca(s) + Cl2 (g) -> CaCl2 (s)

(v)Reaction with dilute acids.

Experiment
Place about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into a test tube. Add about
1.0cm length of magnesium ribbon into the test tube. Cover the mouth of the test
tube using a thumb. Release the gas and test the gas using a burning splint.
Repeat with about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute hydrochloric/nitric(V) acid.
Repeat with 0.1g of Calcium in a beaker with all the above acid
Caution: Keep distance when using calcium
Observation
-Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with dilute sulphuric(VI) and nitric(V) acids
-Little Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with calcium and dilute sulphuric(VI) acid.
-Colourless gas produced that extinguishes a burning splint with an explosion/
“pop” sound.
-No gas is produced with Nitric(V)acid.
-Colourless solution is formed.

Explanation
Dilute acids react with alkaline earth metals to form a salt and produce hydrogen
gas.

14
Nitric(V)acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It quickly oxidizes the hydrogen
produced to water.
Calcium is very reactive with dilute acids and thus a very small piece of very
dilute acid should be used.
Chemical equations
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble CaSO4(s) coat/cover Ca(s))
Ca(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Ba(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble BaSO4(s) coat/cover Ba(s))
Ba(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ba(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> BaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

The table below shows some compounds of some alkaline earth metals

Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Barium

Hydroxide Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
Oxide BeO MgO CaO BaO
Sulphide - MgS CaS BaS
Chloride BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 BaCl2
Carbonate BeCO3 MgCO3 CaCO3 BaCO3
Nitrate(V) Be(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 Ba(NO3)2
Sulphate(VI) BeSO4 MgSO4 CaSO4 BaSO4
Sulphate(IV) - - CaSO3 BaSO3
Hydrogen carbonate - Mg(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 -
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) - Mg(HSO4)2 Ca(HSO4)2 -

Some uses of alkaline earth metals include:

(i) Magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic/poisonous mild base used as an anti
acid medicine to relieve stomach acidity.
(ii) Making duralumin. Duralumin is an alloy of Magnesium and aluminium
used for making aeroplane bodies because it is light.

15
(iii) Making plaster of Paris-Calcium sulphate(VI) is used in hospitals to set
a fractures bone.
(iii) Making cement-Calcium carbonate is mixed with clay and sand then heated
to form cement for construction/building.
(iv) Raise soil pH-Quicklime/calcium oxide is added to acidic soils to
neutralize and raise the soil pH in agricultural farms.
(v) As nitrogenous fertilizer-Calcium nitrate(V) is used as an agricultural
fertilizer because plants require calcium for proper growth.
(vi) In the blast furnace-Limestone is added to the blast furnace to produce
more reducing agent and remove slag in the blast furnace for extraction of Iron.

(c) Group VII elements: Halogens

Group VII elements are called Halogens. They are all non metals. They include:

Element Symbol Atomic Electronicc Charge Valency State at Room

number configuration of ion Temperature
Fluorine F 9 2:7 F- - 1 Pale yellow gas
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7 Cl 1 Pale green gas
-
Bromine Br 35 2:8:18:7 Br 1 Red liquid
Iodine I 53 2:8:18:18:7 I- - 1 Grey Solid
Astatine At 85 2:8:18:32:18:7 At 1 Radioactive

All halogen atoms have seven electrons in the outer energy level. They
acquire/gain one electron in the outer energy level to be stable. They therefore are
therefore monovalent .They exist in oxidation state X-
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Fluorine to Astatine.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Chlorine is bigger/larger than that of Fluorine because
Chlorine has more/3 energy levels than Fluorine (2 energy levels).

16
Atomic radius and ionic radius of Halogens increase down the group as the number
of energy levels increases.

The atomic radius of Halogens is smaller than the ionic radius. This is because they
react by gaining/acquiring extra one electron in the outer energy level. The
effective nuclear attraction on the more/extra electrons decreases. The incoming
extra electron is also repelled causing the outer energy level to expand to reduce
the repulsion and accommodate more electrons.

Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of four Halogens

Element Symbol Atomic Atomic radius(nM) Ionic radius(nM)
number
Fluorine F 9 0.064 0.136
Chlorine Cl 17 0.099 0.181
Bromine Br 35 0.114 0.195
Iodine I 53 0.133 0.216

The atomic radius of Chlorine is 0.099nM .The ionic radius of Cl- is 0.181nM.
This is because Chlorine atom/molecule reacts by gaining/acquiring extra one
electrons. The more/extra electrons/energy level experience less effective nuclear
attraction /pull towards the nucleus .The outer enegy level expand/increase to
reduce the repulsion of the existing and incoming gained /acquired electrons.
Electronegativity
The ease of gaining/acquiring extra electrons is called electronegativity. All
halogens are electronegative. Electronegativity decreases as atomic radius increase.
This is because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons decreases with
increase in atomic radius.
The outer electrons experience less nuclear attraction and thus ease of
gaining/acquiring extra electrons decrease.
It is measured using Pauling’s scale.
Where Fluorine with Pauling scale 4.0 is the most electronegative element and
thus the highest tendency to acquire/gain extra electron.
Table showing the electronegativity of the halogens.

Halogen F Cl Br I At
Electronegativity (Pauling scale) 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.2

17
 The electronegativity of the halogens decrease down the group from fluorine
to Astatine. This is because atomic radius increases down the group and thus
decrease electron – attracting power down the group from fluorine to
astatine.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table because it has
the small atomic radius.

Electron affinity
The minimum amount of energy required to gain/acquire an extra electron by an
atom of element in its gaseous state is called 1st electron affinity. The SI unit of
electron affinity is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1 . Electron affinity depend on
atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the nuclear attraction
on outer energy level electrons and thus the lower the electron affinity. For
halogens the 1st electron affinity decrease down the group as the atomic radius
increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons
decrease. Due to its small size/atomic radius Fluorine shows exceptionally low
electron affinity. This is because a lot of energy is required to overcome the high
repulsion of the existing and incoming electrons.

Table showing the election affinity of halogens for the

process X + e -> X-
Halogen F Cl Br I
Electron affinity kJmole-1 -333 -364 -342 -295
The higher the electron affinity the more stable theion.i.e
Cl- is a more stable ion than Br- because it has a more negative / exothermic
electron affinity than Br-
Electron affinity is different from:
(i) Ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the energy required to lose/donate an electron in an
atom of an element in its gaseous state while electron affinity is the energy
required to gain/acquire extra electron by an atom of an element in its
gaseous state.
(ii) Electronegativity.
-Electron affinity is the energy required to gain an electron in an atom of an
element in gaseous state. It involves the process:
X(g) + e -> X-(g)
Electronegativity is the ease/tendency of gaining/ acquiring electrons by an
element during chemical reactions.

18
 It does not involve use of energy but theoretical arbitrary Pauling’ scale of
measurements.

Physical properties
State at room temperature
Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a solid.
Astatine is radioactive .
All halogens exist as diatomic molecules bonded by strong covalent bond. Each
molecule is joined to the other by weak intermolecular forces/ Van-der-waals
forces.
Melting/Boiling point
The strength of intermolecular/Van-der-waals forces of attraction increase with
increase in molecular size/atomic radius.
Iodine has therefore the largest atomic radius and thus strongest intermolecular
forces to make it a solid.
Iodine sublimes when heated to form (caution: highly toxic/poisonous) purple
vapour.
This is because Iodine molecules are held together by weak van-der-
waals/intermolecular forces which require little heat energy to break.
Electrical conductivity
All Halogens are poor conductors of electricity because they have no free
delocalized electrons.
Solubility in polar and non-polar solvents
All halogens are soluble in water(polar solvent).
When a boiling tube containing either chlorine gas or bromine vapour is separately
inverted in a beaker containing distilled water and tetrachloromethane (non-polar
solvent), the level of solution in boiling tube rises in both water and
tetrachloromethane.
This is because halogen are soluble in both polar and non-polar solvents.
Solubility of halogens in water/polar solvents decrease down the group. Solubility
of halogens in non-polar solvent increase down the group.
The level of water in chlorine is higher than in bromine and the level of
tetrachloromethane in chlorine is lower than in bromine.
Caution: Tetrachloromethane , Bromine vapour and Chlorine gas are all highly
toxic/poisonous.

19
 Table showing the physical properties of Halogens

Halogen Formula Electrical Solubility Melting Boiling

of conductivity in water point(oC) point(oC)
molecule
Fluorine F2 Poor Insoluble/soluble -238 -188
in
tetrachloromethane
Chlorine Cl2 Poor Insoluble/soluble -101 -35
in
tetrachloromethane
Bromine Br2 Poor Insoluble/soluble 7 59
in
tetrachloromethane
Iodine I2 Poor Insoluble/soluble 114 sublimes
in
tetrachloromethane

Chemical properties
(i) Displacement
Experiment
Place separately in test tubes about 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Sodium bromide and
Sodium iodide solutions.
Add 5 drops of chlorine water to each test tube:
Repeat with 5 drops of bromine water instead of chlorine water
Observation
Using Chlorine water
-Yellow colour of chlorine water fades in all test tubes except with
sodium chloride.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Using Bromine water
Yellow colour of bromine water fades in test tubes containing sodium
iodide.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Explanation
The halogens displace each other from their solution. The more electronegative
displace the less electronegative from their solution.
Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and iodine.
On adding chlorine water, bromine and Iodine are displaced from their
solutions by chlorine.
Bromine is more electronegative than iodide but less 6than chlorine.
20
On adding Bromine water, iodine is displaced from its solution but not chlorine.
Table showing the displacement of the halogens
(V) means there is displacement (x ) means there is no displacement
F- Cl- Br- I-
Halogen ion in

solution
Halogen
F2 X
Cl2 X X
Br2 X X X
I2 X X X X

Chemical /ionic equations

With Fluorine
F2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(aq)
F2(g) + 2Cl-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Cl2(aq)
F2(g) + 2NaBr-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Br2(aq)
F2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Br2(aq)
F2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + I2(aq)
F2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + I2(aq)

With chlorine

Cl2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)

With Bromine
Br2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaBr(aq) + I2(aq)
Br2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)

21
Uses of halogens
(i) Florine – manufacture of P.T.F.E (Poly tetra fluoroethene) synthetic fiber.
- Reduce tooth decay when added in small amounts/quantities in tooth
paste.
NB –large small quantities of fluorine /fluoride ions in water cause browning
of teeth/flourosis.
- Hydrogen fluoride is used to engrave words /pictures in glass.

(ii) Bromine - Silver bromide is used to make light sensitive photographic

paper/films.

(iii) Iodide – Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as medicine to kill bacteria in

skin cuts. It is called tincture of iodine.

The table below to show some compounds of halogens.

H Na Mg Al Si C P
Element
Halogen (i)
F HF NaF MgF2 AlF3 SiF4 CF4 PFBelo
3 w is
Cl HCl NaCl MgCl2 AlCl SiCl 4 the3 tabl e
CCl4 PCl
3 sho win
Br HBr NaBr MgBr2 AlBr SiBr4 CBr4 PBr3
3
I Hl Nal Mgl2 All3 SiI4 Cl 4 PBr3

g the bond energy of four halogens.

Bond Bond energy k J mole-1
Cl-Cl 242
Br-Br 193
I-I 151

I. What do you understand by the term “bond energy”

Bond energy is the energy required to break/ form one mole of chemical
bond

II. Explain the trend in bond Energy of the halogens above:

-Decrease down the group from chlorine to Iodine

22
 -Atomic radius increase down the group decreasing the energy required
to break the covalent bonds between the larger atom with reduced
effective nuclear @ charge an outer energy level that take part in
bonding.

(c)Group VIII elements: Noble gases

Group VIII elements are called Noble gases. They are all non metals. Noble gases
occupy about 1.0% of the atmosphere as colourless gaseous mixture. Argon is the
most abundant with 0.9%.
They exists as monatomic molecules with very weak van-der-waals
/intermolecular forces holding the molecules.
They include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electron structure State at room
number temperature
Helium He 2 2: Colourless gas
Neon Ne 10 2:8 Colourless gas
Argon Ar 18 2:8:8 Colourless gas
Krypton Kr 36 2:8:18:8 Colourless gas
Xenon Xe 54 2:8:18:18:8 Colourless gas
Radon Rn 86 2:8:18:32:18:8 Radioctive
st
All noble gas atoms have a stable duplet(two electrons in the 1 energy level) or
octet(eight electrons in other outer energy level)in the outer energy level. They
therefore do not acquire/gain extra electron in the outer energy level or
donate/lose. They therefore are therefore zerovalent .
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Helium to Randon.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size/radius. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Argon is bigger/larger than that of Neon because Argon
has more/3 energy levels than Neon (2 energy levels).
Atomic radius noble gases increase down the group as the number of energy levels
increases.
The effective nuclear attraction on the outer electrons thus decrease down the
group.

The noble gases are generally unreactive because the outer energy level has the
stable octet/duplet. The stable octet/duplet in noble gas atoms lead to a
comparatively very high 1st ionization energy. This is because losing /donating an
electron from the stable atom require a lot of energy to lose/donate and make it
unstable.

23
As atomic radius increase down the group and the 1st ionization energy decrease,
very electronegative elements like Oxygen and Fluorine are able to react and bond
with lower members of the noble gases.e.g
Xenon reacts with Fluorine to form a covalent compound XeF6.This is because the
outer electrons/energy level if Xenon is far from the nucleus and thus experience
less effective nuclear attraction.

Noble gases have low melting and boiling points. This is because they exist as
monatomic molecules joined by very weak intermolecular/van-der-waals forces
that require very little energy to weaken and form liquid and break to form a gas.
The intermolecular/van-der-waals forces increase down the group as the atomic
radius/size increase from Helium to Radon. The melting and boiling points thus
increase also down the group.
Noble gases are insoluble in water and are poor conductors of electricity.

Element Formula Electrical Solubility Atomic 1st Melting Boiling

of conductivity in water radius(nM) ionization point(0C) point(0C)
molecule energy
Helium He Poor Insoluble 0.128 2372 -270 -269
Neon Ne Poor Insoluble 0.160 2080 -249 -246
Argon Ar Poor Insoluble 0.192 1520 -189 -186
Krypton Kr Poor Insoluble 0.197 1350 -157 -152
Xenon Xe Poor Insoluble 0.217 1170 -112 -108
Radon Rn Poor Insoluble 0.221 1134 -104 -93

Uses of noble gases

Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent oxidation of
the bulb filament
Argon is used in arch welding as an insulator.
Neon is used in street and advertisement light
Helium is mixed with Oxygen during deep sea diving and mountaineering.
Helium is used in weather balloon for meteorological research instead of
Hydrogen because it is unreactive/inert. Hydrogen when impure can ignite with an
explosion. Helium is used in making thermometers for measuring very low
temperatures.

24
STRUCTURE AND BONDING
IONIC (ELECTROVALENT) BONDING

Noble gases like neon or argon have eight electrons in their outer shells (or two in the case
of helium). These noble gas structures are thought of as being in some way a "desirable"
thing for an atom to have. When other atoms react, they try to organise electrons such
that their outer shells are either completely full or completely empty. Chemical reactions
occur so that atoms attain inert gas configuration by either losing valency electrons as in
the case of metals, or gaining electrons as in the case of non metals.

Ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble gas structure (2,8). If it gave away
that electron it would become more stable. Chlorine (2,8,7) has 1 electron short of a stable
noble gas structure (2,8,8). If it could gain an electron from somewhere it too would
become more stable.

If a sodium atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom, both become more stable.
The sodium has lost an electron, so it no longer has equal numbers of electrons and
protons. Because it has one more proton than electron, it has a charge of 1+. If electrons
are lost from an atom, positive ions are formed. Positive ions are sometimes called cations
because they move to the cathode during electrolysis.

The chlorine has gained an electron, so it now has one more electron than proton. It
therefore has a charge of 1-. If electrons are gained by an atom, negative ions are formed.
A negative ion is sometimes called an anion since it drifts to the anode during electrolysis.

The nature of ionic bond

The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic attractions
between the positive and negative charges. You need one sodium atom to provide the
extra electron for one chlorine atom, so they combine together 1:1. The formula is
therefore NaCl.

Properties of ionic compounds

 All compounds with ionic bonding produce giant ionic structures.

 Consist of oppositely charged ions arranged in an ionic lattice, the ions are held
together by strong ionic bonds. e.g. NaCl is composed of Na+ ions and Cl- ions.

 These bonds are hard to break, therefore ionic substances have very high melting
and boiling points.
  All exist as solids.
 They conduct electricity when molten, because the ions are free to move, but do
not conduct when solid.
 They conduct electricity in the aqueous state because the ions are free to move.
 Most ionic substances are soluble in water because the polar water molecules
can accommodate the charged ions.

COVALENT BONDING - SINGLE BONDS

As well as achieving noble gas structures by transferring electrons from one atom to
another as in ionic bonding, it is also possible for atoms to reach these stable structures by
sharing electrons to give covalent bonds.

Depending on the number of electron pairs shared between atoms which participate in
bonding, covalent bonds are classified as follows:

Some simple covalent

molecules Chlorine

For example, two chlorine atoms could both achieve stable structures by sharing their
single unpaired electron as in the diagram. The fact that one chlorine has been drawn with
electrons marked as crosses and the other as dots is simply to show where all the electrons
come from. In reality there is no difference between them.
The two chlorine atoms are said to be joined by a covalent bond. The reason that the two
chlorine atoms stick together is that the shared pair of electrons is attracted to the nucleus
of both chlorine atoms.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen atoms only need two electrons in their outer level to reach the noble gas structure of helium.

Once again, the covalent bond holds the two atoms together because the pair of electrons
is attracted to both nuclei. This is another single bond.

Hydrogen chloride
The hydrogen has a helium structure, and the chlorine an argon

structure. Water

Oxygen atom has six electrons in the outer shell, while each of the two hydrogen atoms
has one each. After bonding, oxygen has 8 electrons while each hydrogen atom has two
as shown by the molecule.

NITROGEN GAS
Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the outer shell. Each needs 3 electrons to complete
the outer shell. In the formation of the molecule, each nitrogen atom contributes three
electrons and a triple bond is formed

Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

1) Covalent compounds consist of molecules and not ions. The molecules do not have
any electric charge on them. The molecules are held together by weak forces called Van der
Waal's forces.
2) Covalent compounds are gases, volatile liquids or soft solids. As there are weak, Van der
Waal's forces between the molecules, they are not held in rigid position. The state depends
on the bond energy. If the bond energy is very low, they stay as gases, if it is appreciable
they are volatile liquids. If very high, they exist as soft solids.

3) Covalent compounds generally have low melting and boiling points. As Van der Waal's
forces are weak, a very small amount of energy is required to break the bond between the
molecules corresponding to low melting point and boiling point.

4) Covalent compounds dissolve in organic solvents. As they do not contain ions, solvation
does not take place when water is added to the compound. Hence they do not dissolve in
water.

5) Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity. They do not contain ions in the
fused state, nor do ions migrate on application of an electric potential. Hence, there is no
conduction of current.

6) Covalent compounds are less dense when compared to water. Very weak Van der Waal's
forces hold the molecules together, hence there are large inter molecular spaces.
Consequently less number of molecules per unit volume, which means mass per unit volume
is also less. Hence they have a low density.

Exceptions

 Diamond and graphite, the allotropes of carbon have high melting point.

 Hydrogen chloride in the aqueous state conducts electricity.

The giant covalent structure of diamond

Carbon has an electronic arrangement of 2, 4. In diamond, each carbon shares electrons

with four other carbon atoms - forming four single bonds.

In the diagram some carbon atoms only seem to be forming two bonds (or even one bond),
but that's not really the case. We are only showing a small bit of the whole structure.
This is a giant covalent structure - it continues on and on in three dimensions. It is not a
molecule, because the number of atoms joined up in a real diamond is completely variable
- depending on the size of the crystal.

The physical properties of diamond

Diamond

 Has a very high melting point (almost 4000°C). Very strong carbon-carbon covalent
bonds have to be broken throughout the structure before melting occurs.
 Is very hard. This is again due to the need to break very strong covalent bonds
operating in 3- dimensions.
 Doesn’t conduct electricity. All the electrons are held tightly between the atoms, and
aren't free to move.
 Is insoluble in water and organic solvents. There are no possible attractions which
could occur between solvent molecules and carbon atoms which could outweigh
the attractions between the covalently bound carbon atoms.

The giant covalent structure of graphite

Graphite has a layer structure which is quite difficult to draw convincingly in three
dimensions. The diagram below shows the arrangement of the atoms in each layer, and
the way the layers are spaced.
The bonding in graphite

Each carbon atom uses three of its electrons to form simple bonds to its three close
neighbours. That leaves a fourth electron in the bonding level. These "spare" electrons in
each carbon atom become delocalised over the whole of the sheet of atoms in one layer.
They are no longer associated directly with any particular atom or pair of atoms, but are
free to wander throughout the whole sheet. The important thing is that the delocalised
electrons are free to move anywhere within the sheet - each electron is no longer fixed to a
particular carbon atom. There is, however, no direct contact between the delocalised
electrons in one sheet and those in the neighbouring sheets.

The atoms within a sheet are held together by strong covalent bonds - stronger, in fact,
than in diamond because of the additional bonding caused by the delocalised electrons. So
what holds the sheets together?

In graphite you have the ultimate example of van der Waals dispersion forces. As the
delocalised electrons move around in the sheet, very large temporary dipoles can be
set up which will induce opposite dipoles in the sheets above and below - and so on
throughout the whole graphite crystal.

The physical properties of graphite

Graphite

 Has a high melting point, similar to that of diamond. In order to melt graphite, it
isn't enough to loosen one sheet from another. You have to break the covalent
bonding throughout the whole structure.
  Has a soft, slippery feel, and is used in pencils and as a dry lubricant for things like
locks. You can think of graphite rather like a pack of cards - each card is strong, but
the cards will slide over each other, or even fall off the pack altogether. When you
use a pencil, sheets are rubbed off and stick to the paper.
 Has a lower density than diamond. This is because of the relatively large amount of
space that is "wasted" between the sheets.
 Is insoluble in water and organic solvents - for the same reason that diamond
is insoluble. Attractions between solvent molecules and carbon atoms will
never be strong enough to overcome the strong covalent bonds in graphite.
 Conducts electricity. The delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the
sheets. If a piece of graphite is connected into a circuit, electrons can fall off one
end of the sheet and be replaced with new ones at the other end.

The structure of silicon dioxide, SiO2

Silicon dioxide is also known as silicon (IV)

oxide. The giant covalent structure of silicon dioxide

There are three different crystal forms of silicon dioxide. The easiest one to remember and
draw is based on the diamond structure.

Crystalline silicon has the same structure as diamond. To turn it into silicon dioxide, all you
need to do is to modify the silicon structure by including some oxygen atoms.
Notice that each silicon atom is bridged to its neighbours by an oxygen atom. Don't forget
that this is just a tiny part of a giant structure extending on all 3 dimensions.

The physical properties of silicon dioxide

Silicon dioxide

 Has a high melting point - varying depending on what the particular structure is
(remember that the structure given is only one of three possible structures), but
around 1700°C. Very strong silicon-oxygen covalent bonds have to be broken
throughout the structure before melting occurs.
 Is hard. This is due to the need to break the very strong covalent bonds.
 Doesn’t conduct electricity. There aren't any delocalised electrons. All the
electrons are held tightly between the atoms, and aren't free to move.
 Is insoluble in water and organic solvents. There are no possible attractions which
could occur between solvent molecules and the silicon or oxygen atoms which
could overcome the covalent bonds in the giant structure.

Uses of Silica

i) Quartz glass is used for manufacturing optical instruments.

ii) Colored quartz is used for manufacturing gems.

iii)Sand is used in manufacture of glass, porcelain, sand paper and mortar etc.

iv)Sand stone is used as a building material.

CO-ORDINATE (DATIVE COVALENT) BONDING

Co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding

A covalent bond is formed by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons. The atoms are held
together because the electron pair is attracted by both of the nuclei. In the formation of a
simple covalent bond, each atom supplies one electron to the bond - but that doesn't have
to be the case. A co-ordinate bond (also called a
dative covalent bond) is a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons) in which both
electrons come from the same atom.

The reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride

If these colourless gases are allowed to mix, a thick white smoke of solid ammonium
chloride is formed. Ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the transfer of a hydrogen ion
from the hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.

When the ammonium ion, NH4+, is formed, the fourth hydrogen is attached by a dative
covalent bond, because only the hydrogen's nucleus is transferred from the chlorine to
the nitrogen. The hydrogen's electron is left behind on the chlorine to form a negative
chloride ion.

Once the ammonium ion has been formed it is impossible to tell any difference between
the dative covalent and the ordinary covalent bonds. Although the electrons are shown
differently in the diagram, there is no difference between them in reality.

INTERMOLECULAR BONDING - VAN DER WAALS FORCES

(a) VAN DER WAALS FORCES

Intermolecular attractions are attractions between one molecule and a neighbouring

molecule. The forces of attraction which hold an individual molecule together (for example,
the covalent bonds) are known as
intramolecular attractions. All molecules experience intermolecular attractions, although in
some cases those attractions are very weak. Even in a gas like hydrogen, H 2, if you slow
the molecules down by cooling the gas, the attractions are large enough for the molecules
to stick together eventually to form a liquid and then a solid.

In hydrogen's case the attractions are so weak that the molecules have to be cooled to (-
252°C) before the attractions are enough to condense the hydrogen as a liquid. Helium's
intermolecular attractions are even weaker - the molecules won't stick together to form a
liquid until the temperature drops to (-269°C).

HYDROGEN BONDING

Polar molecules, such as water molecules, have a weak, partial negative charge at one
region of the molecule (the oxygen atom in water) and a partial positive charge
elsewhere (the hydrogen atoms in water).

Thus when water molecules are close together, their positive and negative regions are
attracted to the oppositely-charged regions of nearby molecules. The force of attraction,
shown here as a dotted line, is called a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule is hydrogen
bonded to four others.

The hydrogen bonds that form between water molecules account for some of the essential — and
unique
— properties of water.

 The attraction created by hydrogen bonds keeps water liquid over a wider range of
temperature than is found for any other molecule its size.
  The energy required to break multiple hydrogen bonds causes water to have a
high heat of vaporization; that is; a large amount of energy is needed to
convert liquid water, where the molecules are attracted through their hydrogen
bonds, to water vapor, where they are not.

Liquid Water and Hydrogen Bonding

Why water is a liquid?

In many ways, water is a miracle liquid. Since the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the
molecule carry opposite (though partial) charges, nearby water molecules are attracted to
each other like tiny little magnets. Hydrogen bonding makes water molecules "stick"
together. This makes water have high melting and boiling points compared to other covalent
compounds such as ammonia (NH3) which have similar molecular mass but are gases

Ice and Hydrogen Bonding

The structure that forms in the solid ice crystal actually has large holes in it. Therefore, in

a given volume of ice, there are fewer water molecules than in the same volume of liquid

water. In other words, ice is less dense than liquid water and will float on the surface of

the liquid.

Surface Tension and hydrogen bonding

As we just discussed, neighboring water molecules are attracted to one another. Molecules

at the surface of liquid water have fewer neighbors and, as a result, have a greater

attraction to the few water molecules that are nearby. This enhanced attraction is called

surface tension. It makes the surface of the liquid slightly more difficult to break through

than the interior.

Water as a Solvent

The partial charge that develops across the water molecule helps make it an excellent

solvent. Water dissolves many substances by surrounding charged particles and "pulling"

them into solution. For example, common table salt, sodium chloride, is an ionic

substance that contains alternating sodium and chlorine ions. When table salt is added

to water, the partial charges on the water molecule are attracted to the Na+ and Cl- ions.

Why does ethanol have a higher boiling point than methoxymethane?

Ethanol, CH3CH2-O-H, and methoxymethane, CH3-O-CH3, both have the same molecular
formula, C2H6O.

They have the same number of electrons, and a similar length to the molecule. The van
der Waals attractions (both dispersion forces and dipole-dipole attractions) in each will be
much the same.

However, ethanol has a hydrogen atom attached directly to oxygen - and that oxygen still
has exactly the same two lone pairs as in a water molecule. Hydrogen bonding can occur
between ethanol molecules, although not as effectively as in water. The hydrogen bonding
is limited by the fact that there is only one hydrogen in each ethanol molecule with
sufficient + charge.

In methoxymethane, the lone pairs on the oxygen are still there, but the hydrogens aren't
sufficiently + for hydrogen bonds to form. Except in some rather unusual cases, the
hydrogen atom has to be attached directly to the very electronegative element for
hydrogen bonding to occur.

The boiling points of ethanol and methoxymethane show the dramatic effect that the
hydrogen bonding has on the stickiness of the ethanol molecules:
ethanol (with hydrogen bonding) 78.5°C
methoxymethane (without hydrogen -24.8°C
bonding)

The hydrogen bonding in the ethanol has lifted its boiling point about 100°C.It is important
to realise that hydrogen bonding exists in addition to van der Waals attractions. For
example, all the following molecules contain the same number of electrons, and the first
two are much the same length. The higher boiling point of the butan-1-ol is due to the
additional hydrogen bonding.

4. BONDING IN METALS

Bonding in metals

Metal atoms have relatively few electrons in their outer shells. When they are packed
together, each metal atom loses its outer electrons into a ‘sea’ of free electrons (or mobile
electrons). Having lost electrons, the atoms are no longer electrically neutral. They become
positive ions because they have lost electrons but the number of protons in the nucleus has
remained unchanged.

Therefore the structure of a metal is made up of positive ions packed together. These
ions are surrounded by electrons, which can move freely between the ions.

 An ion is a charged particle made from an atom by the loss or gain of electrons.
 Metal atoms most easily lose electrons, so they become positive ions. In doing so
they achieve a more stable electron arrangement, usually that of the nearest noble gas.

These free electrons are delocalized (not restricted to orbiting one positive ion) and form
a kind of electrostatic ‘glue’ holding the structure together. In an electrical circuit, metals
can conduct electricity because the mobile electrons can move through the structure
carrying charge. His type of bonding (called metallic boding) is present in alloys as well.
Alloys, for example solder and brass, will conduct electricity.
The physical properties of metals:

This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting and
boiling points. Usually a relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil
metals.

a. Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the
charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied
across a piece of metal.
b. Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving
electrons. Non- metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating
atoms, knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle
kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy
electrons move around freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently
to 'cooler' atoms.
c. Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily
tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and water.
d. Unlike ionic solids, metals are very malleable, they can be readily bent, pressed
or hammered into shape.
INTRODUCTION TO SALTS
1.(a) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine
with the anion derived from an acid.
A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
wholly/fully or partially/partly ,directly or indirectly by a metal or ammonium
radical.

(b) The number of ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called basicity

of an acid.
Some acids are therefore:
(i) monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3,HCOOH,CH3COOH.

(ii) dibasic acids ; generally denoted H2X e.g.

H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3,HOOCOOH.
(iii) tribasic acids ; generally denoted H3X e.g.
H3PO4.
(c) Some salts are normal salts while other are acid salts.
(i) A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen
in an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.

(ii) An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable

/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic
/ammonium radical.
Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids

Acid name Chemical Basicity Normal salt Acid salt

formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl Monobasic Chloride(Cl-) None

Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobasic Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None

Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobasic Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None

Sulphuric(VI)acid H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) (SO42-) Hydrogen sulphate(VI)

(HSO4-)

Sulphuric(IV)acid H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) Hydrogen sulphate(IV)

(HSO3-)
Carbonic(IV)acid H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(CO32-) Hydrogen carbonate(IV)
(HCO3-)

Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(V)(PO43-) Dihydrogen

acid phosphate(V)
(H2PO 42-)

Hydrogen
diphosphate(V)
(HP2O 42-)

The table below show shows some examples of salts.

Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts

+ -
NaOH Na HCl Cl NaCl Sodium(I)chloride
2+ 2-
Mg(OH) H SO SO MgSO Magnesium sulphate(VI)
2 Mg 2 4 4
4
Mg(HSO ) Magnesium hydrogen
42 sulphate(VI)

2+ -
Pb(OH) HNO NO Pb(NO ) Lead(II)nitrate(V)
2 Pb 3 32
3
2+ -
Ba(OH) HNO NO Ba(NO ) Barium(II)nitrate(V)
2 Ba 3 32
3
2+ 2-
Ca(OH) H SO SO MgSO Calcium sulphate(VI)
2 Ba 2 4 4
4
+ 3-
NH OH NH H PO PO (NH ) PO Ammonium phosphate(V)
4 3 4 4 3 4
4 4
(NH ) HPO Diammonium phosphate(V)
4 2 4
Ammonium diphosphate(V)
NH H PO
4 2 4

+ 3-
KOH H PO PO K PO Potassium phosphate(V)
K 3 4 3 4
4
3+ 2-
Al(OH) H SO SO Al (SO ) Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)
3 Al 2 4 2 42
4
2+ 2-
Fe(OH) H SO SO FeSO Iron(II)sulphate(VI)
2 Fe 2 4 4
4
 3+ 2-
Fe(OH) H SO SO Fe (SO ) Iron(III)sulphate(VI)
3 Fe 2 4 2 42
4

(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.

(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the
atmosphere but do not form a solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI),
anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate(V) common table salt.
(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the
atmosphere and form a solution.
Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate(V),Calcium chloride,
Sodium hydroxide, Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium chloride.
(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization
to the atmosphere.
Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate, sodium sulphate (VI)decahydrate.

(e) Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do

not contain water of crystallization. They are anhydrous.

Table showing some hydrated salts.

Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O
Magnesium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate(VI)decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate(IV)decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate(VI)decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O

(f) Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are
some complex salts.
Table of some complex salts
Name of complex salt Chemical formula Colour of the complex salt
Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate(VI) Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 H2O Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Colourless solution
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate(V) Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution

(g) Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.

Table of some double salts

Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O

(h) Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be
soluble. Others do not dissolve in water. They form a suspension/precipitate
in water.

Table of solubility of salts

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
All sulphate(IV)/SO32- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3
All chlorides/Cl- except Silver chloride/AgCl
Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in hot
water)
All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and ammonium
salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate(VI)/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases

13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility
in water.
 (a) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:

(i) Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.

By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute
acid,a salt is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped ,excess metal is filtered.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.
Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample
crystal of the salt. i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX(aq) + H2(g)
Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)

(ii) Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid

By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide )to a dilute acid until no more
dissolves, in the acid,a salt and water are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with
distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)

(iii) reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an acid.

By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to
adilute acid, effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of carbon(IV)oxide gas shows the
reaction is taking place. When effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is
over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to
concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying
between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

(iv) neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid

By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of
an indicator, the colour of the indicator changes when the acid has completely
reacted with an alkali at the end point. The procedure is then repeated without the
indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to concentrate , allowed to crystallize
,washed with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.
NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iv)direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine
to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)

Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be
taken to avoid water/moisture into the reaction flask during their preparation.Such
salts include aluminium(III)chloride(AlCl3) and iron (III)chloride(FeCl3)
1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium(III)chloride that
sublimes away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)
Once formed aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /
moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes
away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)

Once formed , aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /

moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form
one soluble and one insoluble. This is called double decomposition or
precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the residue is washed with distilled
water then dried.
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2 (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)

14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization , decompose ,melt or sublime
on heating on a Bunsen burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a
laboratory school burner:

(a) effect of heat on chlorides

All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not
affected by laboratory heating except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride
sublimes on gentle heating. It dissociate into the constituent ammonia and
hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(sublimation) (dissociation)

(b) effect of heat on nitrate(V)

(i) Potassium nitrate(V)/KNO3 and sodium nitrate(V)/NaNO3 decompose on
heating to form Potassium nitrate(III)/KNO2 and sodium nitrate(III)/NaNO2 and
producing Oxygen gas in each case.
2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

(ii)Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and
a mixture of brown acidic nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(iii)Silver(I)nitrate(V) and mercury(II) nitrate(V) are lowest in the reactivity

series. They decompose on heating to form the metal(silver and mercury)and the
Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(iv)Ammonium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(III) decompose on heating

to Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles glowing splint) and nitrogen gas
respectively.Water is also formed.i.e.
NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)
NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)

(c) effect of heat on nitrate(V)

Only Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Iron(III)sulphate(VI) and copper(II)sulphate(VI)

decompose on heating. They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic fumes of
acidic sulphur(IV)oxide gas.

2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)

Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
 (d) effect of heat on carbonates(IV) and hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(i)Sodium carbonate(IV)and potassium carbonate(IV)do not decompose on
heating.
(ii) Heavy metal nitrate(IV)salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and
produce carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate
when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate dissolves if the gas is in
excess.
e.g. CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(iii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen

carbonate(IV)decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV)
and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.
2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form
water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.
Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -> MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROLYSIS
(ELECTROLYTIC CELL)
1. Electrolysis is defined simply as the decomposition of a compound by
an electric current/electricity.
A compound that is decomposed by an electric current is called an electrolyte.
Some electrolytes are weak while others are strong.

2. Strong electrolytes are those that are fully ionized/dissociated into (many)
ions. Common strong electrolytes include:
(i) all mineral acids
(ii) all strong alkalis/sodium hydroxide/potassium
hydroxide. (iii)all soluble salts

3. Weak electrolytes are those that are partially/partly ionized/dissociated into

(few) ions.
Common weak electrolytes include:
(i)all organic acids
(ii)all bases except sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
(iii)Water

4. A compound that is not decomposed by an electric current is called non-

electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes are those compounds /substances that exist as molecules and thus
cannot ionize/dissociate into(any) ions .
Common non-electrolytes include:
(i) most organic solvents (e.g.
petrol/paraffin/benzene/methylbenzene/ethanol)
(ii) all hydrocarbons(alkanes /alkenes/alkynes)
(iii) Chemicals of life(e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, starch, sugar)

5. An electrolytes in solid state have fused /joined ions and therefore do not
conduct electricity but the ions (cations and anions) are free and mobile in molten
and aqueous (solution, dissolved in water) state.

6. During electrolysis, the free ions are attracted to the electrodes.

An electrode is a rod through which current enter and leave the electrolyte during
electrolysis.

1
 An electrode that does not influence/alter the products of electrolysis is called an
inert electrode.
Common inert electrodes include:
(i)Platinum
(ii)Carbon graphite
Platinum is not usually used in a school laboratory because it is very expensive.
Carbon graphite is easily/readily and cheaply available (from used dry cells).

7. The positive electrode is called Anode.The anode is the electrode through which
current enter the electrolyte/electrons leave the electrolyte
8. The negative electrode is called Cathode. The cathode is the electrode
through which current leave the electrolyte / electrons enter the electrolyte

9. During the electrolysis, free anions are attracted to the anode where they lose
/donate electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules. i.e.
M(l) -> M+(l) + e (for cations from molten electrolytes)
M(s) -> M+(aq) + e (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state / solution /
dissolved in water)
The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the anode. This
is called discharge at anode

10. During electrolysis, free cations are attracted to the cathode where they gain
/accept/acquire electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules.
X+ (aq) + 2e -> X(s) (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state / solution /
dissolved in water)
2X+ (l) + 2e -> X (l) (for cations from molten electrolytes)
The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the cathode.
This is called discharge at cathode.

11. The below set up shows an electrolytic cell.

2
 Simple set up of electrolytic cell

Gaseous product at cathode Gaseous product at anode

Electrolyte

Cathode(-) Anode(+)

Battery

12. For a compound /salt containing only two ion/binary salt the products of
electrolysis in an electrolytic cell can be determined as in the below
examples:

a) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Lead(II)chloride

(i) Decomposition of electrolyte into free

ions; PbCl2 (l) -> Pb 2+(l)
+ 2Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii) At the cathode/negative
electrode(-); Pb 2+(l) + 2e ->
Pb (l)
2+
(Cation / Pb gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)

(iii) At the anode/positive

electrode(+); 2Cl-(l) ->Cl2
(g) + 2e
-
(Anion / Cl donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)

(iv) Products of electrolysis therefore are;

I. At the cathode grey beads /solid lead metal.
II. At the anode pale green chlorine gas.
3
b) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Zinc bromide

4
(i) Decomposition of electrolyte into free
ions; ZnBr2 (l) -> Zn 2+(l)
+ 2Br-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii) At the cathode/negative
electrode(-); Zn 2+(l) + 2e ->
Zn(l)
2+
(Cation / Zn gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)

(iii) At the anode/positive

electrode(+); 2Br-(l) ->
Br2 (g) + 2e
-
(Anion / Br donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a liquid molecule which
change to gas on heating)

(iv) Products of electrolysis therefore are;

I. At the cathode grey beads /solid Zinc metal.
II. At the anode red bromine liquid / red/brown bromine gas.

c) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

(i) Decomposition of electrolyte into free

ions; NaCl (l) -> Na +(l)
+ Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii) At the cathode/negative
electrode(-); 2Na+(l) + 2e ->
Na (l)
+
(Cation / Na gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)

(iii) At the anode/positive electrode(+);

2Cl-(l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e
-
(Anion / Cl donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)

(iv) Products of electrolysis therefore are;

I. At the cathode grey beads /solid sodium metal.
II. At the anode pale green chlorine gas.

d) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Aluminium

5
(III)oxide

(i) Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;

Al2O3 (l) -> 2Al 3+(l) + 3O2-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)

6
(ii) At the cathode/negative electrode(-);
4Al 3+ (l) + 12e -> 4Al (l)
(Cation / Al 3+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)

(iii) At the anode/positive

electrode(+); 6O2-(l) ->
3O2 (g) + 12e
2-
(Anion /6O donate/lose 12 electrons to form free atom then three gas molecule)

(iv) Products of electrolysis therefore are;

I. At the cathode grey beads /solid aluminium metal.
II. At the anode colourless gas that relights/rekindles glowing splint.

13. In industries electrolysis has the following uses/applications:

(a) Extraction of reactive metals from their ores.

Potassium, sodium ,magnesium, and aluminium are extracted from their ores
using electrolytic methods.

(b) Purifying copper after exraction from copper pyrites ores.

Copper obtained from copper pyrites ores is not pure. After extraction, the copper
is refined by electrolysing copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution using the impure
copper as anode and a thin strip of pure copper as cathode. Electrode ionization
take place there:
(i)At the cathode; Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) (Pure copper deposits on the strip
2+
(ii)At the anode; Cu(s) ->Cu (aq) + 2e (impure copper erodes/dissolves)

(c) Electroplating
The label EPNS(Electro Plated Nickel Silver) on some steel/metallic utensils
mean they are plated/coated with silver and/or Nickel to improve their
appearance(add their aesthetic value)and prevent/slow corrosion(rusting of
iron). Electroplating is the process of coating a metal with another metal using an
electric current.
During electroplating, the cathode is made of the metal to be coated/impure.
Example:
During the electroplating of a spoon with silver
(i)the spoon/impure is placed as the cathode(negative terminal of battery)
(ii)the pure silver is placed as the anode(positive terminal of battery)
(iii)the pure silver erodes/ionizes/dissociates to release electrons:
Ag(s) ->Ag+ (aq) + e (impure silver erodes/dissolves)
7
(iv) silver (Ag+)ions from electrolyte gain electrons to form pure silver
deposits / coat /cover the spoon/impure
Ag+ (aq) + e ->Ag(s) (pure silver deposits /coat/cover on spoon)

8
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is an element in Group IV(Group 4)of the Periodic table .It has atomic
number 6 and electronic configuration 2:4 and thus has four valence electrons
(tetravalent).It does not easily ionize but forms strong covalent bonds with other
elements including itself.

(a) Occurrence
Carbon mainly naturally occurs as:
(i) allotropes of carbon i.e graphite, diamond and
fullerenes. (ii)amorphous carbon in coal, peat ,charcoal and
coke.
(iii)carbon(IV)oxide gas accounting 0.03% by volume of normal air in the
atmosphere.
(b) Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon naturally occur in two main crystalline allotropic forms, carbon-graphite
and carbon-diamond

Carbon-diamond Carbon-graphite
Shiny crystalline solid Black/dull crystalline solid
Has a very high melting/boiling point Has a high melting/boiling point
because it has a very closely packed because it has a very closely packed
giant tetrahedral structure joined by giant hexagonal planar structure joined
strong covalent bonds by strong covalent bonds
Has very high density(Hardest known Soft
natural substance)
Abrassive Slippery
Poor electrical conductor because it has Good electrical conductor because it has
no free delocalized electrons free 4th valency delocalized electrons
Is used in making Jewels, drilling and Used in making Lead-pencils,electrodes
cutting metals in batteries and as a lubricant
Has giant tetrahedral structure Has giant hexagonal planar structure

c)Properties of Carbon
(i) Physical properties of carbon
Carbon occur widely and naturally as a black solid
It is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide and organic solvents.
It is a poor electrical and thermal conductor.
(ii) Chemical properties of carbon
I. Burning
Experiment
Introduce a small piece of charcoal on a Bunsen flame then lower it into a gas jar
containing Oxygen gas. Put three drops of water. Swirl. Test the solution with blue
and red litmus papers.
Observation
-Carbon chars then burns with a blue flame
-Colourless and odourless gas produced
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red. Red litmus paper remains
red.
Explanation
Carbon burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon burns in limited supply of air with a blue
non-sooty/non-smoky flame forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide
gas dissolve in water to form weak acidic solution of Carbonic (IV)acid.
Chemical Equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) (in excess air)
2C(s) + O2(g) -> 2CO(g) (in limited air)
CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> H2CO3 (aq) (very weak acid)

II. Reducing agent

Experiment
Mix thoroughly equal amounts of powdered charcoal and copper (II)oxide into a
crucible. Heat strongly.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
2
3
Carbon is a reducing agent. For ages it has been used to reducing metal oxide ores
to metal, itself oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon reduces black
copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal

Chemical Equation
2CuO(s) + C(s) -> 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)

2PbO(s) + C(s) -> 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)

2ZnO(s) + C(s) -> 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)

Fe3O4 (s) + 4C(s) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)

4
 B: COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
The following are the main compounds of Carbon
(i)Carbon(IV)Oxide(CO2)
(ii)Carbon(II)Oxide(CO)
(iii) Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO 3-)
(iv) Sodium carbonate(Na2CO3)

(i) Carbon(IV)Oxide (CO2)

(a) Occurrence
Carbon(IV)oxide is found:
-in the air /atmosphere as 0.03% by volume.
-a solid carbon(IV)oxide mineral in Esageri near Eldame Ravine and Kerita
near Limuru in Kenya.
(b) School Laboratory preparation
In the school laboratory carbon(IV)oxide can be prepared in the school laboratory
from the reaction of marble chips(CaCO3)or sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCO3)
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

5
(c) Properties of carbon(IV)oxide gas(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation
of carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Any carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid should be able to generate
carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equations
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2. What method of gas collection is used in preparation of
Carbon(IV)oxide gas. Explain.
Downward delivery /upward displacement of air/over mercury
Carbon(IV)oxide gas is about 1½ times denser than air.
3. What is the purpose of :
(a) water?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the
vigorous reaction.
(b) sodium hydrogen carbonate?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous
reaction and by reacting with the acid to produce more carbon (IV)oxide gas .
6
Chemical equation
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(c) concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid?
To dry the gas/as a drying agent

4. Describe the smell of carbon(IV)oxide gas

Colourless and odourless

5. Effect on lime water.

Experiment
Bubbled carbon(IV)oxide gas into a test tube containing lime water for about three
minutes
Observation
White precipitate is formed.
White precipitate dissolved when excess carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled .
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with lime water(Ca(OH)2) to form an insoluble white
precipitate of calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate reacts with more Carbon(IV)
oxide gas to form soluble Calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

6. Effects on burning Magnesium ribbon

Experiment
Lower a piece of burning magnesium ribbon into a gas jar containing carbon
(IV)oxide gas.
Observation
The ribbon continues to burn with difficulty
White ash/solid is formed.
Black speck/solid/particles formed on the side of gas jar.
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas does not support combustion/burning.Magnesium burn to
produce/release enough heat energy to decompose Carbon(IV) oxide gas to carbon
and oxygen.Magnesium continues to burn in Oxygen forming white Magnesium
Oxide solid/ash.Black speck/particle of carbon/charcoal residue forms on the sides
of reaction flask. During the reaction Carbon(IV) oxide is reduced(Oxidizing
agent)to carbon while Magnesium is Oxidized to Magnesium Oxide.
Chemical equation
2Mg(s) + CO2 (g) -> C (s) + 2MgO(l)

7
7. Dry and wet litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing
dry carbon (IV)oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.
Observation
Blue dry litmus paper remain blue
Red dry litmus paper remain Red
Blue wet/damp/moist litmus paper turn red
Red wet/damp/moist litmus paper remain red
Explanation
Dry Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize
to release H+ and thus has no effect on litmus papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus papers contains water that dissolves/react with dry carbon
(IV) oxide gas to form the weak solution of carbonic (IV) acid(H2CO3).
Carbonic (IV) acid dissociate/ionizes to a few /little free H+ and CO32-.
The few H+ (aq) ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper to faint red
showing the gas is very weakly acidic.

Chemical equation
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)
8. Explain why Carbon (IV)oxide cannot be prepared from the reaction of:
(i) marble chips with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Explanation
Reaction forms insoluble calcium sulphate(VI)that cover/coat unreacted marble
chips stopping further reaction
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
BaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(ii) Lead(II)carbonate with dilute Hydrochloric acid.
Reaction forms insoluble Lead(II)Chloride that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II)
carbonate stopping further reaction unless the reaction mixture is heated.
Lead(II)Chloride is soluble in hot water.
Chemical equation
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> PbCl2 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

9. Describe the test for the presence of Carbon (IV)oxide.

Using burning splint
Lower a burning splint into a gas jar suspected to contain Carbon (IV)oxide
gas.The burning splint is extinguished.
Using Lime water.
Bubble the gas suspected to be Carbon (IV)oxide gas.A white precipitate that
dissolve in excess bubbling is formed.
8
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

10. State three main uses of Carbon (IV)oxide gas

(i)In the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash/sodium carbonate
(ii)In preservation of aerated drinks
(iii) As fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and is denser
than air.
(iv) In manufacture of Baking powder.
(v) Formation of rain in the desert,The dry ice by sing drones or small aircrafts .this cools air
forming clouds.

(ii) Carbon(II)Oxide (CO)

(a) Occurrence
Carbon(II)oxide is found is found from incomplete combustion of fuels like petrol
charcoal, liquefied Petroleum Gas/LPG.
(b) School Laboratory preparation
In the school laboratory carbon(II)oxide can be prepared from dehydration of
methanoic acid/Formic acid(HCOOH) or Ethan-1,2-dioic acid/Oxalic
acid(HOOCCOOH) using concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid. Heating is necessary.

METHOD 1:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Oxalic/ethan-1,2-dioic acid

METHOD 2:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide8from dehydration of Formic/Methanoic acid

(c) Properties of Carbon (II)Oxide(Questions)
1. Write the equation for the reaction for the preparation of
carbon(II)oxide using;
(i) Method 1;
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
H2C2O4(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
(ii) Method 2;
Chemical equation
HCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO2(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
2. What method of gas collection is used during the preparation of carbon
(II) oxide.
Over water because the gas is insoluble in water.
Downward delivery because the gas is 1 ½ times denser than air .
3. What is the purpose of :
(i) Potassium hydroxide/sodium hydroxide in Method 1
To absorb/ remove carbon (II) oxide produced during the
reaction. 2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (s) +
H2O(l)
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(ii) Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in Method 1 and 2.

Dehydrating agent –removes the element of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in
9
ratio 2:1) present in both methanoic and ethan-1,2-dioic acid.

10
4. Describe the smell of carbon(II)oxide.
Colourless and odourless.
5. State and explain the observation made when carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled in
lime water for a long time.
No white precipitate is formed.

6. Dry and wet/moist/damp litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar
containing dry carbon(IV)oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.

Observation
-blue dry litmus paper remains blue
-red dry litmus paper remains red
- wet/moist/damp blue litmus paper remains blue
- wet/moist/damp red litmus paper remains red
Explanation
Carbon(II)oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate /ionize to
release H+ ions and thus has no effect on litmus papers. Carbon(II)oxide gas is
therefore a neutral gas.
7. Carbon (II)oxide gas was ignited at the end of a generator as below.

Flame K

Dry carbon(II)oxide

(i) State the observations made in flame K.

Gas burns with a blue flame
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction taking place at flame K.
2CO(g) + O2 (g) -> 2CO2 (g)

8. Carbon(II)oxide is a reducing agent. Explain

Experiment
Pass carbon(II)oxide through glass tube containing copper (II)oxide. Ignite any
excess poisonous carbon(II)oxide.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown. Excess carbon (II)oxide burn with a blue
flame.
11
Explanation
Carbon(II) oxide is a reducing agent. It is used to reduce metal oxide ores to
metal, itself oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon(II)Oxide reduces black
copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal
Chemical Equation
CuO(s) + CO(g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
PbO(s) + CO(g) -> Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)

Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO(g) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)
These reaction are used during the extraction of many metals from their ore.

9. Carbon (II) oxide is a pollutant. Explain.

Carbon(II)oxide is highly poisonous/toxic.It preferentially combine with
haemoglobin to form stable carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood instead of
oxyhaemoglobin.This reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood causing nausea ,
coma then death.

10. The diagram below show a burning charcoal stove/burner/jiko. Use it

to answer the questions that follow.

12
Explain the changes that take place in the burner
Explanation
Charcoal stove has air holes through which air enters. Air oxidizes carbon to
carbon(IV)oxide gas at region I. This reaction is exothermic(-∆H) producing more
heat.
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g)
Carbon(IV)oxide gas formed rises up to meet more charcoal which reduces it to
Carbon(II)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CO2 (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO (g)
At the top of burner in region II, Carbon (II)oxide gas is further oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide gas if there is plenty of air but escape if the air is limited
poisoning the living things around.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g)
(excess air)
11. Describe the test for the presence of carbon(II)oxide gas.
Experiment
Burn/Ignite the pure sample of the gas. Pass/Bubble the products into lime
water/Calcium hydroxide .
Observation
Colourless gas burns with a blue flame. A white precipitate is formed that dissolve
on further bubbling of the products.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g) (gas burns with blue flame)
Chemical equation
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

12. State the main uses of carbon (II)oxide gas.

(i) As a fuel /water gas
(ii)As a reducing agent in the blast furnace for extracting iron from
iron ore(Magnetite/Haematite)
(iii)As a reducing agent in extraction of Zinc from Zinc ore/Zinc blende
(iv) As a reducing agent in extraction of Lead from Lead ore/Galena
(v) As a reducing agent in extraction of Copper from Copper
iron sulphide/Copper pyrites.

13
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO 3-)
1. Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are normal salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid (H2CO3)
and hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are acid salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid.
Carbonic(IV)acid(H2CO3) is formed when carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in
water. It is a dibasic acid with two ionizable hydrogens.
H2CO3(aq) ->2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> H+(aq) + HCO3 - (aq)
2. Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are insoluble in water except Na2CO3 , K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3
3. Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are soluble in water. Only five hydrogen
carbonates exist. Na HCO3 , KHCO3 ,NH4HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 exist only in aqueous solutions.
3.The following experiments show the effect of heat on Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts:
Experiment
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0 of the following:
Zinc(II)carbonate(IV), sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium carbonate(IV),
Potassium carbonate(IV) ammonium carbonate(IV), potassium hydrogen
carbonate(IV), Lead(II)carbonate(IV), Iron(II)carbonate(IV), and
copper(II)carbonate(IV). Heat each portion gently the strongly. Test any gases
produced with lime water.
Observation
(i) Colorless droplets form on the cooler parts of test tube in case of sodium
carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(ii) White residue/solid left in case of sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium
carbonate(IV), Potassium carbonate(IV) and potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(iii)Colour changes from blue/green to black in case of copper(II)carbonate(IV).
(iv) Colour changes from green to brown/yellow in case of Iron (II)carbonate(IV).
(v) Colour changes from white when cool to yellow when hot in case of Zinc (II)
carbonate(IV).
(vi) Colour changes from yellow when cool to brown when hot in case of Lead
(II) carbonate(IV).
(vii)Colourless gas produced that forms a white precipitate with lime water in
all cases.
Explanation
1. Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV) exist as hydrated salts with
10 molecules of water of crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts
of test tube as a colourless liquid.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)

14
 K2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> K2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
2. Carbonate (IV) (CO3 ) and Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts decompose
2-

on heating except Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).

(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen
carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to form sodium carbonate(IV) and
Potassium carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also
produced.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
2KHCO3 (s) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(b) Calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to form insoluble Calcium carbonate(IV) and Magnesium
carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
(c) Ammonium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to form ammonium
carbonate(IV) .Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
2NH4HCO3 (s) -> (NH4)2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(d)All other carbonates decompose on heating to form the metal oxide and produce
carbon(IV)oxide gas e.g.
Chemical equation
MgCO3 (s) -> MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
BaCO3 (s) -> BaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CuCO3 (s) -> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
(blue/green solid) (black solid)
Chemical equation
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
15
(white solid) (white solid when cool/

16
 Yellow solid when hot)
Chemical equation
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (yellow solid when cool/
brown solid when hot)
4.The following experiments show the presence of Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) ions in sample of a salt:

(a) Using Lead(II) nitrate(V)

I. Using a portion of salt solution in a test tube .add four drops of
Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution.Preserve.

Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt CO32- ,SO32- ,SO 42- ,Cl-
-

II. To the preserved solution ,add six drops of dilutte nitric(V)acid. Preserve.

Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- ,Cl-
2- 2-
White precipitate/ppt dissolves CO3 ,SO3
II. To the preserved sample( that forms a precipitate ),heat to boil.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42-
White precipitate/ppt dissolves Cl-

II. To the preserved sample( that do not form a precipitate ),add three drops of
acidified potassium manganate(VII)/lime water
Observation inference
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing SO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized/no white
precipitate on lime water

Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing CO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 not decolorized/
white precipitate on lime water

17
Experiments/Observations:
(b) Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II)
nitrate (V) / Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.
Observation Inference
2-
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO3 ions

II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V)
acid . Preserve.
Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions

III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of

acidified potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII)decolorized SO32- ions
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green

Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i) acidified potassium manganate(VII) CO32- ions
not decolorized
(ii) Orange colour of acidified
potassium dichromate(VI) does not
turns to green

Explanations
Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)

18
(i) Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl-), Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42-
), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white
precipitate of Lead(II)chloride, Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and
Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -> PbCl2(s)
2+
Pb (aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
2+
Pb (aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
2+
Pb (aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)

(ii) When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and
thus their white precipitates remain/ persists.
- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to
form soluble Lead(II) nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
+ 2+
PbCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb (aq) + CO2 (g)

(iii) When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;

- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on
cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white
precipitate persists/remains on heating/boiling.
(iv) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO 2-(aq) + 2MnO - (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO 2-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H O(l)
3 4 4 2
(purple) (colourless)
3SO 2-(aq) + Cr O 2-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO 2-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H O(l)
3 2 7 4 2
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium
carbonate if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when
effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
19
Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride
(i) Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate
(VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the
insoluble white precipitate of Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and
Barium(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)

(ii) When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its
white precipitates remain/ persists.
- Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid
to form soluble Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/ bubbles
out sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
BaCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO 2-(aq) + 2MnO - (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO 2-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H O(l)
3 4 4 2
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H 2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium
carbonate if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when
effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.

Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

20
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
(iii) Sodium carbonate(IV) (Na2CO3)
(a) Extraction of sodium carbonate from soda ash
Sodium carbonate naturally occurs in Lake Magadi in Kenya as Trona.trona is the
double salt ; sodium sesquicarbonate. NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O.It is formed from the
volcanic activity that takes place in Lake Naivasha, Nakuru ,Bogoria and
Elementeita .All these lakes drain into Lake Magadi through underground rivers.
Lake Magadi has no outlet.
Solubility of Trona decrease with increase in temperature.High temperature during
the day causes trona to naturally crystallize .It is mechanically
scooped/dredged/dug and put in a furnace.
Inside the furnace, trona decompose into soda ash/sodium carbonate.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O (s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + 5H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(trona) (soda ash)
Soda ash is then bagged and sold as Magadi soda.It is mainly used:
(i) in making glass to lower the melting point of raw materials (sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC)
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless
detergents. (iv)Swimming pool “pH
increaser”
Sodium chloride is also found dissolved in the lake. Solubility of sodium chloride
decrease with decreases in temperature/ sodium chloride has lower solubility at
lower temperatures. When temperatures decrease at night it crystallize out .The
crystals are then mechanically dug/dredged /scooped then packed for sale as
animal/cattle feeds and seasoning food.

Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona

Sodium chloride and Trona

dissolved in the sea

Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona 19 Dredging Crushing Furnace

(Day time) /scooping/ (Heating)
digging
b)The Solvay process for industrial manufacture of sodium carbonate(IV)
(i)Raw materials.
-Brine /Concentrated Sodium chloride from salty seas/lakes.
-Ammonia gas from Haber.
-Limestone /Calcium carbonate from chalk /limestone rich rocks.
-Water from rivers/lakes.

(ii) Chemical processes

Ammonia gas is passed up to meet a downward flow of sodium chloride solution /
brine to form ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture in the ammoniated
brine chamber
The ammoniated brine mixture is then pumped up, atop the carbonator/ solvay
tower.
In the carbonator/ solvay tower, ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture
slowly trickle down to meet an upward flow of carbon(IV)oxide gas.
The carbonator is shelved /packed with quartz/broken glass to
(i) reduce the rate of flow of ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture.
(ii)increase surface area of the liquid mixture to ensure a lot of ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine mixture react with carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate and soluble ammonium chloride are formed
from the reaction.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

20
The products are then filtered. Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate forms the
residue while soluble ammonium chloride forms the filtrate.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate itself can be used:
(i) as baking powder and preservation of some soft drinks.
(ii) as a buffer agent and antacid in animal feeds to improve fibre digestion.
(iii) making dry chemical fire extinguishers.
In the Solvay process Sodium hydrogen carbonate is then heated to form Sodium
carbonate/soda ash, water and carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sodium carbonate is stored ready for use in:

(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are recycled back to the ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine chamber.
More carbon(IV)oxide is produced in the kiln/furnace. Limestone is heated to
decompose into Calcium oxide and carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Carbon(IV)oxide is recycled to the carbonator/solvay tower. Carbon (IV)oxide is

added water in the slaker to form Calcium hydroxide. This process is called
slaking.
Chemical equation
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium hydroxide is mixed with ammonium chloride from the carbonator/solvay
tower in the ammonia regeneration chamber to form Calcium chloride , water
and more ammonia gas.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

NH3(g) and H2O(l) are recycled.

Calcium chloride may be used:
(i) as drying agent in the school laboratory during gas
preparation (except ammonia gas)

21
(ii) to lower the melting point of solid sodium chloride / rock salt
salts during the Downs process for industrial extraction of sodium
metal.

Detailed Summary flow diagram of Solvay Process

22
 Brine Brine saturated with ammonia Coke & Limestone

Ammonia regeneration
Ammoniated Solvaychamber
Tower/
brine Carbonator Kiln/ Furnace

Ammonium chloride
Carbon(IV) Oxide

Sodium hydrogen Carbonate

Haber Slaker
process Calcium hydroxide Water

Roaster
Calcium
Calcium chloride Sodium oxide
carbonate

23
Practice
1. The diagram below shows part of the Solvay process used in manufacturing
sodium carbonate. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

Carbon (IV)oxide Ammonium chloride

Saturated sodium chloride solution

Ammonia Process I Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Process II
Sodium carbonate

(a) Explain how Sodium Chloride required for this process is obtained from
the sea.
Sea water is pumped /scooped into shallow pods. Evaporation of most of the water
takes place leaving a very concentrated solution.
(b)(i) Name process:
I. Filtration
II. Decomposition
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction in process:
Process I
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
Process II
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(c)(i) Name two substances recycled in the solvay process
Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
(ii) Which is the by-product of this process?
Calcium(II)Chloride /CaCl2

(iii) State two uses that the by-product can be used for:
1. As a drying agent in the school laboratory preparation of gases.
2. In the Downs cell/process for extraction of Sodium to lower the
melting point of rock salt.

24
 (iv) Write the chemical equation for the formation of the by-
products in the Solvay process.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(d)In an experiment to determine the % purity of Sodium carbonate
produced in the Solvay process ,2.15g of the sample reacted with exactly
40.0cm3 of 0.5M Sulphuric(VI)acid.
(i) Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate that reacted.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq)+ CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio Na2CO3 :H2SO4 => 1:1
Moles H2SO4 = Molarity x Volume => 0.5 x 40.0 = 0.02 Moles
1000 1000
Moles of Na2CO3 = 0.02 Moles
(ii) Determine the % of sodium carbonate in the sample.
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g
Mass of Na2CO3 = moles x Molar mass => 0.02 x 106 = 2.12 g
% of Na2CO3 = ( 2.12 g x 100) = 98.6047%
2.15
(e) State two uses of soda ash.
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.

(f)The diagram below shows a simple ammonia soda tower used in

manufacturing sodium carbonate .Use it to answer the questions that follow:
Raw
Excess Carbon(IV)oxide
material

Metal plates

25 Substance
(i) Name the raw materials needed in the above process
-Ammonia
-Water
-Carbon(IV)oxide
-Limestone
-Brine/ Concentrated sodium chloride
(ii) Identify substance A
Ammonium chloride /NH4Cl
(iii) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:
I.Tower.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
II. Production of excess carbon (IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
III. The regeneration of ammonia
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(iv) Give a reason for having the circular metal plates in the tower.
-To slow the downward flow of brine.
-To increase the rate of dissolving of ammonia.
-To increase the surface area for dissolution
(v) Name the gases recycled in the process illustrated above.
Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
2. Describe how you would differentiate between carbon (IV)oxide and
carbon(II)oxide using chemical method.

Method I
-Bubble both gases in lime water/Ca(OH)2
-white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
- No white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (II) oxide
Method II
26
 -ignite both gases
- Carbon (IV) oxide does not burn/ignite
- Carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue non-sooty flame.
Method III
-Lower a burning splint into a gas containing each gas separately.
-burning splint is extinguished if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
-burning splint is not extinguished if the gas is carbon (II) oxide.
3.Using Magnesium sulphate(VI)solution ,describe how you can differentiate
between a solution of sodium carbonate from a solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate
-Add Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution to separate portions of a solution of sodium
carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate in separate test tubes
-White precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium carbonate
-No white precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)
(colourless solution)

4. The diagram below shows a common charcoal burner .Assume the

burning take place in a room with sufficient supply of air.

(a) Explain what happens around:

27
 (i) Layer A
Sufficient/excess air /oxygen enter through the air holes into the burner .It reacts
with/oxidizes Carbon to carbon(IV)oxide
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)

(ii) Layer B
Hot carbon(IV)oxide rises up and is reduced by more carbon/charcoal to carbon
(II)oxide.
Chemical equation
C(s) + CO2(g) -> 2CO (g)
(ii)Layer C
Hot carbon(II)oxide rises up and burns with a blue flame to be oxidized by the
excess air to form carbon(IV)oxide.
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)

(b) State and explain what would happen if the burner is put in an enclosed
room.
The hot poisonous /toxic carbon(II)oxide rising up will not be oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide.

(c) Using a chemical test , describe how you would differentiate two
unlabelled black solids suspected to be charcoal and copper(II)oxide.

Method I
-Burn/Ignite the two substances separately.
-Charcoal burns with a blue flame
- Copper(II)oxide does not burn
Method II
-Add dilute sulphuric(VI)acid/Nitric(V)acid/Hydrochloric acid separately.
-Charcoal does not dissolve.
- Copper(II)oxide dissolves to form a colourless solution.
5. Excess Carbon(II)oxide was passed over heated copper(II)oxide as in the
set up shown below for five minutes.

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 Copper(II)oxide
Blue flame A

Dry
carbon
(IV)oxide

HEAT

(a) State and explain the observations made in the combustion tube.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon (II)oxide reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal itself
oxidized to Carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CO(g) + CuO (s) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)

(b) (i)Name the gas producing flame A

Carbon(II)oxide

(ii) Why should the gas be burnt?

It is toxic/poisonous
(iii) Write the chemical equation for the production of flame
A 2CO(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)
(c) State and explain what happens when carbon(IV)oxide is prepared using
Barium carbonate and dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Reaction starts then stops after sometime producing small/little quantity of
carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Barium carbonate react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid to form insoluble Barium
sulphate(VI) that cover/coat unreacted Barium carbonate stopping further reaction
to produce more Carbon(IV)oxide.
29
(d) Using dot () and cross(x) to represent electrons show the bonding in
a molecule of :
(i) Carbon(II)oxide
lone pairs of electrons in carbon and oxygen
atoms

●●
C x●
x●
xx
O xx

6 bonded pairs of
electrons 2covalent bonds 1 dative bond

56

(ii) Carbon(IV)Oxide.

lone pairs of electrons in oxygen atom

●●

●● O ●x
●x C ●x
●x O ●●
●●

4 bonded pairs of
electrons

CO2 (triatomic molecule)

30

(e) Carbon (IV)oxide is an environmental pollutant of global concern.

Explain.
-It is a green house gas thus causes global warming.
-It dissolves in water to form acidic carbonic acid which causes “acid rain”
(f) Explain using chemical equation why lime water is used to test for
the presence of Carbon (IV) oxide instead of sodium hydroxide.

30
Using lime water/calcium hydroxide:
- a visible white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed that dissolves on
bubbling excess Carbon (IV) oxide gas
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(white precipitate)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
Using sodium hydroxide:
- No precipitate of sodium carbonate is formed Both sodium carbonate and sodium
hydrogen carbonate are soluble salts/dissolves.
Chemical equation
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(No white precipitate)
Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> 2NaHCO3 (s)

(g) Ethan-1,2-dioic acid and methanoic acid may be used to prepare small
amount of carbon(II)oxide in a school laboratory.
(i) Explain the modification in the set up when using one over the other.
Before carbon(II)oxide is collected:
-when using methanoic acid, no concentrated sodium/potassium
hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
-when using ethan-1,2-dioic acid, concentrated sodium/potassium
hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.

(ii) Write the equation for the reaction for the formation
of carbon(II)oxide from:
I. Methanoic acid.
Chemical equation HCOOH(aq) -> CO(g) + H2O(l)

II. Ethan-1,2-dioic acid

Chemical equation HOOCCOOH(aq) -> CO2(g)+CO(g)+H2O(l)
(h)Both carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide affect the environment. Explain
why carbon(II)oxide is more toxic/poisonous.
-Both gases are colourless,denser than water and odourless.
-Carbon(II)oxide is preferentially absorbed by human/mammalian haemoglobin
when inhaled forming stable carboxyhaemoglobin instead of oxyhaemoglobin.This
reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood leading to suffocation and quick death. -
-Carbon(IV)oxide is a green house gas that increases global warming.
-Carbon(II)oxide is readily oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide

6.Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow.
31
(a) Name:
(i) the white precipitate A
Calcium carbonate
(ii) solution B
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(iii) gas C
Carbon(IV)oxide
(iv) white residue B
Calcium oxide
(v) solution D
Calcium hydroxide/lime water

(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i) the white precipitate A from solution D
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(ii) the white precipitate A from solution B

Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(iii) solution B from the white precipitate A

Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

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 (iv) white residue B from the white precipitate A
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CO2 (g) + CaO (s)

(iv) reaction of white residue B with water

Chemical equation
CaO (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)

33