STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Table of Contents
1. Structure of the Atom
(a) The sub-atomic particles
Organizer 📌 -2-
-2-

Characteristics of the sub atomic particles -3-

(b) Energy Levels and Electron Arrangement -5-
2. The periodic table -7-
(a) Periods and Groups -7-
(b) Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes -8-
(c) Ion Formation - 10 -
(d) Valency and Oxidation number - 12 -
3. Chemical Formulae - 14 -
4. Chemical Equations - 17 -

(24 Lessons)

Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be
able to:
(a) Describe the structure of the atom and
write electron configuration.
(b) Define atomic number, mass number,
isotopes and relative atomic mass.
(c) Determine relative atomic mass from
isotopic composition.
(d) Use electron configuration to determine
the position of an element in the periodic table and predict the type of ion it forms.
(e) Define valency and oxidation number of an element.
(f) Use valency to derive chemical formulae of compounds.
(g) Write balanced chemical equations.
-2- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
The atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.

1. Structure of the Atom

(a) The sub-atomic particles
An atom is made up of smaller particles called sub-atomic particles.
The sub-atomic particles are; neutrons, protons and electrons.
The atom is made up of two regions, a small central part called the nucleus and a larger region
surrounding the nucleus.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are referred to as
nucleons because they are found in the nucleus.
The larger region surrounding the nucleus consists of electrons. The general structure of an atom
is as shown below.

The hydrogen atom, which is the simplest in composition has one proton, one electron and has no
neutron.
The atom of the next element, helium has two protons, two electrons and two neutrons. The
structure of the atom of Helium is shown below.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM -3-

Characteristics of the sub atomic particles

The proton is positively charged.
The electron is negatively charged.
The neutron has no charge.

Sub atomic particle Relative mass Electrical charge

Proton 1 + 1 (positive)

Neutron 1 0 (neutral)

Electron – 1 (negative)

The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons for any given atom. This makes the
atom to be electrically neutral.
For example, a hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron while a helium atom has two
protons and two electrons.
The neutrons in the nucleus contribute to the stability of the nucleus.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
For example, a hydrogen atom has 1 proton in the nucleus; therefore its atomic number is 1.
Likewise, an atom of helium has 2 protons and therefore its atomic number is 2. Sodium has 11
protons in the nucleus therefore it’s atomic number is 11.
Mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom of an element. For example, an
atom of hydrogen has 1 proton and no neutrons in it’s nucleus; therefore the mass number is 1.

1 proton + 0 neutrons = 1

A helium atom has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Consequently, the mass number is 4.

2 protons + 2 neutrons = 4

Both mass and atomic number can be written along with the symbol of an element.
The conventional way of representing the mass number is to write the mass number as a
superscript in front of the chemical symbol e.g. 23Na.
The atomic number is written as a subscript in front of the symbol e.g. 11Na.
Therefore, the element is represented as Na.

A list of the first Twenty Elements

-4- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.

Examples of Isotopes
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM -5-

(b) Energy Levels and Electron Arrangement

Electrons occupy regions around the nucleus known as energy levels.
Electrons occupying the same energy level have approximately the same amount of energy. These
energy levels are numbered 1, 2, 3, … starting with the one closest to the nucleus.

Each energy level can only accommodate a given maximum number of electrons.
The first energy level can only hold a maximum of two electrons and the second energy level a
maximum of eight electrons. For the first twenty elements, the third energy level accommodates a
maximum of eight electrons.
The distribution of electrons in the energy levels of an atom is referred to as electron arrangement
(electron configuration).
-6- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

 Hydrogen has one electron in the first energy level. Helium with two electrons, has the two
electrons in its first energy level. Helium therefore has one energy level which is filled up.
When an energy level is full, additional electrons occupy the next energy level until it is completely
filled up.
 Thus, lithium with three electrons, has two electrons in its first energy level and one
electron in its second energy level.
 This can be represented as: 1 for hydrogen, 2 for helium, 2.1 for lithium and 2.8 for neon.
 Electron arrangement may also be represented by a diagram in which electrons are
represented by crosses (×) or dots (·) as shown below.

Activity: Draw the electron arrangement of all the first 20 elements in the periodic table.

2. The periodic table

(a) Periods and Groups
 The elements with the same number of occupied energy levels belong to the same period.
Hydrogen and helium have one occupied energy level hence they belong to Period 1.
Lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon have two occupied energy
levels. These elements belong to Period 2.
Similarly, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon have
three occupied energy levels and hence belong to Period 3.
 Those elements with the same number of occupied energy levels can be arranged in the
same row, starting with the elements with the lowest atomic number.

First row
Hydrogen and helium.
Period 1
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM -7-

Second row Lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, flourine and neon.
Period 2

Third row Sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and argon.
Period 3

Fourth row
Potassium and calcium.
Period 4

 Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level form a group.
Hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium have one electron in the outermost energy level hence they
belong to group I.
Similarly, beryllium, magnesium, calcium have two electrons in the outermost energy level,
therefore they belong to group II.
 Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level can be arranged
in the same vertical column. The columns represent members of a group.

 There are eight groups numbered in Roman numerals.

Group 8 is also referred to as group zero because these elements have little tendency to
lose or gain electrons during reactions.

 This information can be merged into a grid. The resulting figure is the periodic table of
elements.
 The arrangement of elements in the periodic table is based on increasing atomic number.
-8- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(b) Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes

The relative atomic mass (R.A.M) of an element is defined as the average mass of an atom of the
element compared with an atom of carbon –12, the mass of which is 12.000 (a.m.u).

An instrument called the Mass spectrometer is used to accurately determine the relative atomic
masses of elements.
It can also be used to obtain the relative abundance of isotopes of a given element. The relative
atomic mass of an element can be a fraction because it is an average mass of the isotopes of the
element.
The relative atomic mass is closest in value to the mass of the most abundant isotope of the
element.
Relative atomic mass is a ratio and therefore has no units.

Worked Examples

Example 1
Chlorine –35 forms 75% of the total mass of chlorine and chlorine –37 forms 25%. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Solution

Consider a sample containing 100 atoms of chlorine. Therefore 75 atoms will each have a mass of
35.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM -9-

Therefore, Total Mass = 35 × 75

25 atoms will have a mass of 37

Therefore, Total Mass = 37 × 25

The average mass of a chlorine atom would be;

Therefore, RAM of chlorine = 35.5

As can be seen, the relative atomic mass is nearer to the mass number of the most abundant
isotope, that is chlorine –35. See mass spectrum of chlorine.

Example 2

An element X, consists of three isotopes with mass number of 22, 24 and 25 with percentage
abundance of 89.6%, 6.4% and 4.0% respectively. Find the relative atomic mass of element X.

Solution

Consider a sample of 100 atoms of element X:

89.6 atoms of X have a mass of 22

Total mass = 89.6 × 22

6.4 atoms of X have a mass of 24

Total mass = 6.4 × 24

4.0 atoms of X have a mass of 25

Total mass = 4.0 × 25

- 10 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

More Questions
1. An element P has two isotopes with relative abundance of 65% and 35%. If the
mass number of the two isotopes is X and 31 respectively, find the mass number represented
by X given that the relative atomic mass of element P is 30.
2. Lithium has two isotopes with mass number 6 and 7. If the relative atomic mass of
lithium is 6.94, determine the percentage abundance of each isotope.

(c) Ion Formation

Atoms with an electron configuration of 2, 2. 8 and 2.8.8 are said to be stable. Atoms without this
electron configuration tend to attain this stability by either losing or gaining electrons.
 The charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons are called ions.
 Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions are called anions.
 Metals mostly lose electrons to form positively charged ions while non-metals gain
electrons to form negatively charged ions.
The examples below can be used to explain ion formation.
1. Sodium with atomic number 11 and an electron configuration 2.8.1 can acquire the
stable electron configuration of 2.8 by losing one electron or 2.8.8 by gaining seven electrons.
Since it requires less energy, it is easier to loose one electron than to gain seven electrons. The
resulting sodium particle will have only ten electrons while the nucleus still has 11 protons.
Ten negative charges and 11 positive charges give the resulting particles a net positive charge
of 1(+1). The particle formed is a sodium ion, written as Na+.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 11 -
–
2. A chlorine ion can also be formed, Cl . A chlorine atom with atomic number 17 and an electron

configuration of 2.8.7 can acquire a configuration of 2.8 by losing seven electrons or a

configuration of 2.8.8 by gaining one electron. It is easier for the chlorine atom to gain one
electron than to lose seven.

Therefore, a chorine atom with 17 electrons and 7 protons will gain an electron and have
18 electrons. Since it still has 17 protons, a chlorine particle with a net negative charge of 1
is formed i.e a chlorine ion. The ion formed is written as Cl–It is also refered to as a chloride
ion.

3. Magnesium has an atomic number of 12. The electron arrangement is 2.8.2. The
magnesium atom can acquire the stable electron configuration of 2.8 by losing the two
electrons in the outermost energy level. This means that the resulting particle will have a net
positive charge of two. The ion formed is called a magnesium ion, and is written as Mg2+.
- 12 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

4. Oxygen atomic number 8 and electron arrangement of 2.6 can acquire a stable
electron configuration of 2.8 by gaining two electrons. The resulting particle will have a net
2–
negative charge of two. The ion formed is an oxide ion and is written as O .

 Ion formation may be shown in a different format using chemical symbols. For
example:

Sodium: Na Na+ + e–

Chlorine: Cl + e– Cl–

Magnesium: Mg Mg2+ + 2e–

Oxygen: O + 2e– O2–

 During chemical reactions atoms of metals react by losing electrons from their
outermost energy level. On the other hand, non-metals generally gain electrons into their
outermost energy level.

For example, a reaction between sodium and chlorine will involve the transfer of one
electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom. In this reaction, sodium loses one
electron. The chlorine atom gains one electron from sodium.

(d) Valency and Oxidation number

The number of electrons an atom loses or gains during a chemical reaction is the valency of that
atom. Valency is also refered to as the combining power of an element.

 All elements in Group I have a valency of one while Group II elements have a valency of two.

 Elements in Group VII have a valency of one, since they require one electron to acquire a
stable electron configuration.

 Some elements have variable valencies. For example, iron can have a valency of 2 or 3,
copper can have a valency of 1 or 2 while lead can have a valency of 2 or 4.
Electrons in the outer most energy level are called valence electrons because they can be used to
predict valency. Valence should not be confused with valency.

Radicals
Radicals are groups of atoms with a net charge that exist and react as a unit during chemical
reactions.
 The valency of a radical is the same as the value of its charge.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 13 -
2+ –
For example, a sulphate ion (SO4 ) has a valency of 2, a nitrate ion (NO 3) has a valency of 1, an
ammonium ion (NH+4) has a valency of 1.

Table (a) and (b) summaries the valency of some common elements and radicals.

(a) Valencies of common Metals

(b) Valencies of common radicals Radicals

Oxidation number
Elements react by either gaining or losing electrons, they are said to acquire a new state known as
oxidation state.
The oxidation number of an element shows the number of electrons which have been removed or
added to it to get the present state.
There are positive oxidation numbers and negative oxidation numbers. Since atoms are electrically
neutral, they are assigned an oxidation number of zero.

Oxidation Numbers of Some Ions and Atoms

- 14 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Particle Oxidation number

Mg2+ +2

Fe2+ +2

Fe+3 +3

H+ +1

Cu+ +1

Cu2+ +2

Cl– –1

Cu 0

Mg 0

H 0

Oxidation state should not be confused with charge. Oxidation states are written with the positive
or negative sign coming before the number, e.g., – 2, + 3.
Charge on the other hand is written as a superscript with the number coming before the positive
or negative sign e.g X2+ or X3+.

3. Chemical Formulae
A chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using chemical symbols. It shows
the constituent elements and the proportions in which they are combined.
When elements combine, they form compounds.
For example, Sodium and chlorine react to form sodium chloride. During the reaction, a sodium
atom loses an electron to form a sodium ion, Na+. A chlorine atom then gains the electron lost by
the sodium atom to form a chloride ion, Cl–. The ions then combine to form sodium chloride.

Na+ + Cl– NaCl

The product of the reaction between sodium and chlorine when represented in chemical symbols
is called the chemical formula.

 In order to write a correct chemical formula, it is necessary to know the symbols and
valencies of the elements which form the compounds.

 When writing the formula, always start with the element which is more likely to lose an
electron or electrons then follow with the one that gains.

The chemical formula of a compound can be derived using the valencies of the combining
elements.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 15 -

Worked examples

Example 1
Combining atoms Mg F
Combining power 2 1
(valency)
For magnesium to combine with fluorine to form magnesium fluoride, each magnesium atom
requires two fluorine atoms. Accordingly the formula for magnesium fluoride is:

Mg F2.
In the formula the valencies are interchanged and written as subscripts.

For example
Therefore, the formula is Mg1F2

 When the subscript is 1, it is usually not written since the symbol represents 1 atom.
Thus the formula of magnesium fluoride is MgF2.

Example 2
Combining atoms Mg O
Combining power 2 2
(valency)

Formula Mg2O2

 When the subscripts are the same it indicates that the combining ratio is 1:1 and it is
therefore omitted from the formula. Hence, the formula of magnesium oxide is: MgO

Example 3
Combining atoms C O
Combining power 4 2
(valency)
- 16 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Formula C2O4

The combining ratio is 2:4 which is simplified to 1:2 hence the formula for Carbon (IV) oxide is:
CO2

Example 4
Combining atoms Al O
Combining power 3 2
(valency)

Formula Al2O3

Example 5
In deriving formula for compounds involving radicals, the net charge on the radical is taken to
be equal to the valency of the radical.
Combining particles Na+ CO32-
Combining power 1 2
(valency)

Formula Na2CO3

Example 6
Where the formula of a compound contains more than one radical of the same type, the
symbol of the radical is put in brackets and the number of radicals indicated as a subscript to the
right outside the brackets.
Combining radicals NH4+ SO42-
Combining power 1 2
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 17 -

Formula (NH4)2SO4

When an element shows variable valency in its compounds, the valency exhibited is indicated
in Roman numbers in brackets when naming its compounds as shown below

Examples

Formula of compound Conventional name

CuO Copper (II) oxide

Cu2O Copper (I) oxide

FeSO4 Iron (II) Sulphate

FeCl2 Iron (II) Chloride

FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride

SO2 Sulphur (IV) oxide

SO3 Sulphur (IV) oxide

4. Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents a chemical change by use of symbols and formula.
The formulae of the reactants are put on the left hand side and those of the products on the right
hand side.

To write a correct chemical equation one must write correct formula of the reactants and the
products.

For example, copper metal reacts with oxygen to form copper (II) oxide. The chemical reaction is
represented by a word equation as follows:

Copper metal + oxygen copper (II) oxide

The equation which represents the reaction can be written in form of symbols as follows:

2Cu + O2 2CuO

Balancing chemical equations

This is the process of making the number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation
- 18 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

equal.

A chemical equation is correct if it is balanced. An equation is balanced when the number of

atoms of each type of reactants is equal to that on the products side. This is because atoms are
neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.

The following guidelines should be observed when balancing chemical equations:

(i) Write the chemical reaction in words.

Copper metal + Oxygen gas copper (II) oxide

(ii) Write the correct chemical formulae for both reactants and products.

Cu + O2 CuO (unbalanced)

(iii) Check whether the number of atoms of each element on the reactants side is equal to
that on the products side.
(iv) If the number is not equal, multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced
atoms with the lowest common multiple. In this case multiply the products side by two.

2Cu + O2 2CuO (balanced)

(v) Check again to ensure that all the atoms are balanced.
The chemical formula of the reactants and products should never change during balancing of
the equations.
(vi) A chemical equation is correct and complete if the physical state of the reactants and
products are indicated. The following symbols represent the physical states which are
written in brackets after each reactant or product as solid (a), liquid (l), in
solution/aqueous (aq), gas (g).
Thus

2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2 CuO (s)

showing that copper is a solid, oxygen is a gas and the product copper oxide is a solid.

Example

Zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid liberating hydrogen gas and a solution of zinc
chloride is formed.
The word equation for the reaction is:

Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas

The unbalanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2

There are two atoms of chlorine and two atoms of hydrogen on the products side while there is
one atom of chlorine and one atom of hydrogen on the reactants’ side of the equation. The
number of each of the atoms on both sides of the equation should be equal.
To balance the equation, two molecules of hydrochloric acid are used i.e. the number two is
written before the formula of hydrochloric acid.
The balanced equation is:

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 19 -

The equation is not yet complete as the state symbols are not in place. Thus to complete the
equation these have to be placed.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Review Questions
Complete the following word equations. Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions
listed below.
(a) Sodium hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid
(b) Zinc oxide + dilute sulphuric acid
(c) Zinc metal + dilute nitric acid
(d) Calcium carbonate + dilute sulphuric acid
(e) Calcium hydrogen + carbon (IV) oxide
(f) Sodium + water

1. 2006 Q 12 P1
The table below shows the relative atomic masses and the percentage abundance of the
isotopes L1 of element L2.
Relative atomic mass % abundance
L1 62.93 69.09
L2 64.93 30.91
Calculate the relative atomic mass of element L. (3 marks)

2. 2007 Q 26 P1
The table below shows the number of valence electrons of the element P, Q and R.

Element P Q R

Number of valence electrons 3 5 2

(a) Explain why P and R would not be expected to form a compound. (1 mark)
(b) Write an equation to show the effect of heat on the carbonate of R. (1 mark)
(c) Write the formula for the most stable ion or Q. (1 mark)

3. 2008 Q 7 P1
(a) What are isotopes? (1 mark)
18
(b) Determine the number of neutrons in 8O (2 marks)

4. 2009 Q6 P1
An isotope of element E has 34 neutrons and its mass number is 64. E forms a cation with
28 electrons. Write the formula of the cation indicating the mass and atomic numbers.

(1 mark)
5. 2010 Q2 P1
(a) What is meant by the terms: (2 marks)
(i) Element;
(ii) Atomic number.
(b) The formula for a chloride of titanium is TiCl3. What is the formula of its sulphate?

(1 mark)
- 20 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

6. 2011 Q 5a, b (i-iii) PP2

(a) Other than their location in the atom, name two other differences between an electron
and a proton. (2 marks)
(b) The table below gives the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in particles A, B, C,
D, E, F and G
Particle Protons Electrons Neutrons
A 6 6 6
B 10 10 12
C 12 10 12
D 6 6 8
E 13 10 14
F 17 17 18
G 8 10 8
(i) Which particle is likely to be a halogen? (1 mark)
(ii) What is the mass number of E? (1 mark)
(iii) Write the formula of the compound formed when E combines with G? (1mark)

7. 2011 Q 24
The table below gives the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in Substances X, Y and
Z.
Substance Electrons Protons Neutrons
X 10 10 10
Y 10 8 10
Z 8 8 8

(a) Which letter represents an ion? (1 mark)

(b) Which of the substances are isotopes? Give a reason. (2 marks)

8. 2013 Q29 P1
A sample of hydrogen gas was found to be a mixture of two isotopes 12 H and H. Determine
the relative molecular masses of the molecules 11 formed, when each of these isotopes is
burnt in oxygen. (O =16.0) (2
marks)

9. 2014 Q18 P1
Use the part of the periodic table given below to answer the questions that follow (Letters
are not the actual symbols of the elements

(a) Identify the element that forms giant covalent structures. (1 mark)
(b) Identify one element that does not form compounds. (1 mark)
(c) Write the formula for the nitride of M. (1 mark)

10. 2014 Q29 P1

(a) What is meant by the term radical?
(b) The table below contains atoms that form common radicals. Complete the table to show
radicals formed from various atoms. (2
marks)
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM - 21 -

Element N S

H NH4+

11. 2015 Q10 P1

The atomic number of an element, T is 15.
(a) Write the electronic configuration of the ion T (1 mark)
(b) Write the formula of an oxide of T. (1 mark)

12. 2015 Q14 P1

The table below shows behaviour of metals R, X, Y and Z. Study it and
answer the questions that follow:
Metal Appearance on Reaction in water Reaction with dilute
exposure to air hydrochloric acid
R slowly tarnishes Slow Vigorous
X Slowly turns white Vigorous Violent
Y No change Does not react Does not react
Z No change No reaction Reacts moderately
(a) Arrange the metals in the order of reactivity starting with the most reactive (2 marks)
(b) Name a metal which is likely to be (1 mark)
(i) X (ii) Y

13. 2015 Q7a P2

Naturally occurring magnesium consists of three isotopes. 78.6% 24Mg; 10% 25Mg and 26Mg.
Calculate to one decimal place, the relative atomic mass of magnesium. (2 marks)

14. 2017 Q11 P1

An oxide of element K has the formula K2O5.
(a) Determine the oxidation number of K. (1 mark)
(b) To which group of the periodic table does K belong? (1 mark)

15. 2018 P1 Q17.

Figure 5 represents a grid that is part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the
questions that follow. The letters are not the actual symbols of the elements.

(a) Write the electron arrangement of element C. (1 mark)

(b) On the grid provided, show with a tick () the position of element D whose atomic
number is 18.
(1 mark)
(c) Element E is more reactive than A. Explain. (1 mark)
- 22 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

16. 2019 Q1 P1
An atom of element A has mass number 39 and 19 protons.
(a) Write the electron arrangements of the atom. (1 mark)
(b) State the period and group to which element A belongs
Group ........................................ (½ mark)
Period ......................................... (½ mark)
(c) State whether the element is a metal or a non-metal. (1 mark)
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES;
PATTERNS IN PROPERTIES
Table of Contents
1. The Alkali Metals
Gradation in Size of the Atom and Ion
Organizer 📌 -2-
-3-
Physical Properties of Alkali metals -3-
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals -4-
Uses of Alkali metals and their compounds -7-
2. Alkaline Earth Metals -7-
Gradation in Size of Atom and Ion -7-
Physical Properties -8-
Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals -9-
Uses of some Alkaline Earth Metals and their
Compounds - 13 -
3. Halogens - 13 -
Gradation in Size of Atoms and Ion…………- 13 -
Physical Properties of Halogens - 14 -
Chemical Properties of Halogens - 15 -
Uses of Halogens and their Compounds - 19 -
4. Noble gases - 19 -
Physical Properties of Noble gases - 20 -
Uses of Noble Gases - 20 -
5. Properties and Trends across A period - 21 -
(a) Trends in Physical Properties of Elements in
Period 3 - 21 -
(b) Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Elements in Period 3 - 23 -

Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
(a) Identify and write electron arrangement of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens
and noble gases.
(b) State and explain the trends in physical properties of elements in group I, II, VII and VIII.
(c) State and explain the trends in reactivity of elements in group I, II, VII and VIII.
(d) Explain the similarities in chemical formulae of compounds of the elements in a group.
(e) Explain the unreactive nature of group VIII elements.
(f) Identify and write electron arrangement of period 3 elements.
(g) State and explain the trends in physical and chemical properties of the elements in period
3.
 -2- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL FAMILIES;
PATTERNS IN PROPERTIES
Elements in the same group are said to belong to the same chemical family.
Trends in physical and chemical properties provide useful information in predicting the physical
and chemical behaviour of the elements within a family.

1. The Alkali Metals

The elements in group I of the periodic table are called Alkali metals.
These include, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. The electron
arrangements of the first three alkali metals are as follows:
Lithium (L) : 2.1
Sodium (Na) : 2.8.1
Potassium (k) : 2.8.8.1
Each alkali metal atom has one electron in the outermost energy level. Down the group there is an
increase in the number of occupied energy levels.
Task: Draw the atomic structure of the first 3 Alkali Metals.

Gradation in Size of the Atom and Ion

It is not possible to measure the sizes of atoms and ions of elements in the laboratory due to their
small size. The table below gives a summary of the atomic and ionic radii of the Alkali Metals.

Atomic radius is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the outermost
energy level occupied by an electron or electrons.
Discussion Questions
1. State and explain the trends in the atomic and ionic radii down the group
The atomic radii and ionic radii of the alkali metals increase down the group. This is because each
alkali metal has one more occupied energy level than the preceding member in the group.
Lithium has two energy levels. Sodium has three while potassium has four. The outermost
electron in a sodium atom is therefore further from the nucleus than the outermost electron in a
lithium atom. This explains the increase in the atomic and ionic radii down the group.
1. How does the ionic radius and atomic radius of an element compare?
The ionic radius of an alkali metal is less than its atomic radius.
An alkali metal forms an ion by losing the single electron from the outermost energy level. The
resulting ion (cation) has one occupied energy level less than the corresponding atom.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES -3-

When an atom loses an electron to form a positively charged ion, the remaining electrons
experience greater nuclear attraction. The remaining energy levels move closer to the nucleus
resulting in a reduction in the radius.

Physical Properties of Alkali metals

The table below shows some physical properties of alkali metals.

Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the outermost
energy level of an atom in the gaseous state.

Discussion Questions
State and explain the trends in the following properties down the group?
(i) Appearance
The alkali metals have a shiny metallic lustre when freshly cut. However, the surface quickly
tarnishes. The surface tarnishes because of reacting with air.
(ii) Ease of cutting
The alkali metals are soft and easy to cut.
The softness and ease to cut increases down the group due to the decrease in the strength of the
forces holding the atoms together as you move down the group.
(iii) Melting and boiling points.
The alkali metals have relatively low melting and boiling points.
The melting and boiling points decrease down the group due to the weakening of the forces
holding the atoms together.
The strength of the forces holding atoms together depends on the size of the atoms. The larger
the atoms, the weaker the force. Thus as the atomic radius increases the forces of attraction
between the atoms weaken, hence the decrease in the melting and boiling points down the group.
(iv) Electrical conductivity.
Alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Conductivity in metals is due to the
presence of delocalised electrons in the structure of the metal. Since they all have one electron in
their outermost energy level, their conductivity is similar.
-4- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

In metals, the electrons in the outermost energy level move randomly throughout the metallic
structure. Since the electrons do not remain in one fixed position, they are said to be delocalised.
(v) 1st ionization energy
st
Down the group from lithium to potassium, the 1 ionization energy decreases. This means that
less energy is needed to remove the electron from the outermost energy level of a potassium
atom than a sodium atom and a lithium atom. This is because the effective force of attraction on
the outermost electron by the positive nucleus decreases with increasing atomic size and
distance from the nucleus.

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals

Alkali metals react by losing the one electron from their outermost energy level to attain a stable
electron configuration. Their reactivity increases down the group.

Reaction with air and water

 Lithium, sodium and potassium react vigorously with both air and water. Potassium is the
most reactive and lithium, the least reactive.
 When sodium is exposed, it reacts with moisture in the air to form sodium hydroxide. The
sodium hydroxide further reacts with carbon (IV) oxide in the air to form sodium carbonate.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2NaOH(aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3 · H2O(s)
 Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form a yellowish white solid which is mainly
sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium Oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
 When sodium burns in air enriched with oxygen it forms mainly sodium peroxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium peroxide
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
 Potassium burns in air with a lilac flame to form a white solid which is potassium
oxide.
Potassium + oxygen Potassium oxide
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)

The observations made when alkali metals react with water are summarised in the table below.
Metal Observation when metal reacts with water Rate of
reaction
Lithium Lithium floats in water. A colourless gas is produced. Vigorous
The gas does not ignite spontaneously. The resulting solution turns
red litmus paper blue.
Sodium Sodium metal darts on the water surface as it melts into a silvery ball. More
A hissing sound is produced. A colourless gas is produced which may vigorous
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES -5-

ignite spontaneously. The solution formed is alkaline.

Potassium The metal darts about on the surface of the water and melts into a Explosive
silvery ball. A colourless gas is produced which spontaneously bursts
into a flame. Potassium vapour burns with a lilac flame. The resulting
solution is alkaline.
 Alkali metals react with water to form alkaline solutions and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Lithium + Water Lithium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium + water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

 Potassium is the most reactive alkali metal. This is because the electron in the
outermost energy level is loosely held by the nucleus and is easily removed during a
reaction.
 The ease of losing valence electrons increases down the group as the atomic radius
increases, hence the increase in reactivity from lithium to potassium.

Reaction with chlorine

Alkali metals react with chlorine gas to form the corresponding metal chlorides. The reactivity of
alkali metals with chlorine increases down the group. This is because of the increase in atomic
radius which leads to increasing ease to lose the electron in the outermost energy level.
Task: Cut a small piece of sodium and place it in a deflagrating spoon. Warm it and quickly lower it
into a gas jar containing chlorine. Record your observations.
Discussion Questions
1. What is observed when a hot piece of sodium metal is lowered into a gas jar containing
chlorine?
When hot sodium metal is lowered into chlorine gas, the metal bursts into flame, white
fumes of sodium chloride are formed.
2. What is formed when sodium metal reacts with chlorine?
Sodium metal + chlorine gas Sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
3. Predict how lithium and potassium would react with chlorine.
Lithium reacts less vigorously with chlorine while potassium reacts much more violently
with chlorine than sodium.
Lithium + chlorine gas Lithium chloride
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) 2LiCl(s)
Potassium + chlorine gas Potassium chloride
2K(s) + Cl2(g) 2KCl (s)
-6- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Similarity of Ions and formulae of some compounds of Alkali metals.

Formulae of hydroxides, oxides and Chlorides of Alkali metals

Discussion Question
Explain the similarity in the chemical formulae of the compounds formed between alkali metal
ions and hydroxides, oxides and chloride ions.
Each alkali metal ion combines with a single hydroxide ion to form the respective hydroxide
namely; Lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). This
is because the valency of Group I elements is one. The same applies in the formation of lithium
chloride (LiCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl)
Two alkali metal ions combine with one oxide ion to form the corresponding oxide namely;
Lithium oxide (L2O), sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O).
This is because the valency of oxygen is two. Therefore one oxygen ion requires two alkali metal
ions to combine with to form the corresponding oxide.
Due to their high reactivity, alkali metals are not found as free elements. They are normally found
in the combined state in the earths’ crust.

Uses of Alkali metals and their compounds

1. Sodium is used in the manufacture of Sodium cyanide for use in the extraction of gold.
2. Lithium is used in the manufacture of special high strength glasses and ceramics
3. Lithium compounds are used in the manufacture of dry cells for use in mobile phones,
laptops, stop watches and zero emission electric vehicles.
4. A molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
5. Sodium vapour is used to produce the yellow glow in streetlights.
6. Molten sodium is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of titanium from titanium (IV)
chloride.
TiCl4(g) + 4Na(l) Ti(s) + 4NaCl(l)
7. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive.
8. A mixture of Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and carbon disulphide is used in the
manufacture of artificial silk called rayon.

2. Alkaline Earth Metals

 CHEMICAL FAMILIES -7-

The elements in group II of the periodic table are called alkaline earth metals.
They consist of beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. The electron
arrangement of the first three alkaline earth metals is as follows:
Beryllium (Be) ; 2.2
Magnesium (Mg); 2.8.2
Calcium (Ca) ; 2.8.8.2
An atom of an alkaline earth metal has two electrons in the outermost energy level.
Task: Draw the atomic structure of the first 3 Alkaline Earth Metals

Gradation in Size of Atom and Ion

The table below summaries the atomic and ionic sizes of the Alkaline Earth Metals.

Discussion Question
State and explain the trends in atomic and ionic sizes down the group
Among the alkaline earth metals, the atomic radius increases down the group as more energy
levels are occupied.
Beryllium has the smallest atomic radius among the alkaline earth metals because it has the least
number of occupied energy levels.
Group II elements form ions by losing the two electrons in the outermost energy level in order to
attain a stable electron arrangement. The loss of two electrons in the outermost energy level
accounts for the smaller ionic radius compared to the atomic radius of the corresponding atom.
Ion Electron arrangement
2+
Be 2
2+
Mg 2.8
Ca2+ 2.8.8
Beryllium ion with only one occupied energy level is therefore the smallest ion.

Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth Metals

The table below summarises the Physical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
-8- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Discussion Questions
1. What is the appearance of a polished surface of an alkaline earth metal?
 When an alkaline earth metal is polished, it acquires a metallic lustre.
 Alkaline earth metals lose their metallic lustre when exposed to air because of oxidation.
 The purpose of polishing the surface of the alkaline earth metals before using them in
experiments is to remove the thin oxide layer that usually forms on their surface. Both
magnesium and calcium have a metallic lustre.
2. What is observed when:
(a) One cuts an alkaline earth metal?
 Magnesium is hard to cut with a knife. However it is ductile and malleable. Calcium is
brittle hence it cannot be cut with a knife.
A ductile material is one which can be drawn into a wire. Materials which can be
hammered into sheets are said to be malleable. A brittle substance is one which is
hard and likely to break.
i. Magnesium and calcium are separately used to complete an electric circuit?
Both magnesium and calcium are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the
presence of delocalised electrons.
3. How do the physical properties of alkaline earth metals compare with those of alkali
metals?
4. State and explain the trend in:
(a) Melting and boiling points
The melting and boiling points of beryllium are very high compared to other alkaline earth metals.
This is because the beryllium atom is very small and the forces of attraction between the atoms
are very strong.
Down the group the melting point and boiling points decrease. This is because in metals atoms
are held together by forces of attraction between positive nuclei and delocalised electrons. As
the atomic radius increase this attraction decreases because of the increasing distance from the
positive nucleus to the delocalised electrons. This explains why the melting point and boiling point
decreases down the group.
(b) Ionization energy down the group.
The first and second ionization energies decreases down the group. This is because the effective
force of attraction on the outermost electron by the positive nucleus decreases with increasing
atomic size and distance from the nucleus.
The first ionization energy for magnesium is the minimum amount of energy required to remove
one electron from the outer most energy level.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES -9-
+ – st –1
Mg(g) Mg (g) + e (1 I.E. = 736 kJmol )
The second ionisation energy of magnesium is the minimum amount of energy required to
remove a second electron from a magnesium ion with a single positive charge.
2+ 2+ – nd –
Mg (g) Mg (g) + e (2 I.E. = 1450 kJmol )
5. Explain why the second ionization energy is always higher than the first ionization energy.
Once an electron has been lost from an atom, the overall positive charge holds the remaining
electrons more firmly. This then means that removing a second electron form the ion requires
more energy than the first electron.
Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals

Reaction with air and water

Discussion Questions
1. What is observed when magnesium and calcium are heated in air?
Magnesium burns in air with a blinding brilliant white flame forming a white solid. The white solid
is a mixture of magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Magnesium + nitrogen Magnesium nitride
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Calcium on the other hand burns with a faint orange-red flame forming a white solid, which is
a mixture of calcium oxide and calcium nitride.
Calcium + Oxygen Calcium oxide
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
Calcium + Nitrogen Calcium nitride
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2(s)
The trend in reactivity of the alkaline earth metals when burning in air is not clear due to the oxide
coating on calcium.
2. What is observed when magnesium and calcium are placed in water and solution tested
with litmus paper?
Magnesium reacts slowly with cold water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
bubbles of which stick on the surface of the metal. Magnesium hydroxide dissolves slightly in
water to form an alkaline solution.
Magnesium + Water Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2H2O(I) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
A steady stream of hydrogen gas is evolved when calcium reacts with cold water. A white
suspension appears in the beaker due to the formation of calcium hydroxide which is sparingly
soluble in water. The calcium hydroxide solution formed is alkaline.
Calcium + Water Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O (s) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
- 10 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

2. Which of the two metals is more reactive?

The atomic radii increase from beryllium to calcium. Therefore, the two outer electrons in a
calcium atom are more loosely held by the positive nucleus than the outer electrons in magnesium.
This means that less energy is required to remove the outer electrons in calcium than in
magnesium. Calcium is therefore more reactive than magnesium.

The order of reactivity of the alkaline earth metals increases down the group.

Reaction with steam

Magnesium reacts slowly with cold water. However, it reacts faster with steam.
To react magnesium with steam, Put some wet sand at the bottom of a test tube. Insert a clean
piece of magnesium ribbon (5 cm) into the middle of the test-tube ensure that the coil touches the
sides of the tube. Set up the apparatus as shown in below.

Heat the sand gently first, then heat the magnesium ribbon strongly until it glows, then continue to
heat the wet sand to generate steam. Record your observations. Test any gas produced using a
burning splint. Before the heating is discontinued, the delivery tube should be removed from the
water.

Discussion Questions
1. State and explain what is observed in the reaction tube.
Magnesium burns in steam with a white flame. A white solid is formed and a colourless gas is
produced. A pop sound is produced when a burning splint is introduced into a test-tube containing
the gas. Therefore the colourless gas is hydrogen.
Magnesium + Steam Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
2. Why is the wet sand heated initially?
The sand is heated initially to drive out the air that would otherwise react with magnesium by
generating some steam.
3. Why should the delivery tube be removed before heating is discontinued?
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 11 -

The delivery tube is removed from the water before heating is stopped at the end of the
experiment to prevent sucking back as the apparatus cools.
4. Explain the observation made when a burning splint is lowered into a test tube of the gas
collected.
A pop sound is produced when a burning splint is introduced into a test-tube containing the gas.
Therefore the colourless gas is hydrogen.

Reaction with chlorine

Discussion Questions
1. State and explain what is observed when chlorine gas reacts with:
(a) A burning piece of magnesium
When a burning piece of magnesium is lowered into a gas jar containing chlorine, the metal
continues to burn with a brilliant white flame to form a white powder. The white ash formed is
magnesium chloride.
Magnesium + Chlorine Magnesium chloride
Mg(s) + Cl2(s) MgCl2(s)
(b) A hot piece of calcium
Calcium may not react steadily with chlorine. This is because a coating of calcium oxide is formed
first when the metal is heated. However, under suitable conditions calcium may react with
chlorine to form calcium chloride.
Calcium + Chlorine gas Calcium chloride
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)

Reaction with dilute acids

Discussion Questions
1. State and explain what is observed when magnesium ribbon reacts with dilute
hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.
There is effervescence when a piece of magnesium is placed in hydrochloric acid. The gas
produced during the reaction produces a ‘pop’ sound when a burning splint is introduced to the
mouth of the test tube. This shows that the gas produced is hydrogen.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq)+ H2(g)
Magnesium + Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2. State and explain what is observed when calcium reacts with dilute hydrochloric and
sulphuric acids.
Calcium reacts with dilute hyrdrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and calcium chloride.
- 12 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Calcium + Hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + hydrogen gas

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When sulphuric (VI) acid is used, the reaction quickly stops. This is due to to the formation of
insoluble calcium sulphate which forms a coating on the surface of calcium metal preventing
further reaction.
Calcium + Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)

Similarity of ions and formulae of some compounds of alkaline earth metals

All alkaline earth metals have a valency of two (2). Hence the chemical formulae of their
compounds are similar.

Formation of hydroxides, oxides and chlorides of alkaline earth metals.

Both magnesium and calcium ions have a valency of 2. The hydroxide ion and chloride ion have a
valency of 1. Therefore two hydroxide ions combine with one magnesium ion to form
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. Similarly, two chloride ions will combine with one magnesium
ion to form magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
On the other hand, the oxide ion has valency of 2. therefore, one calcium ion combines with one
oxide ion to form calcium oxide, CaO.

(e) Uses of some Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds

1. Magnesium is used in the manufacture of magnesium hydroxide which is used as anti-acid
medicine. This is because magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic base.
2. A low-density alloy of magnesium and aluminium is used in aeroplane construction.
3. Hydrated calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals to set fractured bones.
4. Cement is made by heating a mixture of calcium carbonate (limestone), clay and sand.
5. Calcium carbonate is used in the extraction of iron.
6. Calcium oxide (quicklime) is added to acid soils to raise pH for agriculture purposes.
7. Calcium nitrate is used as a nitrogenous fertilizer.
8. Magnesium oxide is used in the lining of furnances.
9. Barium sulphate is used in diagnosis of ulcers.
10. Barium nitrate is used to produce the green flame in fireworks.
11. Calcium carbonate is mixed with oil to make putty.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 13 -

3. Halogens
The word halogen is derived from the Greek word ‘halo’ meaning salt and ‘gen’ meaning producer.
Halogen thus means salt producer. Halogens are non-metals in Group VII of the periodic table.
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are the first four members of the halogen group. The
electron arrangement of fluorine and chlorine is as follows:
Fluorine 2.7
Chlorine 2.8.7
Task: Draw the atomic structure of the first 2 Halogens

Gradation in Size of Atoms and Ion in halogens

The table below gives the atomic and ionic sizes of the Halogens.

Discussion Questions
1. Explain the trends in the atomic and ionic radii of Halogens down the group:
The atomic and ionic radii of the halogens increase down the group. This is because of the
increase in the number of occupied energy levels.
2. How do the atomic radii of the halogens compare with their ionic radii?
The atomic radius of a halogen atom is less than the radius of its ion.
For example, the atomic radius of a chlorine atom is less than the ionic radius of a chloride ion.
This is because the chlorine atom has 17 protons in the nucleus attracting 17 electrons in the
energy levels. The chloride ion has 17 protons in the nucleus attracting 18 electrons. The effect
of the positive nucleus is thus lower. The reduction in the nuclear attraction is due to repulsive
effect between the existing electrons and the incoming electron.

Physical Properties of Halogens

Chlorine can be prepared by the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid on potassium
manganate (VII) (KMnO4) or Manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Heat is required when manganese (IV)
oxide is used.
- 14 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Set up for preparing chlorine gas

The table below gives a summary of the physical properties of halogens.

Discussion Questions
1. What is the physical state of chlorine, bromine and iodine at room temperature?
Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Bromine is a volatile liquid while iodine is a
solid.
2. What is the colour of chlorine, bromine and iodine?
Fluorine is pale yellow while chlorine is green-yellow. Bromine is a brown liquid while iodine is a
shiny dark grey solid.
3. What is observed when chlorine and bromine are shaken with Water and Tetra
chloromethane
When a boiling tube containing chlorine gas or bromine vapour is inverted in water or
tetrachloromethane, the level of the solution rises in the boiling tube.
The level of the solution rises more in tetrachloromethane than in water. The rise in water level is
higher in the case of chlorine compared to bromine. This shows that chlorine is more soluble in
water than bromine. Solubility of halogens in water therefore decreases down the group. All
halogens are soluble in tetrachloromethane.

4. Explain what is observed when iodine is heated.

Iodine sublimes when heated to form a purple vapour. This is because the particles are held by
weak forces which require little energy to break.
5. Does iodine conduct electricity? Explain.
Halogens are non conductors of heat and electricity. This is because there are no delocalised
electrons in their structures.
6. Explain the trends in the melting and boiling points of halogens down the group.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 15 -

The melting and boiling points of halogens increase down the group.
Halogens exists as diatomic molecules. The forces of attraction between molecules
(intermolecular forces) increase with the increase in the size of the molecules. Hence, the forces
of attraction between molecules among the four halogens are strongest in iodine and weakest in
fluorine.

Chemical Properties of Halogens

It is not easy for non metals to lose electrons because the amount of energy required (ionisation
energy) is very large. Therefore non metals do not easily form positively charged ions. Non metals
therefore react by gaining electrons to form negatively charged ions.

Ion formation
Halogens have seven electrons in their outermost energy level. They react by gaining one electron
to attain a stable electron configuration and form negatively charged ions. During ion formation,
energy is released. The energy change for this process of electron gain is called electron affinity.
F + e– F– (Elctron affinity = –322 kJmol–1)
Cl + e– Cl– (Electron affinity = –349 kJmol–1)
Br + e– Br– (Electron affinity = –325 kJmol–1)
I + e– I– (Electron affinity = –295 kJmol–1)
Generally, the electron affinity decreases as the size of the atoms increases hence reactivity
decreases down the group.

Reaction with metals

The reaction between iron and a halogen results in the formation of a salt.
The procedure below can be used to react halogens with metals. Pass a stream of dry chlorine
gas over heated iron wool as shown below. Record your observations.
For bromine and iodine, heat the iron wool in a test-tube in which bromine and iodine vapour is
generated and passed over the wool as shown below. The test-tube should be held with a test-
tube holder. Alternatively, using a defragrating spoon, place hot iron wool into a gas jar of chlorine.
- 16 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Discussion Questions
1. What is observed when the hot iron wool reacts with the halogens?
Chlorine reacts most vigorously with hot iron forming dark-brown crystals of iron (III) chloride. Hot
iron glows in bromine vapour to form dark-red crystals of iron (III) bromide. Iodine vapour reacts
slowly with hot iron to form grayish black crystals of iron (II) iodide. Iodine is not reactive enough
to form a salt with iron.
The equations below represent the reactions which occur.
Iron + Chlorine Iron (III) chloride
2Fe (s) + 3 Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Iron + Bromine Iron (III) bromide
2Fe(s) + 3Br2(g) 2FeBr3(s)
Iron + Iodine Iron (II) iodine
Fe(s) + I2(g) Fel2(s).
2. State and explain the role of the concentrated sodium hydroxide.
Concentrated sodium hydroxide is used to react with excess chlorine to avoid emitting poisonous
chlorine gas into the air.
3. Write chemical equations for the reactions between chlorine, bromine and iodine with
zinc.
Halogens react with heated zinc to form zinc salts.
Zinc + Chlorine Zinc chloride
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) ZnCl2(s)
Zinc + Bromine Zinc bromide
Zn (s) + Br (g) ZnBr2(s)
Zinc + Iodine Zinc iodide
Zn(s) + I2(g) ZnI2(s)
Other salts formed in the same method are MgCl2, AlCl3 and NaCl.
4. What is the order of reactivity of halogens? Explain
The reaction between chlorine and metals is more vigorous than that of bromine. The order of
reactivity of the halogens with metals decreases down the group.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 17 -

The ability of an atom to gain an electron in its outermost energy level decreases as the size of
the atoms increase, hence the decrease in reactivity of halogens down the group.

Reaction with water

To study the reaction between halogens and water, bubble chlorine through water in a conical
flask for a few minutes using an experimental set-up as shown below.

Observe the colour of the resulting solution. Test the solution with litmus paper.
Discussion Questions
1. What is observed when chlorine is passed through water for some time?
Chlorine dissolves in water to form chlorine water which is a mixture of hydrochloric acid and
chloric (I) acid.
Chlorine + water Hydrochloric acid + Chloric (I) acid
Cl2(g) + H2O(g) HCl(aq) + HClO (aq)
2. What changes are observed on the litmus papers? Explain
When the chlorine water is tested with litmus paper, the blue one turns red, showing that the
solution is acidic. Then the litmus papers are bleached (decolourised) immediately.
The bleaching action is a property of Chloric (I) acid. Chloric (I) acid is unstable and decomposes
to form hydrochloric acid and an atom of oxygen. The oxygen atom then combines with the
natural dye in the litmus papers to form a colourless compound.

Chlorine does not bleach dry litmus paper because chloric (I) acid cannot be formed in the
absence of water. The bleaching action is only possible in the presence of water.
Chlorine water is yellow due to the presence of chloric (I) acid.
In sunlight, the chlorine water is decolourised due to the decomposition of chloric (I) acid to
oxygen gas and hydrochloric acid by the sunlight.
- 18 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

This reaction does not take place in the dark.

Some uses of Halogens and their Compounds

1. Fluorine is a raw material in the preparation of a synthetic fibre known as
polytetraflouroethene.
2. Some compounds of fluorine are added to water and some tooth pastes in small quantities
to reduce tooth decay.
3. Fluorine is used to manufacture hydrogen fluoride used to engrave words or pictures on
glass.
4. Chlorine is used to make bleaches used in paper pulp and textile industries.
5. Chlorine is added to water to kill micro-organisms in water treatment works.
6. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of a plastic known as polyvinylchloride (PVC).
7. Chlorine is used in the large-scale manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
8. Bromine is used in the manufacture of silver bromide which is used to make the light
sensitive photographic paper and films.
9. A solution of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) is used as a disinfectant.

4. Noble gases
The elements in group (VIII) of the periodic table are called noble gases. Noble gases are found
as free atoms in nature and form about 1% of air. They include helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon
and radon. Argon is the most abundant and forms about 0.9% of air by volume.
Noble gases were initially called inert gases because they were thought to be unreactive.
Task: Draw the atomic structure of the first 3 noble gases

Electron Arrangements of the first three Noble Gases

 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 19 -

Helium with only two electrons has one occupied energy level which is full. Hence it has a duplet.
The rest have eight electrons in their outermost occupied energy level. Thus they have the octet.

Under normal conditions noble gases neither gain nor lose electrons. They are therefore stable
and non reactive.
Physical Properties of Noble gases
Group VIII elements are colourless monoatomic gases.

Discussion Questions
1.What happens to each of the following properties down the group?
(a) Atomic radius.
Atomic radii increase down the group due to the increase in the number of energy levels. The
increase in atomic radii down the group explains why the first ionization energy of the gases
decreases down the group.
(b) Melting point and boiling point.
Noble gases have low melting and boiling points. This is because of the weak inter atomic forces
of attraction between the atoms. However, as the atomic size increases down the group there is
increase in strength of inter atomic forces of attraction between atoms. Hence the rise in melting
and boiling points down the group.
(c) Ionization energies.
Helium has a duplet electron arrangement while the others have an octet in their outermost energy
level. Therefore they all have a stable electron arrangement. This explains the high ionization
energies for all the elements.

2.Xenon takes part in some reactions. Explain.

Xenon has a large atomic radius. In xenon an electron in the outermost energy level is relatively
far from the positive nucleus. It therefore has a low ionization energy compared to the other
noble gases. For this reason, xenon takes part in some reactions.

Uses of Noble Gases

The inert nature of the noble gases enables them to have a wide range of uses.
1. Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent oxidation.
 - 20 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

2. Argon is used as an insulator in arch-welding.

3. Neon gas is used in street and advertisement lights.
4. Helium mixed with oxygen is used in deep sea diving and mountaineering. The mixture is
also used in hospitals for patients with respiratory problems and those undergoing certain
forms of surgery.
5. Helium can be used instead of hydrogen in balloons for meteorological research.
6. Helium is used in thermometers for the measurement of very low temperatures.
7. Liquid helium is used to keep certain metal alloys at temperatures low enough for
them to become super conductors.

5. Properties and Trends across A period

Elements in the same period have the same number of occupied energy levels. As you move
across the period, the number of electrons in the outermost energy level increases by one. While
the elements in the same group exhibit similar properties, those across a period show a gradual
change in properties. This can be illustrated by considering elements in Period 3 from left to right.

(a) Trends in Physical Properties of Elements in Period 3

The table below gives a summary of the physical properties of Elements in Period 3.

(i) Trends in Electrical conductivity

Discussion Questions
1. List the elements in period 3 that conduct electricity.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 21 -

Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are good conductors of electricity.

2.Explain the trends in the electrical conductivity of the elements in period 3.
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium have delocalised electrons in their structures. These
delocalised electrons are responsible for the conduction of electricity. Conductivity increases with
increase in the number of delocalised electrons. Therefore, aluminium with three delocalised
electrons from each atom in the structure has the highest electrical conductivity.
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon are all made up of molecules and therefore are non-
conductors of electricity.
Silicon is unique among the elements because it is a semi-conductor. Its electrical conductivity
increases with increase in temperature.

(ii) Other physical properties

Discussion Questions
1. Explain the trends in atomic radii across the period
The atomic radii of the elements gradually decrease across the period from left to right. This is
explained by the increase in the nuclear charge across the period due to an increase in the
number of protons. Although there is an additional number of electrons, they enter the same
energy level. This means that the shielding effect remains the same as the nuclear charge
increases. The forces of attraction between the nuclei of these elements and the electrons in the
outermost energy levels progressively increase across the period. As a result, the electrons in the
outermost energy level are pulled closer to the nucleus, thereby decreasing the size of the atoms
across the period from sodium to chlorine.
2. Explain the trends in melting points and boiling points across the period.
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium have giant metallic structures. Therefore, they have strong
metallic bonds. These bonds require a lot of energy to break hence high melting and boiling points.
Silicon has giant atomic structure hence high melting and boiling points. The rest of the non-
metals have molecular structures held together by weak Van der Waals forces which require little
energy to break hence low melting and boiling points.
3. Why is the melting point of aluminium higher than that of sodium?
Aluminium contributes three electrons to the metallic lattice whereas sodium contributes only one.
Also, due to the small size of the aluminium atom, the packing of the atoms is close. Therefore,
the metallic bonds in aluminium are stronger than in sodium and magnesium, hence the higher
melting and boiling points of aluminium.
4. Silicon, a non-metal, has a much higher melting point than all the other elements in the
period. Explain.
Silicon has a giant atomic structure in which all the atoms are held together by strong covalent
bonds. These need a lot of heat energy to break, hence the high melting and boiling points of
silicon. In contrast, phosphorus and chlorine are molecular. The atoms in the molecules are held
together by strong covalent bonds while the molecules themselves are held together by van der
Waals forces which require little energy to break. Melting involves breaking the van der Waals
forces.
5. Why are boiling points of chlorine and argon very low?
Chlorine and argon exist as gases at room temperature. They have low melting and boiling points
due to the presence of weak van der Waals forces. Chlorine is diatomic while argon is
monoatomic.
(b) Trends in Chemical Properties of the Elements in Period
- 22 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

3
Summary of reaction of period 3 elements with air, water and dilute acids.

Reaction with oxygen

Discussion Questions
1. Describe how elements in Period 3 react with oxygen. Explain the nature of the resulting
solutions when the products are dissolved in water.
 Sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen to form a white solid, sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
4Na(s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (s)
The sodium oxide produced in the reaction readily dissolves in water to form an alkaline
solution
Sodium oxide + Water Sodium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
 Magnesium burns with a bright white light to give a white solid, magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2Mg (s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
The magnesium oxide produced in the reaction is slightly soluble in water. The solution
formed is alkaline.
Magnesium oxide + water Magnesium hydroxide
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
 Aluminium foil is usually coated with a layer of aluminium oxide, Al2O3. This prevents the
reaction with oxygen. When polished, aluminum reacts slowly with oxygen to form the
white solid, aluminium oxide.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 23 -

Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2 O3(s)
The aluminium oxide is insoluble in water.
 Silicon powder can only burn in oxygen at high temperatures (about 450°C) to form solid
silicon (IV) oxide.
Silicon + Oxygen Silicon (IV) oxide
Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(s)
Silicon (IV) oxide is insoluble in water.
 Phosphorus readily burns in oxygen with a bright orange flame to form a white solid,
phosphorus (V) oxide.
Phosphorus + Oxygen Phosphorus (V) oxide
P4(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)
Phosphorus (V) oxide readily dissolves in water to form an acidic solution.
Phosphorus (V) oxide + Water Phosphorus (V) acid
P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq)
 Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue fame to form a gas sulphur (IV) oxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur (IV) oxide
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
The sulphur (IV) oxide gas readily dissolves in water to give an acidic solution of sulphuric
(IV) acid, H2SO3, which is easily oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid H2SO4.
Sulphur (IV) oxide + Water Sulphuric (IV) acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Sulphuric (IV) acid + Oxygen Sulphuric(VI) acid
2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq)
 Chlorine burns in oxygen under certain conditions to form acidic oxides while argon is not
reactive.

2. State the trend in how elements in period 3 react with oxygen

The following trends in the elements of period 3 can be identified.
• All the elements across period 3, with the exception of argon, burn in oxygen to form
oxides.
• The reactivity of the metals with oxygen decreases from left to right across the period.
Sodium is the most reactive of the three metals in the period and aluminium the least. The
order of reactivity with oxygen is therefore Na > Mg > Al. This is because of the increase in
nuclear charge from sodium to aluminium, which makes it easier to remove an electron
from a sodium atom than from an aluminium atom.
• Metallic elements burn in oxygen to form basic oxides. Soluble metallic oxides dissolve in
water to form alkaline solutions.
• The reactivity of the non-metallic elements with oxygen increases from left to right across
the third period. This is because the ease of gaining electrons increases from left to right.
Phosphorus is the least reactive and chlorine the most reactive. The order of reactivity with
oxygen, starting with the most reactive is therefore: Cl > S > P. Non-metals react by gaining
electrons.
- 24 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

• The non-metallic elements burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides which dissolve in water to
form acidic solutions.

Reaction with Water

Discussion Questions
1. Describe how each of the elements in period 3 react with water.
 Sodium reacts violently with cold water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water to form magnesium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + water Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
 Aluminium does not normally react with cold water or steam due to the presence of a
coating of aluminium oxide, which prevents any reaction. However, at temperatures
above 700 °C steam can react with aluminium. Due to its apparent inability to react with
water, aluminium was prefered for making cooking vessels such as pans and sufurias.
2. Explain why the reactivity varies across the period.
 In general, the reactivity of the metals with water decreases from sodium to aluminium, Na
> Mg > Al. sodium is more reactive because it loses its valence electron more readily than
magnesium and aluminium.
 Non-metals do not displace hydrogen from water. Therefore, silicon, phosphorus and
sulphur do not react with either cold water or steam.
 Chlorine is an exception since it dissolves in water to form chlorine water, which is a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric (I) acid.
Chlorine + water Hydrochloric acid + Hypochlorous acid
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

Reaction with Acids

Discussion Questions
Explain the trend in reactivity of the period 3 elements with dilute acids.
 Magnesium reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to form
a salt and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium + Sulphuric (VI) acid Magnesium sulphate + Hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
 Aluminium does not readily react with dilute acid due to the presence of an aluminium
oxide coating. However, on removing the oxide coating, the metal reacts.
Aluminium + Hydrochloric acid Aluminium chloride + Hydrogen gas
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 25 -

2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO)4 (aq) + 3H2(g).

 The reaction between sodium and acids is explosive and should NEVER be tried. The order
of reactivity with acid is Na > Mg > Al.
 Silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine do not react with dilute acids.

1. 2006 Q19 P1
(a) Starting from solid magnesium oxide, describe how a solid sample of
magnesium hydroxide can be prepared. (2
marks)
(b) Give one use of magnesium hydroxide. (1 mark)

2. 2006 Q 3a,b P2
(a) Distinguish between isotopes and allotropes.
(b) The chart below is part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that
follow. (The letters are not the actual symbols of the elements).

(i) Select the element in period three which has the shortest atomic radius. Give a
reason for you answer. (2
marks)
(ii) Element F has the electronic structure, 2.8.18.4. On the chart above; indicate the
position of element F. (1 mark)
(iii) State one use of the elements of which E is a member. (1 mark)

3. 2007 Q3a P1
Both chlorine and iodine are halogens. What are halogens? (1 mark)

4. 2007 Q 8 P1
Explain why there is general increase in the first ionization energies of the elements in period
3 of the periodic table from left to right. (2
marks)

5. 2007 Q 25b
Give a reason why helium is increasingly being preferred to hydrogen in weather balloons.
(1 mark)

6. 2008 Q 18 P1
The grid below is part of the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that follow, (the
letters are not the actual symbols of the elements).

(a) Indicate on the grid the position of an element represented by letter V whose atomic
number is 14. (1
mark)
(b) Select a letter which represents a monoatomic gas. (1 mark)
 - 26 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
7. 2009 Q 1 P1
The ionization energies for three elements A, B and C are shown in the table below.
Element A B C
Ionisation energy (kJ /mole) 519 418 494
(a) What is meant by ionization energy? (1 mark)
(b) Which element is the strongest reducing agent? Give a reason (2 marks)
8. 2009 Q 21 P1,2011 Q 5 P1
Give the name of the product formed when magnesium reacts with phosphorus. (1 mark)

9. 2011 Q5 P1
The diagram below represents part of the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that
follow.

M Q
T V W

(a) Write the electron arrangement for the stable ion formed by W (1 mark)
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between V and Q (1 mark)
(c) How do the ionization energies of the elements M and T compare? (1 mark)

10. 2011 Q 22 P1
The table below gives some properties of three elements in group (VII) of the periodic table.
Study it and answer the questions that follow.
Element Atomic No. Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
Chlorine 17 -101 -34.7
Bromine 35 -7 58.8
Iodine 53 114 184
(a) Which element is in liquid form at room temperature? Give a reason. (1 mark)
(b) Explain why the boiling point of iodine is much higher than that of chlorine. (2 marks)

11. 2011 Q 31 P1
What name is given to elements which appear in group (II) of the periodic table? (1 mark)

12. 2012 Q14 P1

Distinguish between ionisation energy and electron affinity of an element. (2 marks)

13. 2012 Q2 P2
The grid below is part of the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that follow. (the
letters are not the actual symbols of the elements).

(a) Which is the most reactive non-metallic element shown in the table? Explain. (2 marks)

(b) (i) Write the formula of the compound formed when element A reacts with element B
(1
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 27 -

mark)
(ii) Name the bond type in the compound formed in b (i) above (1 mark)

(c) (i) What is the name given to the group of elements where, C, G and H belong?
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs when C in gaseous form is passed
through a solution containing ions of element H (1
mark)

(d) The melting points of elements F and G are 14100C and -101 respectively. In terms of
structure and bonding, explain why there is a large difference in the melting points of F and
G.
(2 marks)
(e) D forms two oxides. Write the formula of each of the two oxides. (1 mark)

(f) J is an element that belongs to the 3rd period of the periodic table and a member of the
alkaline earth elements. Show the position of j in the grid (1
mark)

14. 2012 Q4 P1
The table below shows properties of some elements A, B, C and D which belong to the same
period of the periodic table. The letters are not the actual symbols of the elements.
Element A B C D
MP (°C) 1410 98 -101 660
Atomic radii (nm) 0.117 0.186 0.099 0.143
Electrical conductivity Poor Good Non-conductor Good
(a) Arrange the elements in the order they would appear in the period. Give a reason
(2
marks)
(b) Select the metallic element which is the better conductor of electricity. Give a Reason.
(1
mark)

15. 2012 Q27 P1

(a) The electronic arrangement of the ion of element Q is 2.8.8. If the Formula of the ion is Q3-,
state the group and period to which Q belongs,
Group: (½ mark)
Period: (½mark)
(b) Helium, neon and argon belong to group 8 of the periodic table. Give:
(i) The general name of these elements; (1 mark)
(ii) One use of these elements (1 mark)

16. 2013 Q20 P1

The plots below were obtained when the atomic radii of some elements in groups I and II
were plotted against atomic numbers.
- 28 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Explain:
(a) The trend shown by Li, Na and K. (1 mark)
(b) Why the atomic radii of elements Be, Mg, and Ca are lower than those of Li, Na and K.
(2
marks)

17. 2013 Q1 P2
(a) The grid below represents part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the
questions that follow. The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the
elements.

(i) Select a letter which represents an element that losses electrons most readily.
Give a reason for your answer. (2
marks)
(ii) Explain why the atomic radius of P is found to be smaller than that of N.
(2
marks)
(iii) Element M reacts with water at room temperature to produce 0.2 dm3 of gas.
Determine the mass of M which was reacted with water. (molar gas volume at
r.t.p is 24 dm3, relative atomic mass of M = 7). (3
marks)

(b) Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow. (The
letters are not the actual symbols of the elements).

Identify a letter which represents an element in the table that could be calcium,
carbon or sulphur. Give a reason in each case.
(i) Calcium____________ (½ mark)
Reason____________ (½ mark)
(ii) Carbon ____________ (½ mark)
Reason_____________ (½ mark)
(iii) Sulphur ____________ (½ mark)
Reason_____________ (½ mark)
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 29 -

18. 2014 Q2 P1
(a) The grid below represents part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the
questions that follow. The letters are not the actual symbols of the elements

(i) Select the most reactive metal. Explain (2 marks)

-
(ii) Select an element that can form an ion with a charge of 3 (1 mark)
(iii) Select an alkaline earth metal (1 mark)
(iv) Which group 1 element has the highest first ionization energy? Explain (2 marks)
(v) Element A combines with chlorine to form a chloride of A. State the most likely pH
value of a solution of a chloride of A. Explain (2
marks)

(b) (i) Explain why molten calcium chloride and magnesium chloride conduct electricity
while carbon tetrachloride and silicon tetrachloride do not. (2
marks)
(ii)Under the same conditions, gaseous neon was found to diffuse faster than
gaseous fluorine. Explain this observation. (F=19.0; Ne=20.0)
(2 marks)
19. 2015 Q23 P1
The table below is part of the periodic table. The letters are not the actual symbols of the
elements. Study it and answer the questions that follows.

(a) Select an element which is stored in paraffin in the laboratory. (1 mark)

(b) How do the ionic radii of E and I compare? Explain (2 marks)

20. 2015 Q3c-d P2

(a) The diagram below shows part of a periodic table. The letters do not represent the
actual symbols of elements. Use the diagram to answer the questions that follow.

(i) Explain why the oxidizing power of W is more than that of X. (1 mark)
(ii) How do the melting points of R and T compare? Explain. (2 marks)

(iii) Sketch an element that could be used

II. In weather balloons (1 mark)
III. For making a cooking pot (1 mark)

(b) (i) Classify the substances water, iodine, diamond and candle wax into elements and
compounds (2 marks)
- 30 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Elements Compounds

(i) Give one use of diamond. (1 mark)

21. 2015 Q20 P1

A crystal of iodine, heated gently in a test tube gave off a purple vapour.
(a) Write the formula of the substance responsible for the purple vapour. (1 mark)

(b) What type of bond is broken when the iodine crystal is heated gently? (1 mark)

(c) State one use of iodine. (1 mark)

22. 2016 Q1 P2
Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow. The letters do
not represent the actual symbols of the elements.
Element Atomic Number Melting Point (°C)
R 11 97.8
S 12 650.0
T 15 44.0
U 17 -102
V 18 -189
w 19 64.0
(a) Give reasons why the melting point of:
(i) S is higher than that of R; (1 mark)
(ii) V is lower than that of U. (2 marks)

(b) How does the reactivity of W with Chlorine compare with that of R with chlorine?
Explain.
(2 marks)
(c) Write an equation for the reaction between T and excess oxygen.
(1 mark)
(d) When 1.15g of R were reacted with water, 600cm3 of gas was produced. Determine the
relative atomic mass of R. (Molar gas volume = 24 000 cm3). (3 marks)

(e) Give one use of element V. (1 mark)

23. 2017 Q1 P1
Table 1 shows the atomic numbers and the first ionisation energies of three elements. The
letters are not actual symbols of the elements. Use it to answer the questions that follow.
 CHEMICAL FAMILIES - 31 -

(a) Explain the trend in first ionisation energy from A to C. (2 mark)

(b) Write the electronic configuration for the ion of C. (1 mark)

24. 2018 P1 Q5.

Describe an experiment to show that group one elements react with cold water
to form alkaline solutions. (3
marks)

25. 2018 Q2 P2
Figure 2 is a section of the periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that follow. The
letters do not represent the actual symbols of elements

(a) (i) Select elements which belong to the same chemical family. (1 mark)
(ii) Write the formulae of ions for elements in the same period. (1 mark)

(b) The first ionisation energies of two elements K and M at random are 577 kJ/mol and
- 32 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
494 kJ/mol. (1
mark)
(i) Write equations for the 1ˢᵗ ionisation energies for elements K and M and
indicate their energies.
(1 mark)
(ii) Explain the answer in b(i). (1 mark)
(iii) Write the formula of the compound formed when L and I react.
(1
mark)
(iv) Give one use of element V. (1 mark)
(c) (i) State another group that G can be placed in Figure 1. Explain. (2 marks)
(ii) How do the reactivity of elements J and K compare? Explain. (2 marks)

(d) (i) Elements L and M form chlorides. Complete the following table by writing the
formulae of each chloride and state the nature of the solutions.
(2 marks)
Element Formula of chloride Nature of chloride solution
L
M

(ii) The chloride of element M vaporises easily while its oxide has a high melting point.
Explain.
(2 marks)

26. 2019 P1 Q21

Study the information in Table 3 and use it to answer the questions that follow.
Elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Atomic Numbers 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Atomic radii(nm) 0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099

(a) Explain the trend in atomic radii from sodium to chlorine. (1 mark)

(b) Explain how the chloride of aluminium differs from those of other metals in the period.
(2
marks)
 STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Table of Contents
Ionic Bond (electrovalent bond)
Giant Ionic Structures
Organizer 📌 3
2

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds 4

2. Covalent and Co-ordinate Bond 5
Covalent bond 5
Co-ordinate Bond (Dative bond) 7
Molecular Structures 9
Physical Properties of Substances with
Molecular Structures. 10
Giant Covalent Structure (Giant Atomic
structures ) 11
The Metallic Bond 12
Physical Properties of Metals 12
Types of Bonds Across a Period 13
Oxides of Elements in Period 3 13
Chlorides of Elements in Period 3 14
Summary of Characteristics of Bonds 16

Objectives
By the end of the chapter the learner should
be able to:
(a) State the significance of valence
electrons in bonding.
(b) Explain qualitatively the formation
of ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.
(c) Diagrammatically illustrate ionic, covalent, dative, hydrogen bonds and van der
Waals forces.
(d) Predict the bond type and structure of a given substance from its physical
properties.
(e) Explain the changes in bond type across period 3.
(f) Select materials for use based on bond types and structure.
(g) Predict the properties of a given substance on the basis of the bonds present.
 2 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

When atoms of the same or different elements combine during a chemical reaction, a mutual
force of attraction develops between them.
A Chemical Bond is the mutual force of attraction that holds the particles of atoms of the same or
different elements together.
Structure is a regular pattern in which chemical bonds hold the particles of a substance together.
Atoms of other elements achieve the stable electron arrangement of noble gases by gaining,
losing or sharing the valence electrons.
The attraction between unlike charges and repulsion forces between like charges forms an
important basis in bonding.

Ionic Bond (electrovalent bond)

An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between ions with opposite charges.
An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of valence electrons from one atom to
another resulting in two ions with opposite charges which mutually attract one another. The
resulting compound is known as an ionic compound.
Generally, the reaction between metals and non-metals results in the formation of ionic
compounds.
For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride as shown below.

The sodium atom reacts by losing its single valence electron to the chlorine atom. The resulting
sodium particle has 10 electrons and 11 protons. This results in the formation of a sodium ion
with a net positive charge, Na+. The chlorine atom on the other hand, accepts the electron donated
by the sodium atom into its outermost energy level. The resulting particle (a chloride ion) has 18
electrons and 17 protons. Thus the chloride ion formed has net negative charge, Cl–.
The sodium ion with a net positive charge and the chloride ion with a net negative charge attract
each other in an ionic bond and the resulting compound is referred to as an ionic compound.
Other examples of ionic compounds include potassium fluoride, magnesium oxide and
magnesium chloride.
1. Potassium flouride
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 3

2. Magnesium chloride

3. Magnesium oxide.

Giant Ionic Structures

Substances with ionic bonds are crystals with giant ionic structures.
A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which the particles are arranged in a definite pattern
repeated regularly in three dimensions.
Most ionic substances are crystalline in nature.
 4 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
For example, the sodium chloride
structure shown alongside consists of
many sodium ions and chloride ions
that are arranged and packed in a
regular pattern. Each sodium ion is
surrounded by six chloride ions that
are equidistant from it. Similarly, each
chloride ion is surrounded by six
sodium ions. This pattern repeats
itself many times in all directions. The
result is the formation of a giant ionic
structure.
Other examples of ionic substances with giant ionic structures include potassium nitrate, sodium
iodide, potassium bromide and calcium nitrate.

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Below is a summary of some physical properties of ionic compounds.

Discussion Questions
1. Comment on the solubility of ionic substances in water.
Most ionic substances dissolve in water because they are made up of oppositely charged
ions which are attracted by the polar water molecules.
2. Explain why the melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are generally high.
Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points. This is because ionic bonds are strong.
Melting and boiling involve breaking these ionic bonds. A lot of heat energy is required to break the
bonds.
3. Explain why ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state and in aqueous
solution but not in the solid state.
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state. This is because the ions forming
the structure are not mobile but occupy fixed positions in the structure. In the molten state or
aqueous solutions, the ions are mobile within the molten liquid or solution and therefore conduct
electricity.
Ionic substances conduct electricity by use of molten ions.
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 5

2. Covalent and Co-ordinate Bond

Covalent bond
A covalent bond is a bond formed when the combining atoms share a pair (or pairs) of electrons
between them, each donating an electron to the shared pair.
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms of non-metals combine. The combining atoms could be of
the same element or from different elements. It is common in molecules. Substances with
covalent bonds either have molecular or giant atomic structures.
A molecule is a group of atoms (two or more) of the same or different elements that are held
together by strong covalent bonds.
Substances consisting of molecules include water, most gases, sugar, oils, fats, naphthalene,
paraffin wax and sulphur.
Substances consisting of molecules are referred to as molecular substances.
For example, two hydrogen atoms can combine to form a hydrogen molecule.
Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its occupied energy level. It therefore needs to gain
one electron to attain the stable electron arrangement of 2 helium (duplet state).
Since the combing atoms are of the same element, none would readily lose an electron to the
other. The atoms therefore end up sharing a pair of electrons, each atom contributing an electron
to the shared pair.

The covalent bond formed by the two hydrogen atoms in a hydrogen molecule can also be
represented as follows.

The single line ( – ) between the hydrogen atoms represents a covalent bond consisting of a
shared pair of electrons.
A single shared pair of electrons is represented by a single line (–) and is called a single covalent
bond e.g. H – H.
Two shared pairs of electrons are represented by two lines (=) and are called a double covalent
bond e.g. O=O
Three shared pairs of electrons are represented by three lines thus: (≡) and are referred to as a
triple covalent bond e.g. N≡N.
When drawing the structures, only the valence electrons are shown.
Other examples of substances which are covalently bonded include:
(i) Water molecule, H2O
6 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(ii) Chlorine molecule, Cl2

(iii) Oxygen molecule, O2

(iv) Nitrogen molecule, N2

(v) Ammonia, NH3

 STRUCTURE and BONDING 7

(vi) Carbon (IV) oxide, CO2

Co-ordinate Bond (Dative bond)

A co-ordinate bond is a type of a covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons forming the
bond is contributed by only one of the atoms forming the bond.
Examples of substances which have coordinate bonds include ammonium ion (NH4+) ;carbon (II)
oxide, CO, ;hydroxonium ion, H3O+ ;Ozone, O3, aluminum chloride dimer, Al2Cl6 and nitric (v) acid,
HNO3

(i) Ammonium ion (NH4+).

In the case of ammonium ion, the pair of electrons forming the co-ordinate bond is contributed by
the ammonia molecule.
A hydrogen ion (H+) and an ammonia molecule (NH3) combine to form an ammonium ion (NH4+).
The hydrogen ion has no electron around its nucleus. On the other hand, the ammonia molecule
has an unshared pair of valence electrons that has not been used in bonding.

When the hydrogen ion combines with the ammonia molecule, the hydrogen ion accepts the pair
 8 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
of electrons into its empty first energy level.

The total number of protons in the ammonium ion is more than the total number of electrons
resulting in a net positive charge.

(ii) Carbon (II) oxide

In carbon (II) oxide, Oxygen donates one of its two unshared pairs of electrons to form a co-
ordinate bond with the carbon atom.
A carbon atom has four valence electrons and therefore needs to gain four electrons to fill its
outermost energy level. Oxygen on the other hand has six valence electrons and needs two
electrons to attain the stable configuration of 2.8.

The oxygen atom and the carbon atom in carbon (II) oxide form two covalent bonds and a co-
ordinate bond.

(iii) Hydroxonium ion (H3O+)

In hydroxonium ion, a water molecule donates one of its unshared pair of electrons to form a
coordinate bond with the hydrogen ion. The resulting ion has a net positive charge as shown below.

(iv) Aluminium chloride dimer.

Aluminium combines with chlorine by forming covalent bonds to form a molecule of
aluminium chloride (Al2Cl3). Two aluminium chloride molecules then combine through
coordinate bonds to form a dimer as shown below.
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 9

(v) Ozone, O3

(vi) Nitric (V) acid, HNO3

Molecular Structures
Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room temperature. Some molecular
substances include sulphur, sugar, iodine, fats, paraffin wax and naphthalene.
Discussion Question:
Using the structure of iodine, differentiate between a covalent bond and Van der waals forces.
Van der Waals forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules or atoms which exist only
when the particles are close together.
In molecules such as iodine, the atoms forming the molecules are held together by strong
covalent bonds. The molecules in the solid substance are in turn held together in a regular pattern
by weak van der Waals forces. The regular pattern repeats itself many times resulting to a
molecular structure as shown below.
The van der Waals forces hold the
iodine molecules together in layers.
This arrangement explains the flaky
nature of iodine crystals.
 10 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Physical Properties of Substances with Molecular Structures.

The table below gives the physical properties of molecular substances.

Discussion Questions
1. Give the reasons why molecular substances are poor conductors of electricity?
Molecular substances are poor conductors of both heat and electricity. This is because they have
structures composed of molecules. There are no ions or delocalised electrons in the structures to
enable them to conduct electricity.
2. What is the general trend in the melting and boiling points in relation to the molecular
masses?
Molecular substances have low melting and boiling points. Although the atoms forming a
molecule are held by strong covalent bonds, the intermolecular forces are usually the weak van
der Waals forces. As melting and boiling involves breaking the weak van der Waals forces, the
melting and boiling points are low. Melting and boiling points of molecular substances increase
with the increase in relative molecular mass.
3. Explain the effect of hydrogen bonds on melting and boiling points of molecular
substances
Although the melting point and boiling point of molecular substances increases with increase in
molecular mass, some substances however, display a disparity.
For example, water (H2O) with relative molecular mass of 18 has a higher melting point of (°C)
than hydrogen sulphide with a relative molecular mass 34 and a melting point of –85°C. In water
the molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds while molecules in H2S are held by the weak
van der Waals forces.
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force in which the
electropositive hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted
to an electronegative atom of another molecule.
In water, the electropositive hydrogen of one molecule is
attracted to the electronegative oxygen of another molecule.

A hydrogen bond is stronger than the van der Waals forces

but weaker than a covalent bond.

The influence of hydrogen bonding on the physical

properties of molecular substances is also illustrated by
ethanol (C2H5OH) and dimethyl ether (C2H6O). Both
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 11
substances have the same relative mass, 46. However, dimethyl ether boils at –24°C while ethanol
boils at 78.4°C. This is because ethanol has hydrogen bonds as the intermolecular forces while
dimethyl ether has the weaker van der Waals forces.
4. State and explain the differences in the solubility of molecular substances?
Most molecular substances are insoluble in water. However, some such as sugar, ethanol and
ethanoic acid are soluble due to the presence of hydrogen bonding.

Giant Covalent Structure (Giant Atomic structures )

A giant covalent structure is a structure that consists of an indefinite number of atoms which
are all covalently bonded together. The pattern repeats itself and extends in all directions.
Substances with giant atomic structures include diamond, graphite and silicon (IV) oxide.

Diamond
Diamond is an allotrope of carbon.
Allotropes are different forms of an
element in the same physical state.
In the structure of diamond each carbon
atom is bonded to other carbon atoms
by strong covalent bonds. The carbon
atoms in diamond form an octahedral
structure as shown below.
The pattern repeats itself in all
directions resulting in a giant atomic
structure.
In diamond, all the valence electrons of
each carbon atom are used in bonding.
There are therefore no delocalised electrons in the structure. Thus, diamond is a poor conductor
of heat and electricity.
Diamond is the hardest known substance. This is because all the bonds in diamond are strong
covalent bonds and the atoms in the structure are closely packed. For this reasons its melting
point is very high (3700°C)
Graphite
Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three other carbon atoms. Because only three of the
four valence electrons in each atom are used in bonding, the forth valence electron is delocalized
in the structure.
The structure of graphite consists of layers in
which the carbon atoms are held together by
strong covalent bonds
forming hexagonal
arrangement as shown
below. Each layer is
held to the other by van
der Waals forces.
The presence of
delocalised electrons
in the structure of
graphite explains its electrical conductivity.
Layers of graphite are held together by van der Waals forces, therefore
 12 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
easily slide over each other when pressed and this gives graphite its slippery feel.

Silicon (IV) Oxide

Silicon has four electrons in its outer occupied energy level. Each silicon atom is bonded
covalently to four oxygen atoms forming a giant covalent structure as below. .

The Metallic Bond

Metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nuclei and the
delocalised valence electrons in the metallic structure.
In a metallic structure there are many
atoms surrounding any one atom. The
valence electrons are therefore mutually
attracted to many nuclei. This gives rise to
a situation where the positive nuclei appear
to be immersed in a sea of mobile
electrons. The mobile electrons in the
structure are said to be delocalised.

Metallic bonds are strong bonds. The

pattern is repeated many times resulting in a giant metallic structure.

Physical Properties of Metals

The table below gives a summary of some physical properties of metals.

Discussion Questions
1. Why are metals good conductors of electricity?
All metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity. This is because there are delocalised
electrons in the metallic structure. Thermal and electrical conductivity increases with the
increased number of delocalised electrons from each atom in the structure. This explains why
aluminium is a better conductor than magnesium.
2. Explain why Metals have high melting points.
Metals have relatively high melting and boiling points. This is because the metallic bond is a
strong bond.
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 13
3. Explain why potassium has a lower melting point than lithium.
The melting point of lithium is higher than that of potassium because lithium has a smaller atomic
size than potassium, therefore it has a stronger metallic bond.
4. Magnesium has lower melting point than aluminium. Explain.
Aluminium has a higher melting point and boiling point than magnesium. This is because
aluminium has a smaller atomic size than magnesium therefore it has stronger metallic bonds.
Aluminium also has more delocalized electrons than magnesium which also contribute to the
strength of the metallic bond.
5. Aluminium is a better electrical and thermal conductor than magnesium. Explain.
Thermal and electrical conductivity increases with the increased number of delocalised electrons
from each atom in the structure. This explains why aluminium is a better conductor than
magnesium.

Types of Bonds Across a Period

Bond types vary from metallic to covalent across a period. The structures also vary from giant
metallic, giant covalent to molecular. It is expected that similar compounds of the elements in
period 3 will exhibit variation in bond types, structure and properties. This can be illustrated by
studying the bond types and properties of oxides and chlorides of elements in period 3.
Oxides of Elements in Period 3
 The elements in period 3 form oxides when they react with oxygen.
 The oxides of sodium and magnesium dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions.
 Aluminum oxide does not dissolve in water.
 The oxides of the non-metals dissolve in water to form acidic solutions, however silicon
(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water.

 Oxides of sodium and magnesium react with acids to form a salt and water.
 Aluminium oxide reacts with both acids and alkalis and therefore it is an amphoteric oxide.
 Oxides of the non-metals do not react with acids but react with alkalis.
 All the oxides of elements in period 3 except those of sulphur and chlorine are solids.
 14 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Sulphur (IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature. Several gaseous oxides of chlorine do
exist, however they cannot be prepared in the laboratory.
Discussion Questions
1. Explain why sulphur (IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature.
The atoms of sulphur and oxygen are held together by covalent bonds but the molecules of
sulphur (IV) oxide are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals forces.
2. Why is the melting point of magnesium oxide higher than that of sodium oxide?
Both sodium oxide and magnesium oxide have a giant ionic structure. However, the melting point
of magnesium oxide is higher because the electrostatic forces of attraction between magnesium
ions and oxide ions are stronger. This is due to the fact that the magnesium ion has a charge of +2
and is smaller in size than the sodium ion.
3. Explain the high melting and boiling points of silicon (IV) oxide.
Silicon (IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is attached to four oxygen
atoms and each oxygen atom is attached to two silicon atoms. Silicon uses all its valency
electrons to form strong covalent bonds with oxygen. The covalent bonds in silicon are extra
ordinarily strong. This explains the high melting point of silicon (2231°C).
4. What is the general trend in the bond types of the oxides of elements across period 3?
In general the bond types change from ionic to covalent across the period. The structure of the
oxides changes from giant ionic, to giant atomic and finally to molecular. This explains the trends
in properties of the oxides.
Chlorides of Elements in Period 3
Most elements of period 3 form stable chlorides.
The trend in bond types, structure and properties of chlorides of period 3 elements show variation
across the period as shown in the table below.

Discussion Questions
Explain how the chlorides of elements in Period 3 dissolve in water.
 Sodium chloride dissolves in water resulting in a slight drop in temperature.
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 15
Magnesium chloride dissolves readily with a small increase in temperature. Both chlorides
form neutral solutions. These chlorides are ionic and therefore fully dissociate into ions.
 Anhydrous aluminium chloride differs from the other metallic chlorides because it exists
in molecular form. Aluminium combines with chlorine by forming covalent bonds to form a
molecule of aluminium chloride (Al2Cl3). Two aluminium chloride molecules then combine
through coordinate bonds to form a dimer as shown below.

Formation of a dimer in aluminium chloride

Aluminium chloride is hydrolysed by water to form an acidic solution and therefore

behaves as a covalent rather than an ionic chloride.

Hydrolysis is a reaction that involves breaking down a substance by water.

Molecular chlorides undergo hydrolysis.

 Silicon (IV) chloride is also hydrolysed by water to form a solution which is acidic. Alot of
heat is given out and fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are given out.
Silicon (IV) chloride + Water Silicon (IV) Oxide + Hydrogen chloride
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O (l) SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
 Phosphorus (III) chloride or phosphorus (V) chloride react vigorously with water to form
an acidic solution. A lot of heat is also evolved and this makes the temperature of the
water to rise.
Phosphorus (III) chloride + Water Phosphorous acid + Hydrogen chloride
PCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(s) + 3HCl(g)
Phosphorus (V) chloride + Water Phosphoric acid + hydrogen chloride
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)

Summary of Characteristics of Bonds

 16 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

1. 2006 Q 5 P1
The atomic numbers of elements C and D are 19 and 9 respectively. State and explain the
electrical conductivity of the compound CD in:
(a) Solid state
(1½marks)
(b) aqueous state.
(1½ marks)

2. 2006 Q 20 P1
(a) Distinguish between a covalent bond and a co-ordinate bond. (2 marks)
(b) Draw a diagram to show bonding in an ammonium ion. (1 mark)

3. 2006 Q21 P1
(a) Explain why the metals magnesium and aluminium are good conductors of electricity.

(1 mark)
(b) Other than cost, give two reasons why aluminium is used for making electric cables
while magnesium is not. (2
marks)

4. 2007 Q 3b P2
Both chlorine and iodine are halogens.
(a) What are halogens? (1mark)
(b) In terms of structure and bonding, explain why the boiling point of chlorine is lower
than that of iodine. (2
marks)

5. 2007 Q 29 P1
The diagram below is a section of a model of the structure of element T.

(a) State the type of bonding that exists in T. (1 mark)

(b) In which group of the period table does element T belong? Give a reason.
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 17
(2 marks)

6. 2007 Q 5a-c P2
(a) The diagram below represents part of the structure of a sodium chloride crystal. The
position of one of the sodium ions in the crystal is shown as

(i) On the diagram, mark the position of the other three sodium ions (2 marks)
(ii) The melting and boiling points of sodium chloride are 801°C and 1413°C
respectively. Explain why sodium chloride does not conduct electricity at 25°C, but
does so at temperatures between 801° C and 1413°C
(2 marks)

(b) Give a reason why ammonia gas is highly soluble in water (2 marks)

(c) The structure of an ammonia ion is shown below:

Name the type of bond represented in the diagram by N→ H (1 mark)

7. 2008 Q 11 P1
The table below gives atomic numbers of elements represented by the letters A, B, C and D.
Element A B C D
Atomic number 15 16 17 20
Use the information to answer the questions that follow.
(a) Name the type of bonding that exists in the compound formed when A and D react

(1 mark)
(b) Select the letter which represents the best oxidizing agent. Give a reason for your
answer. (2
marks)
8. 2008 Q 2b P2
The table below gives information about elements A1, A2, A3 and A4
Element Atomic Atomic Ionic radius (nm)
Number Radius (nm)
A1 3 0.134 0.074
A2 5 0.090 0.012
A3 13 0.143 0.050
A4 17 0.099 0.181
(i) In which period of the periodic table is element A2? Give a reason. (2 marks)
(ii) Explain why the atomic radius of:
I. A1 is greater than that of A2;
II. A4 is smaller than its ionic radius (2 marks)

(iii) Select the element which is in the same group as A3 (1 mark)

 18 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
(iv) Using dots (.) and crosses(x) to represent outermost electrons, draw a diagram to
show the bonding in the compound formed when A1 reacts with A4 (1 mark)

9. 2009 Q 3 P1
The atomic number of sulphur is 16. Write the electron arrangement of sulphur in the
following
(2 marks)
(a) H2S
(b) SO32-

10. 2009 Q 5 P1
In terms of structure and bonding, explain why the melting point of oxygen is much lower
than that of sodium. (3
marks)

11. 2009 Q 8 P1
Using dots (.) and crosses (X), show bonding in:
(a) The compound formed when nitrogen reacts with fluorine. (Atomic numbers F= 9,
N=7)
(2 marks)
(b) Sodium oxide. (Atomic numbers Na = 11, O= 8) (1 mark)

12. 2009 Q17 P1

The structure of methanoic acid is

What is the total number of electrons used for bonding in a molecule

of methanoic acid? Give reasons. (2 marks)

13. 2009 Q 24 P1
The boiling points of some compounds of hydrogen with some elements in groups 4 and 6
of the periodic table are given below.
Compound Boiling point(°C) Compound Boiling point(°C)
CH4 -164.0 H2O 100.0
SiH4 -112.0 H2S -61.0
(a) Which of the compounds CH4and SiH4 has the stronger intermolecular forces?
(1
mark)
(b) Explain why the boiling point of H2O and H2S show different trends from that of
CH4 and SiH4. (2
marks)

14. 2009 Q 6a, c P2

(a) Study the table below and complete it.(W- and X4+ are not the actual symbols of the
ions)

IonNumber of Mass Electron

Protons Number of neutrons Number Arrangement
W- 20 2.8.8
+
X4 14 28
(b) The atomic numbers of Na and Mg are 11 and 12 respectively. Which of the
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 19
element has higher ionization energy? Explain.
(2 marks)

15. 2010 Q 14 P1
(a) Using electrons in the outermost energy level, draw the dot (.) and cross (x) diagram for the
molecules H2O and C2H4. (H = 1, C = 6, O = 8) (2 marks)
(i) H2O
(ii) C2H4
(b) The formula of a complex ion is [Zn(NH3)4]2+. Name the type of bond that is likely to exist
between zinc and ammonia in the complex ion. (1
mark)

16. 2010 Q 27 P1
The atomic numbers of phosphorus, sulphur and potassium are 15, 16 and 19 respectively.
The formulae of their ions are P3-, S2- and K+. These ions have the same number of
electrons.
(a) Write the electron arrangement for the ions. (1 mark)
(b) Arrange the ions in the order of increasing ionic radius starting with the smallest. Give a
reason for the order. (2 marks)

17. 2010 Q 3 P2
Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow.
The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements.
Element Atomic number Melting point (°C)
R 11 97.8
S 12 650.0
T 15 44.0
U 17 -102
V 18 -189
W 19 64.0
(a) Give the reasons why the melting point of:
(i) S is higher than that of R (1 mark)
(ii) V is lower than that of U (1 mark)

(b) How does the reactivity of W with chlorine compare with that of R with chlorine?
Explain (2
marks)
(c) Write an equation for the reaction between T and excess oxygen (1 mark)

(d) When 1.15g of R was reacted with water, 600cm3 of gas was produced. Determine
the relative atomic mass of R. (Molar gas volume = 24000 cm3) (3 marks)

(e) Give one use of element V (1 mark)

18. 2011 Q 5b(iii-vii) P2

The table below gives the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in particles A, B, C, D,
E, F and G.
Particle Protons Electrons Neutrons
 20 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
A 6 6 6
B 10 10 12
C 12 10 12
D 6 6 8
E 13 10 14
F 17 17 18
G 8 10 8
(i) Which particle is likely to be a halogen? (1 mark)
(ii) What is the mass number of E? (1 mark)
(iii) Write the formula of the compound formed when E combines with G. (1 mark)
(iv) Name the type of bond formed in (iii) above (1 mark)
(v) How does the radii of C and E compare? Give a reason. (2 marks)
(vi) Draw a dot (.) and cross (x) diagram for the compound formed between A and F.
(1
mark)
(vii)Why would particle B not react with particle D? (1 mark)

19. 2011 Q 28 P1
The diagram below shows the bonding between aluminium chloride and ammonia.
(a) Name the types of bonds that exist in the molecule. (1 mark)
(b) How many electrons are used for bonding in the molecule? (1 mark)

20. 2012 Q7 P1, 2016 Q6 P1

Ammonium ion has the following structure:

Label on the structure:

(a) Covalent bond; (1 mark)
(b) Coordinate (dative) bond. (1 mark)

21. 2012 Q 16 P1
Use the following information on substances S, T and hydrogen to answer the questions
that follow:
I. T displaces V from a solution containing V ions
II. hydrogen reacts with the heated oxide of S but has no effects on heated oxide
of V.
(a) Arrange substances S, t, V and hydrogen in the order of increasing reactivity.
(2 marks)
(b) If T and V are divalent metals, write an ionic equation for the reaction in (i) above.
(1
mark)

22. 2012 Q 2 P2
The grid below is part of the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that follow. (the
letters are not the actual symbols of the elements).
 STRUCTURE and BONDING 21

(a) Which is the most reactive non-metallic element shown in the table? Explain . (2
marks)

(b) (i) Write the formula of the compound formed when element A reacts with element B
(1
mark)
(ii) Name the bond type in the compound formed in b(i) above (1 mark)

(c) (i) What is the name given to the group of elements where, C, G and H belong?
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs when C in gaseous form is passed
through a solution containing ions of element H.
(1 mark)

(d) The melting points of elements F and G are 1410 °C and -101 °C respectively. In terms
of structure and bonding, explain why there is a large difference in the melting points
of F and G. (2
marks)

(e) D forms two oxides. Write the formula of each of the two oxides. (1 mark)

(f) J is an element that belongs to the 3rd period of the periodic table and a member of
the alkaline earth elements. Show the position of J in the grid (1
mark)

23. 2013 Q 4 P1
In terms of structure and bonding, explain the following observations:
(a) The melting point of aluminium is higher than that of sodium. (1½mark)
(b) Melting point of chlorine is lower than that of sulphur (1½ mark)

24. 2014 Q21 P1

Given that the atomic number of Y is 13 and that of Z is 9:
(a) Write the electronic arrangement of Y and Z; (1 mark)
(b) Draw the dot (.) and cross(x) diagram for the compound formed by Y and Z. (1 mark)

25. 2016 Q16 P1

The atomic number of sulphur is 16. Write the electron arrangement of sulphur in the
following:
(a) H2S (1 mark)
2-
(b) SO3 (1 mark)

26. 2017 Q21 P1.

The atomic numbers of some elements P, Q, R and S are 6, 8, 12 and 17 respectively.
(a) Draw the dot (•) and cross (X) diagrams for the compounds formed when:
(i) R and Q react (1 mark)
(ii) P and S react. (1 mark)
(b) Explain why the melting point of the compound formed by P and S is lower than that
formed by R and Q. (1
mark)
 22 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
27. 2018 P1
In terms of structure and bonding, explain why graphite is used as a lubricant in machines.

(3 marks)

28. 2018 Q11 P1

Element U has atomic number 12 while element V has atomic number 16. How do the
melting points of their oxides compare? Explain. (3
marks)

29. 2019 P1 Q8.

Table 1 shows the properties of two chlorides, D and E.
Table 1
Chloride Melting Points(°C) Electrical Conductivity(liquid)
D 1074 Good
E 203 Poor
(a) State the type of bond present in:
(i) D....................... (1 mark)
(ii) E....................... (1 mark)
(b) Explain in terms of structure and bonding, the difference in electrical activity of the
chlorides D and E.
(1 mark)
 SALTS
Table of Contents
Types of Salts
Organizer 📌 -2-
Solubility of Salts and Bases in Water -3-
Solubility of Salts in Water -3-
Solubility of Bases in Water -3-
How to obtain crystals of a salt from a
solution -4-
3. Methods of Preparing Salts -5-
Preparation of Soluble salts -6-
Preparation of insoluble salts - 10 -
Effects of exposing salts to the atmosphere - 12 -
Uses of Salts - 12 -
6. Action of heat on salts - 13 -
Action of Heat on Carbonates - 13 -
Action of Heat on Nitrates - 14 -
Effect of heat on sulphates. - 16 -
Review Exercises - 17 -

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be
able to:
(a) Define a salt.
(b) State and describe the types of salts.
(c) Identify soluble and insoluble salts.
(d) State the methods of preparing soluble
and insoluble salts.
(e) Define the terms: saturated solution,
crystallisation, neutralisation and precipitation.
(f) Write ionic equations for the preparation of insoluble salts.
(g) State the effect of heat on salts.
(h) State the uses of some salts.

(20 Lessons)
-2- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

SALTS

A salt is a substance that is formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are wholly or partially
replaced by a positive ion.

Types of Salts
There are four types of salts namely; normal salts, acid salts, basic salts and double salts.
Normal salts

A normal salt is a salt that does not contain any replaceable hydrogen atom.

Some examples of normal salts are sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium sulphate (K2SO4) sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2). These salts are neutral in aqueous state.
Acid salts

Acid salts are salts that contain a replaceable hydrogen atom.

Some examples are sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), potassium hydrogen sulphate (KHSO4)
and sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4). They have acidic properties due to the presence of
replaceable hydrogen.
Basic salts

Basic salts are salts that contain hydroxyl (OH–) ions.

It is the presence of hydroxyl ions in these salts that is responsible for the basic properties.
Examples are basic magnesium chloride (Mg(OH)Cl, basic lead (II) carbonate (Pb(OH)2.PbCO3),
basic zinc chloride (Zn(OH)Cl) and basic copper (II) carbonate (CuCO3).Cu(OH)2).
Double salts

Double salts are salts in which there are two different anions or cations.

Examples are hydrated potassium aluminium sulphate (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O) hydrated ammonium

iron (II) sulphate (Fe(NH4)(SO4).6(H2O) and trona (Na2CO3. NaHCO3.2H2O).

Solubility of Salts and Bases in Water

Solubility of Salts in Water

Discussion Questions
1. Which cations form salts that are soluble in water?
• All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble in water.
2. Comment on the solubility of sulphate, chlorides, nitrates and carbonates
• All nitrates are soluble.
• All sulphates are soluble except those of barium and lead. Calcium sulphate is slightly
soluble.
 SALTS - 3 -

• All chlorides are soluble except lead (II) chloride and silver chloride. Lead (II) chloride is
insoluble in cold water but soluble when hot.
• All carbonates are insoluble except those of Group I metals and ammonium. Carbonates of
aluminium and iron do not exist.

Summary of Solubility of Common Salts

SALTS SOLUBILITY IN WATER
Carbonates All are insoluble except potassium sodium and ammonium
carbonate.
Chlorides All are soluble except silver and lead (II) chloride.
Lead (II) chloride is soluble in hot water.
Nitrates All are soluble
Sulphates All are soluble except barium sulphate and lead(II) sulphate.
Calcium sulphate is slightly soluble.
All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble in water

Solubility of Bases in Water

Discussion Questions
1. Which oxides are Soluble? What is the nature of the bases formed?
 The oxides potassium and sodium are soluble in water.
 The oxides of calcium and magnesium are slightly soluble.
 The solution formed is alkaline and turns red litmus paper blue.

Calcium oxide + water Calcium hydroxide

CaO(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Magnesium oxide + water Magnesium hydroxide

MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2 (aq).

2. Which Oxides are Insoluble?

 The oxides of zinc , aluminium, lead, iron and copper are insoluble in water.

Ammonium oxide does not exist.

3. Which hydroxides are Soluble? What is the nature of the solutions formed?
 Potassium and sodium hydroxides are soluble in water.
 The hydroxides of calcium and magnesium are slightly soluble.
 The resulting solutions are alkaline and turn red litmus blue.

Potassium hydroxide + water Potassium hydroxide solution

KOH(s) + water KOH (aq)

Sodium hydroxide + water Sodium hydroxide solution

NaOH(s) + water NaOH(aq)

4. Which hydroxides are Insoluble?

 The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium, iron, lead and copper are insoluble in water.
-4- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 Ammonia is a base and dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia.

How to obtain crystals of a salt from a solution

It is possible to obtain crystals of a salt from a solution by evaporating the solvent.
For example, to obtain crystals of copper (II) sulphate obtained from a solution of copper (II)
sulphate, the following procedure is used:
Measure about 20 cm3 of water in a beaker. Add a spatulaful of copper (II) sulphate crystals in the
beaker and stir. Continue adding until it does not dissolve anymore. Decant a portion of the
solution into an evaporating dish. Place the evaporating dish on a water bath and heat.

Evaporate the solution until it is about to form crystals. To find out if this point has been reached,
dip a clean glass rod into the solution and hold it up in the air to cool. Examine the rod to find out
whether the crystals have formed on it. Continue heating until crystals are seen on the glass rod
when the rod is dipped in the solution. Allow the solution to cool slowly to form crystals. Observe
the crystals with a hand lens.

To obtain larger crystals, cover the evaporating dish with a perforated paper. Leave the set-up
undisturbed and observe after 12 hours. Filter off the crystals and dry them between filter papers.

Discussion Questions
 SALTS - 5 -

1. How can you tell whether a solution has dissolved as much copper (II) sulphate as
possible?
When the blue solution becomes saturated such that no more of the salt can dissolve and
some crystals remain at the bottom of the beaker.
A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve any more solute at a given temperature.
1. What happens as the saturated solution cools?
As the hot saturated solution cools, it forms solid particles with a regular shape. These
solid particles are called crystals and the process is referred to as crystallisation.
2. Explain why the solution is not evaporated to dryness.
Evaporation is not done to dryness so that larger crystals may form. Slow cooling allows
the salt to form large crystals. Otherwise the crystals formed would be small.
3. Why are the crystals not dried by heating?
Crystals of copper (II) sulphate are not dried by heating because heating would drive out
water of crystallisation to leave behind a powder, anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
4. What is water of crystallization? How important is it?
The fixed amount of water incorporated within the crystal structure of a salt is called water
of crystallisaton.
Water of crystallisation is important in the formation of crystals for hydrated salts.
Hydrated salts are salts which contain water of crystallization.
Examples of hydrated salts include; sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O), Iron (II)
sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O).

3. Methods of Preparing Salts

The method chosen for preparation a specific salt may depend on the solubility of the salt in water.
Preparation of Soluble salts
Soluble salts can be prepared in many ways.
Reaction of an acid and a metal.
The reaction of an acid and a metal is suitable for the preparation of soluble salts such as zinc
sulphate, magnesium nitrate, zinc chloride and calcium chloride. The metals are reacted with
suitable acids.

Equations

Zinc + Sulphuric (VI) acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen gas

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Magnesium + Nitric acid Magnesium nitrate + Hydrogen gas

Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Calcium + Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Hydrogen gas

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The procedure below can be used to prepare zinc (II) sulphate.

-6- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
3
Measure about 20 cm of dilute sulphuric acid (VI) acid and transfer it into a beaker. Add zinc
powder a little at a time as you stir with a glass rod. Continue adding zinc powder until it is in
excess. Filter the solution and pour the filtrate into an evaporating basin.
Evaporate the filtrate to saturation. To find out if this point has been reached, dip a glass rod
into the solution and hold it up in air to cool. If cystals form on the tip of the rod, the solution is
ready to form crystals and heating can be stopped to allow the now saturated solution to cool and
evaporate slowly.

Questions
1. Explain why zinc powder is added in excess.
Excess zinc is used to ensure all the acid reacts completely.
2. Why is filtration necessary in this experiment?
The unreacted zinc is removed by filtration.
3. Write an equation for the reaction between zinc powder and dilute sulphuric acid.
Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to produce zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Effervescence stops when all the sulphuric acid has completely reacted with zinc powder.

Zinc + Sulphuric (VI) acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen gas

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

The saturated salt solution is allowed to cool for zinc sulphate crystals to form. The
process of obtaining salt crystals from a saturated solution by cooling is called
crystallisation.

Reaction of acids on insoluble bases

The reaction of acids on insoluble bases is another method of preparation of salts, ideal for
preparation of soluble salts such as copper (II) sulphate. Other salts that can be prepared in a
similar way are lead (II) nitrate, magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride.

Copper (II) oxide + Sulphuric (VI) acid Copper sulphate + water

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Lead (II) oxide + dilute nitric (V) acid Lead nitrate + water

PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Magnesium oxide + dil. sulphuric (VI) acid Magnesium sulphate + water

MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Calcium oxide + dil. hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + water

 SALTS - 7 -

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

The procedure below can be used to prepare copper (II) sulphate.

3
Measure about 20 cm of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and pour it into a glass beaker. Warm the acid
in the beaker. Using a spatula, add copper (II) oxide to the warm acid a little at a time while stirring
with a glass rod until no more oxide can dissolve. Filter and collect the filtrate. Transfer the filtrate
to the evaporating basin. Evaporate the filtrate over a water bath to saturation. Stop heating and
allow the saturated solution to cool to form crystals. Dry the crystals between filter papers.
Questions
1. Why was copper (II) oxide added in excess?
Excess copper (II) oxide is used to ensure that all the acid has reacted.
2. Explain why the acid was warmed before adding copper (II) oxide?
Since the reaction between the acid and the oxide is slow, warming speeds up the reaction.
3. Besides the salt, what is the other product?
The reaction between copper (II) oxide and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid produces a salt and
water only. This type of reaction is called neutralisation.
4. Why was evaporation done over a water bath?
Evaporation of the filtrate is carried out over a water bath to ensure slow evaporation and
formation of large crystals.
5. Write an equation for the reaction between copper (II) oxide and dilute sulphuric acid.

Copper (II) oxide + Sulphuric (VI) acid Copper sulphate + water

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Neutralization: Reaction of acids on soluble bases
A Neutralisation reaction is a reaction in which only a salt and water is formed.
The action of acids on soluble bases is an example of a neutralization reaction and is used to
prepare some soluble salts. Sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, ammonium chloride, ammonium
sulphate and sodium sulphate are prepared by this method.
The equations given are for the reactions between various acids and bases to produce salts.

Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + water

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Potassium hydroxide + Nitric acid Potassium nitrate + water

KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Ammonium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid Ammonium chloride + water

NH4OH (aq) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

Sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric (VI) acid Sodium sulphate + water

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

The procedure below can be used to prepare sodium chloride.

Measure 25 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid and pour it in a beaker. Dip universal indicator paper
into the beaker. Record the pH. Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide and pour it in another beaker.
-8- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Record its pH also. Add 2–3 drops of phenolphthalein into the sodium hydroxide. Pour the
hydrochloric acid slowly into the beaker containing sodium hydroxide until the pink colour just
3
disappears. Test the resultant solution with universal indicator paper. Pour about 25 cm of the
resultant solution into a clean evaporating basin, evaporate the solution until it is saturated. Allow
the saturated solution to cool for crystals to form.

Questions
1. Explain the role of phenolphthalein in this experiment.
Phenolphthalein indicator is pink in alkaline solutions and colourless in acidic solutions. It
is used in this reaction to determine when the reaction is over, the point at which just
enough of the acid has been added to exactly neutralise the alkali. This point is known as
the end point.
Universal indicator paper shows a range of colours in alkaline and acidic solutions. It is
blue in sodium hydroxide and red in hydrochloric acid. It is not very suitable for determining
the end point of an acid base reaction.
2. Write an equation for the reaction that takes place between sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid.

Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + water

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction of acids with carbonates

The reaction of acids with carbonates is another suitable method for preparing soluble salts such
as lead nitrate, which can be prepared by reacting lead carbonate with dilute nitric (V) acid.
Lead(II) carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Lead nitrate + Carbon(IV) oxide + Water

PbCO3(a) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Other salts such as calcium chloride, sodium nitrate, zinc nitrate and ammonium sulphate can also
be prepared by reacting suitable acids with their corresponding carbonates.

The procedure below can be used to prepare lead nitrate.

Measure about 25 cm3 of dilute nitric (V) acid and pour it into a glass beaker. Warm the acid in the
beaker gently. Add lead (II) carbonate to the warm acid, a little at a time and stir. Continue adding
the carbonate while stirring until effervescence stops. Stop warming and filter off the unreacted
carbonate. Evaporate the filtrate to saturation and allow it to form crystals.
Questions
1. What are the products of the reaction? Write an equation for the reaction between lead (II)
carbonate and nitric acid.
When lead (II) carbonate is added to the warm nitric acid, there is immediate effervescence. The
effervescence is due to production of carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Lead(II) carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Lead nitrate + Carbon(IV) oxide + Water

PbCO3(a) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

2. Write equations to show how the following salts may be prepared from their
 SALTS - 9 -

corresponding carbonates.
(i) Zinc nitrate.
Zinc carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Zinc nitrate + carbon (IV) oxide + Water

ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(ii) Calcium chloride.

Calcium carbonate+ Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + carbon (IV) oxide +
water

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(iii) Ammonium sulphate.

Ammonium carbonate + Sulphuric (VI)acid Ammonium sulphate + Carbon (IV)
oxide + Water

(NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(iv) Sodium nitrate.

Sodium carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Sodium nitrate + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water

Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Preparation of salts by Direct Combination of Elements

Salts can also be prepared by reacting a metal with a non-metal. This method is called direct
synthesis and is suitable for preparing both soluble and insoluble salts.
Iron (III) sulphide can be prepared this way by reacting iron with sulphur.

Iron + Sulphur Iron (II) sulphide

Fe (s) + S(s) FeS(s)

Other salts that can be prepared by this method are sodium chloride and iron (III) chloride.

Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Iron + Chlorine Iron (III) chloride

2Fe(s) + 3 CL2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

The procedure below can be used to prepare iron (II) sulphide.

Put a spatulaful of iron filling in a crucible. To the same crucible add a spatulaful of sulphur. Mix
them well. Heat the mixture strongly. When the reaction is complete, allow the products to cool.
Questions
1. What is the colour of:
(i) Iron filings?
The colour of iron is grey
(ii) Sulphur?
The colour of sulphur is yellow
- 10 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
(iii) The product?
The colour of the product is black. The black solid formed is iron (II) sulphide.
2. What was observed when the mixture was being heated?
When a mixture of sulphur and iron fillings is strongly heated, it glows red even
when the source of heat is removed. This shows that the reaction between iron and
sulphur produces heat.
3. Write an equation between iron filings and sulphur.

Iron + Sulphur Iron (II) sulphide

Fe (s) + S(s) FeS(s)

Preparation of insoluble salts

Precipitation reactions are suitable for preparing insoluble salts.
Reactions in which solids are formed from aqueous solutions are called precipitation reactions.
The solids formed are referred to as precipitates.
In a precipitation reaction, the two reactants must be soluble salts and one of the products must
be insoluble.
In these reactions, the metal ions of the salts simply exchange their anions. This type of reaction
is called double decomposition.
In precipitation reactions, some ions undergo changes in their physical state ie from solid to
aqueous or aqueous to solid. However, the state of other ions remain unchanged.
The ions that remain unchanged during a chemical reaction are called spectator ions and are
omitted when writing ionic equations.
The equation obtained by writing only those ions that undergo change during a chemical reaction
is called an ionic equation.

Examples of precipitation reactions are:

Barium nitrate + Zinc sulphate Barium sulphate + Zinc nitrate

Ba(NO3)2(Aq) + ZnSO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + Zn2+(aq) +SO2–4 BaSO4(s) + Zn2+(aq) + 2NO–3(g)

Ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO2–4 (aq) BaSO4(s)

Lead nitrate + Potassium iodide Lead iodide + Potassium nitrate.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I–(aq) PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq)

Ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq) PbI2(s)

Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Ag+(aq) + NO–3(aq) + Na+ + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+ (aq) + NO–3(aq)

 SALTS - 11 -

Ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s)

Copper chloride + Sodium carbonate Copper carbonate + Sodium chloride

CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq) +CO32–(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq)

Ionic equation: Cu2+(aq) + CO2–3(aq) CuCO(s)

The procedure below can be used to prepare lead (II) sulphate

Put 10 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate in a beaker. To the same beaker, add excess magnesium sulphate
solution. Stir the solution using a glass rod. Let the solid settle then decant the liquid. Wash the
solid with distilled water. Filter and dry the solid between filter papers.
Questions
1. Which ions are present in the reactants?
The ions present in the reactants are lead (Pb2+), and nitrate (NO3–) ions from lead (II) nitrate;
magnesium (Mg2+) and sulphate (SO42–) ions from magnesium sulphate.
2. What observations are made when lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate solutions
are mixed?
When lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate solutions are mixed, a white solid is formed. When
the two salt solutions react, lead sulphate and magnesium nitrate salts are formed.
In this reaction, the metal ions of the salts simply exchange their anions. Lead sulphate is formed
as a white solid (precipitate).
3. Write an equation for the reaction between lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate.
Lead (II) nitrate + Magnesium sulphate Lead (II) sulphate + Magnesium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + SO2–4(aq) PbSO4(s) + Mg2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq)

4. (i) Name the solid formed in 3 above.
Lead sulphate
(ii) Which ions react to form the solid.
The ions in the salt solutions that react to form lead sulphate are lead ions (Pb2+) and sulphate
ions (SO42–).
These ions are in aqueous state in the begining of the reaction and end up in the solid state at the
end of the reaction. The ions undergo a change in their physical state.
(iii) Write an equation using the ions that form the solid.

Pb2+(aq) + SO2–4(aq) PbSO4(s)

Magnesium ions (Mg2+) and nitrate ions (NO–3) are the spectator ions since they are in aqueous
state in the begining and at the end of the reaction, they remain unchanged through out the
reaction.

Effects of exposing salts to the atmosphere

Salts undergo some changes after some time when left in the open.
- 12 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
1. Salts that absorb water from the atmosphere and form solutions are said to be
deliquescent and the process is called deliquescence.
When anhydrous calcium chloride is exposed to the atmosphere overnight, it forms a
colourless solution. The shiny black crystals of iron (III) chloride also form a yellow
solution. This is because they absorb so much water from the atmosphere that they form
solutions. Other deliquescent substances are sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, iron (II)
chloride, potassium hydroxide and zinc chloride.

2. Salts that absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form solutions are said to be
hygroscopic and the process is called hygroscopy.
When anhydrous copper (II) sulphate is exposed to the atmosphere, the white solid turns
blue and becomes damp. This is because it absorbs water from the atmosphere but does
not dissolve. Examples of hygroscopic salts are anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, potassium
nitrate and common table salt.
NB: Pure sodium chloride is not hygroscopic, but common table salt is hygroscopic
because it contains other salts such as magnesium chloride which makes it behave like a
hygroscopic salt. It is the magnesium chloride, that absorbs water and makes the salt
damp.

3. Salts which lose some of their water of crystallisation when exposed to the atmosphere
are said to be efflorescent. The process is called efflorescence.
When crystals of hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O) are exposed to the
atmosphere over-night a white powder is formed. This, is because the crystals lose some
water of crystallisation to form a white powder, sodium carbonate monohydrate.
(Na2CO3.H2O). Other examples of efflorescent salts include iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate,
(FeSO4.7H2O) and Sodium sulphate deca-hydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O)

Uses of Salts
Salts are widely used. Some of the uses are:
1. Fertilizers contain sodium nitrate, potassium sulphate and ammonium salts such as
ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate and ammonium phosphate.
2. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive while sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in
baking powder.
3. Calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals on people with fractures or
dislocations.
4. Calcium chloride is used in road surfacing to keep the road moist due to its deliquescent
nature, moisture absorbs dust.
5. Calcium chloride is used in the extraction of sodium metal by electrolysis.
6. Potassium nitrate is used for making fireworks and gunpowder.
7. Sodium carbonate is used in the softening of hard water, making of glass and detergents.
8. Many salts are used for de-frosting snow in cold countries during winter by lowering its
freezing point. Calcium chloride is applied on roads to melt snow.
 SALTS - 13 -

6. Action of heat on salts

Heat energy can bring about changes in substances when applied to them. Some salts undergo
thermal decomposition when they are heated.
All ammonium salts decompose on heating.

Action of Heat on Carbonates

Discussion Questions
1. Which carbonates are not affected by heat? Explain.
Pure carbonates of sodium and potassium are not affected by heat. Carbonates of these
metals are stable because of the high position of the metals in the reactivity series.
If hydrated, the salts only lose their water of crystallisation. The water vapour condenses
on the sides of the test tube as a colourless liquid. The residue is a white solid.

2. Write equations for the reactions which occur when some carbonates are heated.
The other metal carbonates decompose on heating to give off a colourless gas and the
corresponding metal oxide. On testing the gas with calcium hydroxide, a white precipitate is
formed confirming the gas to be carbon (IV) oxide.
The general equation is;
- 14 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

3. What is the relationship between ease of decomposition of a metallic carbonate and the
position of the metal in the reactivity series?
The position of a metal in the reactivity series determines the ease of decomposition of
its carbonate.
Ammonium carbonate decomposes to form ammonia gas, carbon (IV) oxide and steam. Presence
of ammonia is confirmed by the turning of moist red litmus paper to blue.

Hydrogen carbonates of metals high in the reactivity series decompose on heating to produce the
corresponding metal carbonates, carbon (IV) oxide and water.

The hydrogen carbonates of calcium and magnesium exist only in solution whereas
hydrogen carbonates of aluminium and iron do not exist.

Action of Heat on Nitrates

All nitrates decompose on heating.
Discussion Questions
1. Identify the products when each nitrate is heated.
 SALTS - 15 -

2. Write equations for the reactions that occur when the metal nitrates were heated.
3. What is the general trend of the action of heat on nitrates?

Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate decompose to form oxygen and a white residue which is
potassium nitrite and sodium nitrite respectively.

The nitrates of calcium, zinc, lead and copper decompose on heating to form the metal oxide,
nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen gas.

The general equation for the decomposition of nitrates is shown below;

- 16 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

The nitrates of silver and mercury decompose to give nitrogen (IV) oxide, oxygen and the
corresponding metal.

The general equation for the decomposition of these nitrates is:

The ease with which metal nitrates decompose on heating increases down the reactivity series
of metals. Ammonium nitrate decomposes to give steam and nitrogen (I) oxide.

Effect of heat on sulphates.

Discussion Questions
1. Which sulphates are not affected by heat? Give a reason.
The sulphates of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are stable and are not
affected by heat.
However, if hydrated they lose water of crystallisation on heating which condenses high up
in the test tube.

2. Write equations for the reactions that occur when some metal sulphates are heated.
Zinc sulphate and copper (II) sulphate decompose on strong heating to form the metal
oxide, water and sulphur (VI) oxide gas which is colourless. The gas turns moist blue
litmus paper red.
 SALTS - 17 -

Iron (II) sulphate crystals decompose to give iron (II) oxide, sulphur (IV) oxide, sulphur (VI)
oxide and water.

Review Exercises
1. 2006 Q 27 P1
Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.

(a) Name reagent Z. (1 mark)

(b) Describe the process which takes place in step 2. (1 mark)
(c) Identify the white solid. (1 mark)

2. 2007 Q 6 P1
In an experiment, a few drops of concentrated nitric acid were added to aqueous iron(II)
sulphate in a test-tube. Excess sodium hydroxide solution was then added to the mixture.
(a) State the observations that were made when:
(i) Concentrated nitric acid was added to aqueous iron (II) sulphate (1 mark)
- 18 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
(ii) Excess sodium hydroxide was added to the mixture. (1 mark)

(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction which occurred in (a) (ii) above. (1 mark)

3. 2007 Q 9 P1
Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follows.

Identify:
(a) Solution K
(b) Solid L
(c) Gas M (3 marks)

4. 2007 Q 13a(i) P1
Name the process that takes place when crystals of zinc nitrate change into solution when
exposed to air (1 mark)
5. 2007 Q 18 P1
Starting with sodium metal, describe how a sample of crystals of sodium hydrogen
carbonate may be prepared. (3
marks)

6. 2007 Q 3 P2
The flow chart below shows a sequence of chemical reactions starting with copper study it
and answer the questions that follow.

(a) In step 1, excess 3M nitric acid was added to 0.5g of copper powder
(i) State two observations which were made when the reactions was in progress.
(1
mark)
(ii) Explain why dilute hydrochloric acid cannot be used in step 1 (2 marks)

(iii) I. Write the equation for the reaction that took place in step 1 (1 mark)
II. Calculate the volume of 3M nitric that was needed to react completely with
0.5g of copper powder. (Cu = 63.5) (3
marks)

(b) Give the names of the types of reactions that took place in steps 4 and 5 (1 mark)
 SALTS - 19 -
(c) Apart from the good conductivity of electricity, state two other properties that make it
possible for copper to be extensively used in the electrical industry. (2 marks)

7. 2008 Q 15 P1
The table below gives the solubilities of substances J, K and L at different temperatures

Substance Solubility in grams per 100 g water at:

0°C 20°C 40°C 60°C
J 0.334 0.16 0.097 0.0058
K 27.60 34.0 40.0 45.5
L 35.70 36.0 40.0 37.3
Select the substance which, when dissolved in water, heat is given out. Give a reason.
(2
marks)

8. 2008 Q 16
Starting with copper metal, describe how a sample of crystals of copper (II) chloride may
be prepared in the laboratory. (3 marks)

9. 2008 Q 17
A compound whose general formula is M(OH)3 reacts as shown by the equation below.
M(OH)3(s) + OH- (aq) → M(OH)4-(aq)
M(OH)3(s) + 3H+ (aq) → M3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)

(a) What name is given to compounds which behave like M(OH)3 in the two reactions.
(1
mark)
(b) Name two elements whose hydroxides behave like that of M (2 marks
10. 2008 Q 17 P1
When solid B1 was heated, a gas which formed a white precipitate when passed through
lime water was produced. The residue was dissolved in dilute nitric (V) acid to form a
colourless solution B2. when dilute hydrochloric acid was added to solution B2 a white
precipitate which dissolved on warning was formed.
(a) Write the formula of the;
I. Cation in solid B1 (1 mark)
II. Anion in solid B1 (1 mark)
(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between the residue and dilute nitric (V)
acid (1
mark)

11. 2008 Q 2 P2, 2016 Q7 P2

(a) Write an equation to show the effect of heat on the nitrate of:
(i) Potassium (ii) silver (2 marks)

(b) The table below gives information about elements A1 , A2 , A3, and A4
Element Atomic Atomic Ionic radius (nm)
Number Radius (nm)
A1 3 0.134 0.074
A2 5 0.090 0.012
A3 13 0.143 0.050
A4 17 0.099 0.181
(i) In which period of the periodic table is element A2? Give a reason.
(ii) Explain why the atomic radius of:
I A1 is greater than that of A2;
- 20 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
II A4 is smaller than its ionic radius (2 marks)
(iii) Select the element which s in the same group as A3 (1 mark)
(iv) Using dots (.) and crosses(x) to represent outermost electrons. Draw a diagram to
show the bonding in the compound formed when A1 reacts with A4 (1 mark)

12. 2009 Q 11 P1
Starting with 50 cm3 of 2.8M sodium hydroxide, describe how a sample of pure sodium
sulphate crystals can be prepared. (3
marks)

13. 2009 Q 18 P1
Bottle of sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and sugar have lost their labels. A Student
prepares and tests an aqueous solution of a sample from each bottle. The results obtained
are as shown in the table below.
Bottle PH Electrical conductivity Correct label
1 7 conducts
2 7 Does not conducts
3 10 conducts
Complete the table by filling the correct label for each bottle. (3 marks)

14. 2009 Q 23 P1
Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow.

(a) What observation would be made in step I (1 mark)

(b) Name another substance that could be used in step 2 (1 mark)
(c) Give the name of substance H. (1 mark)

15. 2009 Q 25 P1
For each of the following reactions, state the observation and write the formula of the
compound responsible for the observation
 SALTS - 21 -
(a) Bromide water is added to aqueous potassium iodine (1½
marks)
(b) Excess aqueous ammonia is added to copper (II) hydroxide (precipitate) (1½
marks)

16. 2010 Q 1 P1
(a) Distinguish between a deliquescent and a hygroscopic substance. (2 marks)
(b) Give one use of hygroscopic substances in the laboratory. (1 mark)

17. 2010 Q 5 P1
Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride exists as pink crystals and anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride is a
blue powder. Describe a laboratory experiment that can be used to show that the action of
heat on hydrated cobalt (II) chloride is a reversible reaction.
(3 marks)

18. 2010 Q 24 P1
Describe how a solid sample of the double salt, ammonium iron (II) sulphate, can be
prepared using the following reagents; Aqueous ammonia, sulphuric (VI) acid and iron
metal.
(3 marks)

19. 2011 Q 3 P1
A mixture contains ammonium chloride, copper (II) oxide and sodium chloride. Describe
how each of the substances can be obtained from the mixture (3
marks)

20. 2011 Q 13 P1
Distinguish between the terms deliquescent and efflorescent as used in chemistry.
(2
marks)

21. 2011 Q 30 P1
A sample of river water is suspected to contain zinc ions. Describe how the presence of
zinc ions and sulphate ions can be established. (3
marks)

22. 2011 Q 4 P2
(a) When excess calcium metal was added to 50 cm3 of 2 M aqueous copper (II) nitrate
in a beaker, a brown solid and bubbles of gas were observed.
(i) Write two equations for the reactions which occurred in the beaker. (2 marks)
(ii) Explain why it is not advisable to use sodium metal for this reaction. (2 marks)

(b) Calculate the mass of calcium metal which reacted with copper (II) nitrate solution.
(relative atomic mass of Ca=40) (2 marks)

(c) The resulting mixture in (a) above was filtered and aqueous sodium hydroxide
- 22 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
added to the filtrate drop wise until in excess. What observations were made? (1
mark)

(d) (i) Starting with calcium oxide, describe how a sample of calcium carbonate can be
prepared. (3 marks)
(ii) Name one use of calcium carbonate. (1 mark)

23. 2012 Q6 P1
Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow:
Salt Solubility (g/100g water)
At 40°C At 60°C
CuSo4 28 38
Pb(NO3)2 79 98
A mixture containing 35g of CuSO4 and 78g of Pb(NO3)2 in 100g of water at 60°C was
cooled to 400C.
(a) Which salt crystallised out? Give a reason (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the mass of the salt that crystallised out. (1 mark)

24. 2012 Q16 P1

Use the following information on substances S, T, V and hydrogen to answer the questions
that follow:
(i) T displaces V from a solution containing V ions
(ii) Hydrogen reacts with the heated oxide of S but has no effects on heated oxide
of V.

(a) Arrange substances S, T, V and hydrogen in the order of increasing reactivity.

(1 mark)
(b) If T and V are divalent metals, write an ionic equation for the reaction in (i) above.
(2
marks)

25. 2012 Q25 P1

Describe how a solid sample of potassium sulphate can be prepared starting with 200cm3
of 2M potassium hydroxide. (3
marks)

26. 2012 Q6 P2
The flow chart below shows a sequence of reaction involving a mixture of two salts,
mixture M. study it and answer the questions that follow.
 SALTS - 23 -

(a) Write the formula of the following

(i) Anion in solid Q (1 mark)
(ii) The two salts present in mixture M (2 marks)

(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction in step (VI) (1 mark)

(c) State and explain the observations made in step (V) (3 marks)

(d) (i) Starting with Lead (II) oxide, describe how a pure solid sample of lead sulphate can
be prepared in the laboratory (2 marks)
(ii) How can one determine whether the led sulphate prepared is pure? (2 marks)

27. 2013 Q2 P1
Write equations to show the effect of heat on each of the following:
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate (1 mark)
(b) Silver nitrate (1 mark)
(c) Anhydrous iron (II) sulphate (1 mark)

28. 2013 Q5 P1
The diagram below illustrates a method of preparing salts by direct synthesis
- 24 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(a) This method can be used to prepare either aluminium chloride or iron (III) chloride.
Explain why it cannot be used to prepare sodium chloride. (2
marks)
(b) Describe how a sample of sodium chloride can be prepared in the laboratory by direct
synthesis. (2 marks)

29. 2013 Q26 P1

By using aqueous sodium chloride, describe how a student can distinguish calcium ions
from lead ions.

30. 2013 Q5a-b P2

(a) Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphate and
sodium hydrogen sulphate. (2 marks)
(b) Describe how a pure sample of lead (II) sulphate can be prepared in the laboratory
starting with lead metal. (2 marks)

31. 2014 Q 2 P1
When dilute hydrochloric acid was reacted with solid B, a colourless gas which
extinguished a burning splint was produced. When an aqueous solution of solid B was
tested with a blue litmus paper, the paper turned red / pink.
(a) Identify the anion present in solid B. (1 mark)
(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between solid B and dilute hydrochloric acid.
(1
mark)

32. 2014 Q5 P2
(a) The scheme below shows some of the reaction of solution D. Study it and answer
the questions that follow

(i) Give a possible caution present in solution D (1 mark)

(ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction in Step II (1 mark)

(iii) What observations would be made in Step V? Give a reason (2 marks)

(iv) Explain why the total volume of hydrogen gas produced in step 1 was found to be
very low although calcium and solution D were in excess. (2
 SALTS - 25 -
marks)

(v) State one use of substance E. (1 mark)

(b) Starting with solid sodium chloride, describe how a pure sample of lead (II) Chloride
can be prepared in the laboratory (3 marks)

(c) (i) State a property of anhydrous calcium chloride which makes it suitable for use
as a drying agent for chlorine gas. (1 mark)
(ii) Name another substance that can be used to dry chlorine gas (1 mark)

33. 2015 Q8 P1
When solid A was heated strongly, it gave off water and a solid residue. When water was
added to the solid residue, the original solid A, was formed
(a) What name is given to the process described? (1 mark)
(b) Give one example of solid A (1 mark)

34. 2015 Q21 P1

Describe how samples of lead (II) sulphate, ammonium chloride and sodium chloride can
be obtained from a mixture of the three. (3
marks)

35. 2015 Q25 P1

Starting with barium nitrate solution, describe how a pure sample of barium carbonate can
be prepared in the laboratory. (3
marks)

36. 2016 Q5 P1
Starting with sodium metal, describe how a sample of crystals of sodium hydrogen
carbonate may be prepared. (3
marks)

37. 2017 Q15 P1.

Starting with copper, describe how a pure sample of copper (II) carbonate can be prepared.
(3
marks)

38. 2018 Q15 P1.

You are provided with solid potassium hydrogen carbonate. Describe how a solid sample
of potassium nitrate can be prepared. (3
marks)

39. 2019 P1 Q24.

Starting with copper turnings, describe how a sample of copper (II) Sulphate crystals can
be prepared in the laboratory. (2
marks)
- 26 - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
ON SUBSTANCES
Table of Contents
Electrical Conductivity of Solids
Organizer 📌 -2-
Electrical Conductivity of Molten Substances -2-
Electrical Conductivity of Substances in Aqueous State -3-
Electrolysis -4-
Electrolysis of binary electrolytes. -4-
Application of Electrolysis -5-
Checkpoint. -6-

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:
(a) Define the terms conductor, non-conductor, electrolyte,
non-electrolyte, current and electrode.
(b) Differentiate electrolyte from conductor in terms of the
particles they contain.
(c) Explain the process of electrolysis and define the terms
anode and cathode.
(d) State the products of electrolysis of binary compounds.
(e) State some applications of electrolysis.
-2- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

ON SUBSTANCES
An electric current is a flow of electrons and is a form of energy.
When an electric current is passed over some substances, chemical reactions occur. Similarly, some
substances can react to produce an electric current. The study of how chemical reactions produce
electrical energy and in turn how electrical energy causes chemical reactions is called
Electrochemistry.
This chapter introduces the basic concepts of electrochemistry.

Electrical Conductivity of Solids

In order to determine whether a substance will conduct
an electric current or not an electric circuit which
includes the substance being tested is used.
 A bulb or ammeter is used to show whether a
current is flowing when the circuit is completed.
When the switch is closed, the bulb lights up if the
substance being tested allows a current to pass
through it. The bulb does not light if the substance
An electric circuit
being tested does not allow a current to pass through it.
 Substances which allow an electric current to pass through them are called conductors.
Substances which do not allow an electric current to pass through them are called non-
conductors.
 Generally, metals are conductors of electricity. In metals, the atoms are packed together very
closely and the delocalised electrons move freely from one point to another within the structure.
Graphite is a non-metal but it conducts an electric current. In graphite, the carbon atoms are
bonded in such away that the resulting structure has some delocalised electrons.
The delocalised electrons in metals and graphite are responsible for the electrical conductivity in
these substances.
 All solid substances that do not have delocalised electrons in their structures are non-conductors.
The battery in the circuit provides the necessary driving force which make the electrons to flow in
one direction through the circuit.

Electrical Conductivity of Molten Substances

The arrangement of apparatus used to investigate the electrical conductivity of molten substances
consists of two solid conductors each with one end dipped in the melt under investigation. To the
other end of each solid conductor is connected a
source of direct current. The solid conductors should
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECHEMISTRY -3-

not come into contact with each other. Either a bulb or an ammeter are used to indicate the flow of the
electric current.
 The two solid conductors are called electrodes. An electrode is a rod through which current enter
and leave the electrolyte during electrolysis.
An electrode that does not influence/alter the products of electrolysis is called an inert electrode.
Common inert electrodes include platinum and graphite
Platinum is not usually used because it is very expensive. Graphite is cheap and easily available
(e.g. from used dry cells).
 The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is called the anode. The electrode
connected to the negative terminal is called the cathode.
 Ionic compounds such as lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide do not conduct an electric current
in the solid state. However, they conduct an electric current when melted.
In the solid state, the ions are held firmly by strong electrostatic forces and thus cannot move.
Melting weakens these forces enabling the ions to move. These mobile ions in the melt are
responsible for the conductivity of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide.
 Molecular substances such as sugar, sulphur and wax do not conduct an electric current both in
solid and molten state. These substances have molecular structures and lack charged particles.
The absence of charged particles is responsible for non- conductivity of an electric current in
sugar, sulphur and wax.
 Metals are good conductors both in the solid and molten state because of the presence of
delocalised electrons in their structure. When metals are melted, the delocalised electrons remain
mobile enabling metals to be conductors in the molten state.

Electrical Conductivity of Substances in Aqueous State

The set up shown below can be used to investigate the
electrical conductivity of solutions.
Salts such as sodium chloride, copper (II) chloride and
copper (II) sulphate do not conduct electricity in the
solid state but when dissolved in water they conduct.
Solutions of sulphuric (VI) acid, hydrochloric acid,
sodium hydroxide and ammonia also conduct electricity.
Aqueous solutions of salts, bases and acids contain
mobile ions. The mobile ions are responsible for the
electrical conductivity.
When the circuit is completed, the positive ions in the
solutions move towards the negative electrode
(cathode) while the negative ions move towards the
positive electrode (anode).

Conventionally, an electric current is shown to move

from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
even though the electrons actually flow from the negative to the positive terminal.
-4- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

The movement of the ions in the solution constitutes the current through the solution.
Solutions of molecular substances such as sugar and urea do not conduct electricity because their
solutions do not contain ions.

Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of decomposing an electrolyte by passing an electric current through it.
An electrolyte is a substance which when melted or dissolved in water conducts an electric current
and gets decomposed by the current.
A compound that is not decomposed by an electric current is called non-electrolyte.
Solutions of salts, acids and bases are electrolytes.

Electrolysis of binary electrolytes.

A binary electrolyte is one which contains only
one type of cation and one type of anion.

Examples of binary electrolytes are molten halide

salts such as those of lead and copper.

To electrolyse a binary electrolyte like lead (II)

bromide the following procedure is used:

Fill a crucible up to a third with lead (II) bromide.

Set up the apparatus as shown. Close the switch.
Heat the lead (II) bromide until it melts.
Expected Observations
A red vapour of bromine gas is produced at the anode while grey beads of lead metal are formed at
the cathode
Bromine gas and lead metal are produced as a result of the decomposition of the lead (II) bromide by
the electric current.
The changes that occur when lead (II) bromide is electrolysed are:
At the cathode
The positively charged lead (II) ions get attracted to
the negatively charged cathode and migrate
towards it. On reaching the cathode, the lead ions
gain electrons to form electrically neutral atoms of
lead metal. The metal is deposited as grey beads on
the cathode. This change is illustrated by the
following equation.

Pb2+(aq) + 2e– → Pb(s)

At the anode
The negatively charged bromide ions get attracted to the positively charged anode and migrate
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECHEMISTRY -5-

towards it. On reaching the anode, the bromide ions lose electrons to form bromine atoms. The
bromine atoms combine to form diatomic molecules of the brown bromine gas. This change is
illustrated by the equation:

2Br–(aq) → Br2(g) + 2e–

Notes:
1. Precaution: The experiments should be done in a fume chamber because the iodine and bromide
vapors are poisonous
2. Heating is done to melt the electrolytes so that the ions are mobile and can then conduct electric
current.
3. For other binary electrolytes:

Binary electrolyte Cathode equation and Observation Anode Equation and Observation
2+ – – –
Lead (II) bromide Pb (l) + 2e → Pb(s) 2Br (l) → Br2(g) + 2e
(PbBr2) Grey solid deposited Brown vapour produced
2+ – – –
Lead (II) iodide Pb (l) + 2e → Pb(s) 2I (l) → I2(g) + 2e
(PbI2) Grey solid deposited Purple vapour produced
+ – – –
Sodium chloride 2Na (l) + 2e → 2Na(s) 2Cl (l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
(NaCl) Grey solid deposited Greenish yellow fumes produced
3+ – 2- –
Aluminium oxide 4Al (l) + 12e → 4Al(s) 6O (l) → 3O2(g) + 12e
(Al2O3) Grey solid deposited Bubbles of a colourless gas produced
2+ – – –
Magnesium chloride Mg (l) + 2e → Mg(s) 2Cl (l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
(MgCl2) Grey solid deposited Greenish yellow fumes produced
– –
Copper (II) chloride
2+ –
Cu (l) + 2e → Cu(s) 2Cl (l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
(CuCl2) Brown solid deposited Greenish-yellow fumes produced

Application of Electrolysis
The process of electrolysis is applied in such processes as:
(a) Extraction of reactive metals such as sodium, magnesium and aluminium by electrolysis of their
molten compounds.
(b) Purification of metals.
(c) Electroplating of metals such as iron to improve their appearance and prevent corrosion.
(d) Manufacture of pure chemicals such as hydrogen gas, chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide.

Checkpoint.
-6- PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

1. The atomic numbers of elements C and D are 19 and 9 respectively. State and explain the electrical
conductivity of the compound CD in:
(a) Solid state (1½ marks)
(b) aqueous state. (1½ marks)

2. (a) What is an electrolyte? (1 mark)

(b) State how the following substances conduct electricity.
i) Molten calcium chloride (1 mark)
ii) Graphite. (1 mark)

3. The set-up below (figure 2) was used to electrolyse a bromide of metal D, DBr2.

(i) Write equation for the reactions at the

I. cathode (1 mark)
II. anode (1 mark)
(ii) The electrodes used in the experiment were made of carbon and metal D. Which of the
two electrodes was used as the anode? Give a reason. (2 marks)
(iii) Give a reason why this experiment is carried out in a fume cupboard. (1 mark)

4. Which one of the following compounds; urea, ammonia, sugar and copper (II) chloride will
conduct an electric current when dissolved in water? Give reasons. (2 marks)

5. Explain how condition of electricity takes place in the following.

(a) Iron metal (1 mark)
(b) Molten lead (II) iodide. (1 mark)

6. An electric current was passed through several substances and the results obtained recorded in
the table below.
Substance Conductivity Products
Physical state at
room temperature Anode Cathode
A Liquid Does not conduct - -
B Solid Conducts - -
C Liquid Conducts Green gas Grey solid
D Liquid Conducts Brown gas Grey solid
E Liquid Conducts - -
Which of these substance is likely to be
(a) Magnesium; (1 mark)
(b) Hexane; (1 mark)
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECHEMISTRY -7-

(c) lead (II) bromide? (1 mark)

7. A student investigated the effect of an electric current by passing it through some substances.
The student used inert electrode and connected a bulb to the circuit. The table below shows the
substances used and their states.
Experiment Substances States
1 potassium carbonate Solid
2 copper (II) Sulphate Solution
3 sugar Solution
4 Lead (II) Iodide Molten
(a) In which experiment did the bulb not light? (1 mark)
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above. (2 marks)

8. The conductivity of some substances was investigated. The observations made were recorded
in Table 1. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

(i) Identify a substance that is a metal. Give a reason. (2 marks)

(ii) Substance F does not conduct electricity in solid state but conducts in molten or
aqueous state. Explain. (2 marks)

9. Explain why a solution of sodium chloride conducts electricity while that of sugar does not.
(2 marks)

10. Draw in the space provided a labelled diagram of the set-up of the apparatus that can be used to
electrolyse molten lead(II) bromide. (3 marks)
 CARBON
AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS

Table of Contents
Carbon and its allotropes
Chemical Properties of Carbon
Organizer 📌 -4-
-3-

Burning in air -5-

Reducing property of carbon. -5-
Reaction of Carbon with concentrated
nitric (V) acid and sulphuric acids -7-
Review Questions: Carbon and its
allotropes. -8-
Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) -8-
Preparation of Carbon (IV) oxide -8-
Properties of carbon (IV) oxide -9-
Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide gas - 10 -
Review Questions: Carbon (IV) oxide - 10 -
Carbon (II) Oxide - 10 -
Preparation of carbon (II) oxide - 11 -
Properties of carbon (II) oxide - 12 -
Carbonates - 14 -
Reaction of carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates with dilute acids - 15 -
Action of Heat on Carbonate and
Hydrogen Carbonates - 16 -
Large scale production of Sodium
Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate - 17 -
Extraction from Trona - 17 -
The Solvay Process - 18 -
Effects of Carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the Environment - 20 -
The Carbon Cycle - 21 -

(20 Lessons)

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:
(a) Define the terms allotropy and allotropes.
(b) State and explain some physical and chemical properties of carbon.
(c) Describe the laboratory preparation of carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides
 -2- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(d) State and explain the physical and chemical properties of carbon (IV) and carbon
(II) oxide
(e) State the uses of carbon, carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides.
(f) Describe the chemical properties of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
(g) Describe the extraction and manufacture of sodium carbonate.
(h) State the effects of carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides on the environment.

CARBON
AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is the first element in group (IV) of the periodic table. It has an electron arrangement of 2.4.
It forms covalent bonds in most of its compounds.
It occurs in the pure state as diamond and graphite, and in the impure state as amorphous
carbon. It also occurs in the combined state in compounds such as carbonates, mineral oils,
organic matter, and carbon (IV) oxide.

Carbon and its allotropes

Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form, in the same physical state. The
different forms are called allotropes.
Carbon has two naturally occurring allotropes, diamond and graphite.
Carbon can be manipulated using energy such as laser beams to form other allotropes known as
fullerenes or ‘buckyballs’.

Diamond
This is one of the stable allotropes of carbon. It is a colourless, transparent shiny crystalline solid.
In diamond, carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form covalent bonds. Since it uses all
the four electrons in the outermost energy level for bonding, it does NOT conduct both electricity
and heat.
Diamond has a density of 3.51 g/cm3. The high density is due to continuous close packing of

OG
 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON -3-

carbon atoms.
Diamond has a high melting point (3700ºC). The high melting point is due to the strong covalent
bonds.
Diamond is one of the hardest naturally occurring substances. The hardness is due to the
uniformity of covalent bonds between the atoms throughout the structure.
Diamond has a giant atomic structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon
atoms arranged in a regular tetrahedron shape. The whole structure of diamond extends in all
directions forming a rigid mass of atoms.
Diamond is found in some parts of India, South Africa and in Tanzania where it is mined. It is used
as a jewel because of its shiny appearance when polished. It is used in glass cutters and drill bits
because of its hardness.

Graphite
This is another stable allotrope of carbon. It is a black, soft, slippery crystalline solid. Graphite is
made up of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms bonded together in layers where each atom is
bonded to three carbon atoms. The layers are held together by van der Waals forces.
Graphite has a density of 2.3g/cm3. The low density is due to the spaces between the layers. It is
soft and slippery because the layers in the structure can slide over each other due to the weak
van der Waals forces.
In graphite, each carbon atom uses only three electrons in the outer energy level to form covalent
bonds with other carbon atoms. One electron in the outer energy level of each atom is not used in
bonding. It is delocalised hence graphite conducts heat and electricity.

Both melting point (3500ºC) and boiling point (4800ºC) of graphite are high because of the strong
covalent bonds between the atoms in its layers. Graphite has a giant atomic structure in which
layers are held together by van der Waals forces.
The high melting point and its slippery nature makes graphite a good lubricant in moving
machine parts where a lot of heat is produced.
The high melting point also makes graphite useful in making moulds for casting metals. It has
delocalised electrons within its structure hence is used as an electrode.
Graphite is mixed with clay to make pencil ‘leads’ because the carbon layers can slide over each
other. Graphite is found in South Africa, Brazil, Sweden, Germany and U.S.A.
 -4- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Fullerenes
Fullerenes are synthetic allotropes of carbon. They are found in different shapes such as
spherical, tubular or elliptical. The best known fullerene is the spherical C60 molecule which
consists of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms similar to the panels of some soccer balls.

Amorphous Carbon
This is an impure form of carbon. Examples are charcoal, soot, coke and coal. They contain small
amounts of graphite. They do not conduct electricity or heat, because of the irregular
arrangement of graphite crystals in their structure.
Amorphous carbon especially charcoal has the ability to adsorb gases and liquids. It is therefore
used in gas masks.
Charcoal is used to adsorb colored impurities in sugar refining industries.
Carbon black is mixed with rubber in the manufacture of tyres as a filler to improve tensile
strength and reduce wear and tear. It also gives tyres the black appearance.

Chemical Properties of Carbon

Burning in air
When carbon is heated, it glows red. A colourless gas is produced which reacts with calcium
hydroxide to form a white precipitate. The red glow shows that the reaction produces heat. The
white precipitate shows that the gas produced is carbon (IV) oxide.

When pure carbon is used in this experiment there is no residue in the combustion tube.

Carbon + oxygen → carbon (IV) oxide

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Carbon (IV) oxide + Calcium hydroxide → Calcium carbonate + water

OG
 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON -5-

CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) →CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

(white)
All forms of carbon burn in oxygen to produce carbon (IV) oxide. However, the temperature at
which they burn varies from one allotrope to another.

Reducing property of carbon.

Place a small amount of copper (II) oxide and powdered charcoal in a test tube and mix well. Set
up the apparatus as shown and heat.

Effect of heating carbon with some metal oxides

When a mixture of copper (II) oxide and carbon is heated the black mixture turns into a brown
powder. A colourless gas produced forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide. The brown
powder is copper metal and the colourless gas is carbon (IV) oxide.

Copper (II) oxide + Carbon → Copper + Carbon (IV) oxide

2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2 (g)

(black) (black) (brown) (colourless)

Similarly, carbon removes combined oxygen from zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide and iron (III) oxide.

Lead (II) oxide + Carbon Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide

Zinc oxide + Carbon Zinc + Carbon (IV) oxide

Iron (III) oxide + Carbon Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide

 -6- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Carbon has the ability to remove combined oxygen from some metals. In these reactions, carbon
is oxidised to carbon (IV) oxide and the metal oxides are reduced to metals.
In terms of competition for combined oxygen, carbon can be placed in the reactivity series of
metals between Aluminium and Zinc. Thus, it reduces the oxides of all the metals below it in the
reactivity series. Therefore, carbon is a reducing agent.

The reactivity series of metals showing the position of carbon and hydrogen.

The reducing property of carbon is used in the extraction of metals from their oxides.
At temperatures of about 1200ºC, carbon reduces steam to hydrogen gas. Carbon is in turn
oxidised to carbon (II) oxide. A mixture of the two gases is called water gas.

Carbon + Steam Carbon (II) oxide + Hydrogen

Reaction of Carbon with concentrated nitric (V) acid and sulphuric acids
Carbon reduces hot concentrated nitric acid to brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas and water. Carbon
is in turn oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is reduced to sulphur (IV) oxide and water while carbon is
oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Both sulphur (IV) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide react with calcium
hydroxide to form a white precipitate of calcium sulphite and calcium carbonate respectively.

Carbon + Conc. Nitric (V) acid Nitrous (IV) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide + water

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON -7-

Carbon + Conc. Sulphuric (VI) acid Sulphur (IV) oxide + carbon (IV) oxide + water

C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

The two hot concentrated acids react with carbon because they are strong oxidizing agents.

Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)

This is the most stable oxide of carbon. In carbon (IV) oxide, the carbon atom forms strong
covalent bonds with two oxygen atoms. Carbon (IV) oxide is a molecular substance. The gas
accounts for 0.03% of the volume of air. However, it occurs in some regions at a higher
concentration due to various activities such as volcanic action. In Kenya, these regions are:
Esageri near Eldama Ravine and Kerita in Kimabu where commercial tapping of the gas is done.

Preparation of Carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (IV) oxide is prepared by reacting calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Questions
1. What is observed in the conical flask containing the reactants?

When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate, a vigorous effervescence occurs
releasing carbon (IV) oxide gas.
2. Write an equation for the reaction that occurs between calcium carbonate and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

3. Explain the purpose of sodium hydrogen carbonate in this set-up.

The gas is passed through sodium hydrogen carbonate or water to remove traces of hydrochloric
acid fumes in the gas.
4. Explain why the gas is passed through concentrated suphuric acid.
When required dry, the gas is passed through concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid which acts as a
 -8- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

drying agent.
4. Suggest an alternative to concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.

Anhydrous calcium chloride can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid as a drying
agent.
6. Which other reactants can be used to prepare carbon(IV) oxide? Is there an exception?

Any other carbonate can be used with a suitable acid.

Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid SHOULD NOT BE reacted with calcium carbonate, barium carbonate and
lead carbonate. This is because insoluble sulphates produced form a coating on the carbonates
and prevent further reaction. For the same reasoned dilute hydrochloric acid is not reacted with
lead carbonate.

Properties of carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (IV) oxide is a colourless, odourless gas. It is denser than air and neither burns nor
supports combustion. It is an acidic gas and dissolves in water to form weak carbonic acid. As a
test for the gas, It forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide.
Questions
1. Explain why carbon (IV) oxide is collected by downward delivery.
The gas is denser than air and this explains why it is collected by down ward delivery.
1. What deductions can be made about the properties of carbon (IV) oxide gas from
the following tests?
(a) Bubbling the gas through water containing the universal indicator.
The gas is acidic, and turns the universal indicator solution red.
(b) Inverting separate gas jars of carbon (IV) dioxide in troughs of water and sodium
hydroxide solution.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas slightly dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid.

Carbon (IV) oxide + Water Carbonic acid

CO2(g) oxide + H2O(g) H2CO3(g)

Carbon (IV) oxide gas is acidic and readily reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
carbonate.

Sodium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide Sodium carbonate + Water

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

If the gas is in excess, a further reaction occurs that leads to the formation of sodium
hydrogen carbonate.

Sodium carbonate + Water + Carbon (IV) oxide Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(aq)

(c)Inverting a gas jar full of carbon (IV) oxide over a candle flame as shown below.

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON -9-

Carbon (IV) oxide neither burns nor supports combustion. This is why the gas puts off a burning
candle.
2. Explain using equations, the change observed when carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled
through limewater until there is no further change.
When Carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide for a short while, a white
precipitate is formed. The white precipitate is due to the formation of the insoluble calcium
carbonate. This is the confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.

Calcium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide Calcium carbonate + Water

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

When the gas is passed through the mixture for a while the white precipitate dissolves to form a
colourless solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate.

Calcium carbonate + Water + Calcium (IV) oxide Calcium hydrogen carbonate

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

4. Write chemical equations for the reactions that take place when:
(a) Magnesium is burnt in carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Although the gas does not support combustion, burning magnesium continues to burn in it to
produce a white powder of magnesium oxide and black specks of carbon. The burning
magnesium produces a lot of heat that decomposes carbon (IV) oxide to carbon and oxygen.

Magnesium + Carbon (IV) oxide Magnesium oxide + Carbon

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)

The addition of dilute nitric (V) acid dissolves magnesium oxide leaving black specks of carbon.
(b) Carbon (IV) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide solution for a few seconds.

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide gas

1. Carbon (IV) oxide gas is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable goods. This is
because solid carbon (IV) oxide sublimes when heated, leaving no residue.
2. Carbon (IV) oxide is used to extinguish fires because it is non-flammable and has a
higher density than air therefore it forms a ‘blanket’ on fire cutting off oxygen supply.
3. It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process.
4. Carbon (IV) oxide is dissolved in water to make aerated drinks to add taste, it is
also used to make baking powder.

Review Questions: Carbon (IV) oxide

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Carbon (II) Oxide

This is another oxide of carbon in which a carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with one
oxygen atom. It is a molecular substance.

Structure of Carbon (II) oxide

The dot (·) and cross (×) diagram shows the three covalent bonds in a carbon (II) oxide
molecule one of which is a dative bond.
Preparation of carbon (II) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide may be prepared by dehydrating methanoic acid using concentrated sulphuric
(VI) acid.

HCOOH(s) CO(g) + H2O(l)

Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) may be used in place of methanoic acid as shown below.

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 11 -

The gaseous mixture should be passed through a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide
to remove the carbon (IV) oxide, CO2. The gas may also be prepared by passing Carbon (IV) oxide
over heated charcoal as shown in the set up below.

Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon Carbon (II) oxide

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

Properties of carbon (II) oxide

Physical properties of Carbon (II) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide gas is colourless, odourless and slightly less dense than air.
It has a low boiling point of -111ºC. The low boiling point is because of the weak forces of
attraction between the molecules.
The gas is slightly soluble in water. The solution formed is neutral.
The gas is extremely poisonous. It combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form a stable
compound known as carboxy-haemoglobin. The carboxy-haemoglobin formed prevents formation
of oxyhaemoglobin leading to suffocation.

Chemical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Combustion.
Carbon (II) oxide burns in air with a blue flame to form Carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide

2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)

 - 12 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

The set up below is for the combustion of Carbon (II) oxide.

Reduction property.
The following set up that may be used to show the effect of Carbon (II) oxide on hot metallic

oxides

Carbon (II) oxide gas readily removes combined oxygen from metals low in the reactivity series
such as copper, lead and iron. It is inturn oxidized to carbon (II) oxide. Therefore carbon (II) oxide
is a reducing agent.

Copper (II) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Copper + Carbon (IV) oxide

CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)

Zinc (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Zinc + Carbon (IV) oxide

ZnO(s) + CO(g) Zn(s) + CO2(g)

Lead (II) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide

PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Iron (III) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + CO2(g)

The reducing property of carbon (II) oxide makes the gas useful in the extraction of some metals

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 13 -

from their oxides.

Other Sources of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide is encountered almost in every day situations through combustion of charcoal
and fossil fuels such as kerosene, diesel, petrol and coal.
When charcoal burns in a charcoal stove (jiko) three reactions occur in the various regions after
five as shown below.

Region A: Region a in this region plenty of air enters the jiko allowing complete combustion of
carbon to carbon (IV) oxide.

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Region B: The carbon (IV) oxide produced in region ‘A’ rises up to region ‘B’ where it is reduced.

Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon Carbon (II) oxide

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

Region C: Here, there is enough oxygen therefore carbon (II) oxide produced in region B burns to
form carbon (IV) oxide.

Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide

2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)

In case of insufficient air, some carbon (II) oxide produced in region B is released into the
atmosphere. This is common in poorly ventilated rooms.

Review Questions: Carbon (II) oxide

 - 14 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Carbonates
Carbonates are salts of metal ions or ammonium ions with carbonate ions. The carbonate ions are
indirectly obtained from carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed when carbon (IV) oxide is dissolved in water.
Carbonates occur naturally in rocks as limestone (CaCO3), malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 and
dolomite, CaCO3.MgCO3. In Kenya, dolomite is mined in Kariandusi near Gilgil.
Hydrogencarbonates are salts derived from carbonic acid formed by the partial displacement of
hydrogen by a metal or ammonium radical. Hydrogencarbonates of sodium, potassium and
ammonium exist as solids at room temperature, where as those of calcium and magnesium only
exist in solution. The hydrogen carbonates of other metals do not exist.

Reaction of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with dilute acids

All carbonates give off carbon (IV) oxide when reacted with acids. For example:
Calcium carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Zinc carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Dil. Hydrocloric acid Sodium chloride + Water +

Carbon (IV) oxide

NaHCO3 + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(g) + CO3(g)

Lead carbonate + Dil. Nitric acid Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water

PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sodium carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Sodium sulphate + carbon (IV) oxide +
Water

NaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The reaction between calcium carbonate or lead carbonate with dilute sulphuric acid does not go
to completion. This is due to the formation of insoluble calcium sulphate and lead sulphate

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 15 -

respectively. The insoluble sulphates form a coating on the carbonate and prevent further
reaction.
The reaction between lead carbonate and hydrochloric acid also does not go to completion
because of the formation of the insoluble lead chloride.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Calcium sulphate + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Lead carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Lead sulphate + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water

PbCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Lead carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Lead chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water

PbCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + CO2 + H2O

Action of Heat on Carbonate and Hydrogen Carbonates

All carbonates except the carbonates of potassium and sodium decompose when heated to
produce a metal oxide and carbon (IV) oxide. The ease of decomposition depends on the position
of the metal in the reactivity series. Those lower in the reactivity series are easily decomposed.
 - 16 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Ammonium carbonate decomposes when heated to produce ammonia, carbon (IV) oxide and
water.

Hydrogen carbonates decompose on heating to produce a carbonate, carbon (IV) oxide and
water.

The calcium carbonate is further decomposed by heat to produce an oxide and hydrogen
carbonate.

Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Large scale production of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen

Carbonate
Sodium carbonate is an important raw material in the glass and paper industries. It is also used in
water treatment plants. This important raw material is obtained in two ways extraction from trona
and preparation by Solvay process.

Extraction from Trona

Trona is a double salt containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate and water of
crystallisation, Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O, found in some lakes in the Rift valley. These lakes have only
in-lets but no out-lets. Lake Magadi in Kenya is a good example.
The flow chart below shows the steps in the extration of trona from salty water.

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 17 -

Steps in the manufacture of sodium carbonate

Lake Magadi contains large amounts of solid trona and small amounts of sodium chloride.
Trona is dug by bucket dredges and taken to the washery where it is washed in water to remove
mud and small rocks. The wet trona is then centrifuged to remove water and to purify it further.
The dry trona is then heated to about 300ºC in a kiln to decompose the sodium carbonate.
After removal of the trona from the lake, a solution rich in sodium chloride remains. The
solution is pumped into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the percentage of
sodium chloride is 14%. The solution is then transfered to another basin for crystalisation.
During the day when the temperature is about 40ºC trona crystalises and is removed. During
the night when the temperature is about 21ºC sodium chloride crystalises and is removed.

The sodium carbonate obtained is cooled, ground,, sieved and bagged ready for storage and
transportation to the consumers.

The Solvay Process

In places where trona is not available, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate are
manufactured by the Solvay process.
Raw Materials
1. Sodium chloride (brine)-obtained from sea salt by evaporating the water to obtain
crystals.
2. Calcium carbonate and coke-Sources of CO2 when heated and roasted respectively.

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) (thermal decomposition)

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) (roasting)

3. Ammonia-Obtained from the Haber process.
 - 18 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Ammonia is dissolved in brine in the Solvay tower to produce ammoniacal brine. A lot of heat is
produced in the process. The amount of heat produced is controlled by regulating the flow of
brine into the Solvay tower.
The ammoniacal brine is then pumped into the carbonator from the top where it trickles down the
carbonator while carbon (IV) oxide from the kiln is pumped from the base. The carbonator has to
be cooled regularly to reduce the amount of heat produced in it.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble than ammonium chloride at low temperatures,
forms crystals in the lower cooled part of the carbonator. The reactions that take place in the
carbonator are as follows:

Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water Ammonium hydrogen carbonate

NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) NH4HCO3(aq)

Ammonium hydrogen carbonate + Sodium chloride Sodium hydrogen carbonate +

Ammonium chloride

NH4HCO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) NaHCO3(s) + NHC4(aq)

The reaction in the carbonator can be summarized by the equation below:

Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Sodium chloride + Water Sodium hydrogen
carbonate + Ammonium chloride

NH3(g) + CO2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated from ammonium chloride by filtration. Sodium hydrogen
carbonate is dried and decomposed by heat at 300ºC to produce sodium carbonate.

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 19 -

The calcium oxide produced in the limestone kiln is slaked (combined) with water and mixed with
the filtrate ammonium chloride to produce ammonia gas, water and calcium chloride.

Calcium oxide + Water Calcium hydroxide

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)

Calcium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium chloride Ca lcium chloride + Water +

Ammonia

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

The Solvay process is one of the best examples of an efficient industrial chemical process,
because pollution problems are considerably reduced. The carbon (IV) oxide and ammonia gases
produced are recycled to minimise costs.

The water produced is also recycled to minimise thermal effects on the water source near the
plant. The process does not involve large consumption of energy because the coke burned in the
kiln supplies the necessary heat in the process.

In brief:
1. Only by-product which is not recycled is calcium chloride
2. Recyclable substances - NH3, H2O, CO2 (this explains why this is an efficient
process).
3. Sodium carbonate is used in water softening, glass making, paper industry and
making of sodium silicate. The sodium silicate is used in the making of detergents.
4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in the making of health drinks and as baking
powder in the food
5. Calcium chloride is used as a drying agent in the school laboratory preparation of
gases., In the Downs cell (process for extraction of Sodium) to lower the melting point of
rock salt, used as a food additive, food preservative, and used for de-icing roads in winter
6. The best site for the Solvay process plant should be close to a river or large source
of water to cool down the carbonator.

Effects of Carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the

Environment
The level of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is increasing due to the use of fossil fuels such as
petrol, diesel, natural gas and coal. This increase is causing global warming due to the green
 - 20 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

house effect. Some of the effects of global warming include melting of polar ice caps which leads
to the rise in the sea water levels and erratic weather patterns.
Vehicle exhaust fumes make-up more than 60% of all the carbon (II) oxide emitted into the
atmosphere. Carbon (II) oxide emissions are highest during cold weather. This is because low
temperatures make combustion less complete. Carbon (II) oxide can cause death through
suffocation. Luckily, carbon (II) oxide is quickly removed from the atmosphere by micro-organisms
in the soil.

The Carbon Cycle

The way in which carbon compounds circulate in nature constitutes the carbon cycle which is
shown below. The processes that release carbon (IV) oxide to the atmosphere include combustion
of fuels, respiration in both animals and plants, fermentation, decomposition of carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates. Those processes that remove carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere include
photosynthesis in plants, dissolving of carbon (IV) oxide in seas and oceans. The amount of
carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere has remained fairly constant at 0.03% owing to the delicate
balance between the processes that absorb the gas and those that evolve it. Lately, the balance is
being interfered with by human activity leading to an increase in the level of carbon (IV) oxide in
the atmosphere thus causing global warming since carbon (IV) oxide has a greenhouse effect.

1. 2006 P1 Q22.
The diagram below represents part of a set – up used to prepare and collect gas T.

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 21 -

(a) Name two reagents that are reacted to produce both carbon (IV) oxide and carbon(II)
oxide.
(1 mark)
(b) Write the equation for the reaction which takes place in the wash bottles. (1 mark)
(c) Give a reason why carbon (II) oxide is not easily detected. (1 mark)

2. 2007 P1 Q1.
The diagram below shows a “Jiko” when in use. Study it and answer the questions that
follow.

(a) Identify the gas formed at region A. (1 mark)

(b) State and explain the observation made at region B. (2 marks)

3. 2009 P2 Q4.
(a) The schematic diagram shows part of the Solvay process used for the manufacture of
sodium carbonate.

(i) Explain how the sodium chloride required for this process is obtained from
sea water.
(2marks)

(ii) Two main reactions take place in UNIT I . The first one is the formation of
ammonium hydrogen carbonate.
I. Write an equation for this reaction (1 mark)
 - 22 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

II. Write an equation for the second reaction (1 mark)

(iii) State how the following are carried out:

I. Process I (1 mark)
II. Process II (1 mark)
(iv) In an experiment to determine the percentage purity of the sample of sodium
carbonate produced in the Solvay process, 2.15 g of the sample reacted
completely with 40.0cm3 of 0.5 M sulphuric acid.
I. Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate that reacted.
(1
mark)

II. Determine the percentage of sodium carbonate in the sample.

(Na= 23.0, C= 12.0, O = 16.0) (2 marks)

(b) Name two industrial uses of sodium carbonate. (2 marks)

4. 2010 P1 Q15.
Carbon (II) oxide is described as a “silent killer”
(a) State one physical property of carbon (II) oxide that makes it a “silent killer”
(1
mark)

(b) State and explain one chemical property that makes carbon (II) oxide poisonous
to human beings (2 marks)

5. 2011 P1 Q11.
Exhaust fumes of some cars contain carbon(II)oxide and other gases.
(a) Explain how carbon (II) oxide is formed in the internal combustion engines.
(1
mark)

(b) Name two gases other than carbon (II) oxide that are contained in exhaust fumes
and are pollutants. (2 marks)

6. 2011 P1 Q21.
Graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon.
(a) Name one other element which exhibits allotropy. (1 mark)

(b) Explain why graphite is used in the making of pencil leads. (2 marks)

7. 2012 P1 Q1 ,2016 P1 Q25

Charcoal is a fuel that is commonly used for cooking. When it burns it forms two oxides.
(a) Name the two oxides. (2 marks)
(b) State one use of any of the two oxides. (1 mark)

8. 2013 P1 Q19.
(a) Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. What is meant by an allotrope?
(1 mark)

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 23 -

(b) Explain why graphite can be used as a lubricant while diamond cannot.
(1
mark)

9. 2015 P1 Q27.
(a) Describe how carbon (IV) oxide can be distinguished from Carbon (II) Oxide using
calcium hydroxide solution. (2
marks)

(b) What is the role of carbon (IV) oxide in fire extinguishing? (1 mark)

10. 2015 P2 Q1. (a)

(i) Carbon (IV) oxide is present in soft drinks. State two roles of carbon (IV) oxide in
soft drinks. (1 mark)

(ii) Explain the observation made when a bottle containing a soft drink is opened.
(2
marks)

(iii) Carbon (IV) oxide dissolves slightly in water to give an acidic solution. Give the
formula of the acid. (1
mark)

11. 2016 P1 Q22.

The set up below was used to collect a dry sample of a gas

Give two reasons why the set up cannot be used to collect carbon (IV) oxide gas.
(2
marks)

12. 2018 P1 Q2.

(a) Explain why it is not advisable to prepare a sample of carbon(IV) oxide using
barium carbonate and dilute sulphuric(VI) acid. (2
marks)

(b) State a method that can be used to collect dry carbon(IV) oxide gas. Give a
reason.
(1 mark)
 - 24 - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

13. 2018 P2 Q6.

(a) In Kenya, sodium carbonate is extracted from trona at Lake Magadi.
(i) Give the formula of trona. (1 mark)
(ii) Name the process of extracting sodium carbonate from trona. (2 marks)

(b) The flow chart in Figure 5 summarises the steps involved in the production of
sodium carbonate. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

(i) Name the process illustrated in Figure 5. (1 mark)

(ii) Identify the starting raw materials required in the production of sodium carbonate.

(2 marks)
(iii) Write equations for the two reactions that occur in the carbonator.
(2 marks)
(iv) Name two substances that are recycled. (2 marks)
(v) Identify:
Solid X; ................ (1 mark)
Process W ............... (1 mark)
(vi) Write an equation for the reaction that produces solution Z.
(1
mark)
(vii) Apart from softening hard water, state two other uses of sodium carbonate.
(2
marks)

14. 2019 P1 Q20.

During laboratory preparation of carbon (IV) oxide gas, substance L in a conical flask.
(a) Identify substance L. (1 mark)

(b) Write an equation that produces carbon (IV) oxide. (1 mark)

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 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON - 25 -

(c) State the observations made when the gas produced WHS bubbled through
calcium hydroxide solution for a long time.
(1 mark)