BASICS OF TURBO MACHINERY

Syllabus:
Impulse momentum principle, Euler’s equation of motion, force exerted by jet on
stationary and moving plates, velocity diagrams, energy conversion in turbomachinery,
concept of degree of reaction, application of model testing, work done and efficiency.

Learning objectives:
⦁ To study the force exerted by water by jet on different vanes

Learning outcomes:
Students will be able to
⦁ Understand the principle on which Turbo machinery works.

⦁ Study the behavior of various types of vanes under the action of Jet impingement.

⦁ Derive the equations for Forces exerted by jet impingement up on the various
types of vanes in motion and rest, by applying Impulse momentum equation.

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Introduction to Fluid Machines
A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored in a fluid into
mechanical energy or vice versa. The energy stored in the fluid will be in the form of
potential energy, kinetic energy and intermolecular energy. The mechanical energy is
transmitted by a rotating shaft. Machines using liquids (water) are termed as hydraulic
machines.

Classification of Turbomachines:
⦁ Based on the Direction of Energy Conversion:
The device in which the potential, kinetic or intermolecular energy in the
fluid is converted into the mechanical energy is called a turbine.
The device in which the mechanical energy of the moving parts is
transferred to a fluid to increase its stored energy by increasing either its potential
or velocity are known as pumps, compressors, fans or blowers.
⦁ Based on the Principle of Operation:
Positive Displacement Machine: It is the machine whose function depends on
the change in volume of the fluid within its boundary.
This principle in general is utilized in the reciprocating motion of the
piston within a cylinder while entrapping some amount of fluid in it. The machine
producing mechanical energy is termed as reciprocating engine while the machine
increasing the energy of the fluid from the mechanical energy is termed as a
reciprocating pump or compressor.
Rotodynamic Machines: These machines work on the principle of fluid
dynamics. They are distinguished from the positive displacement machines by
considering the relative motion between the fluid and the moving part of the
machine.

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 The rotating element of the machine consisting of number of blades or
vanes is known as rotor or impeller while the fixed part is known as stator.
For the turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while in pumps
and compressors the work is done by the impeller on the fluid.
These are sub-classified based on the direction of fluid flow:
⦁ Axial flow machines: The flow of the fluid is parallel to the axis of
rotation of rotor.
⦁ Radial flow machines: The flow of the fluid is radial to the rotor.
In turbines, the flow is radially inward i.e. towards the center of the rotor.
Hence radial flow turbines are also called as radially inward floe turbines.
Example: Francis Turbine
In pumps and compressor, the flow is radially outward i.e. away from the
center of the rotor. Hence these radially flow pumps or compressors are
also called as radially ouward flow machines.
Example: Centrifugal pump, Centrifugal compressor
⦁ Based on the Fluid Used: The machine transferring the mechanical energy of the
rotor to the energy of the fluid is termed as a pump, when it uses liquid and a
compressor or a fan or a blower when it uses gases.
The compressor increases the static pressure of the gas.
The fan or the blower causes the large flow of gas increasing the kinetic energy of
the gas by utilizing the mechanical energy at the rotor. In these machines the rise
in static pressure is small.
Hydraulic Turbine: Water is used to produce mechanical energy.
Steam Turbine: Steam is used to produce mechanical energy.
Gas Turbine: Hot gases generated in combustion of fuel are used to produce
mechanical energy.

Impulse Momentum Principle:

The state of rest or uniform motion of a body changes in the direction of an externally

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applied force, and the magnitude of the force equals the rate of change on momentum.

For constant mass flow rate, .

Further momentum change may occur due to change in the magnitude of velocity or in its
direction or due to both. If v1 and v2 represent average velocities at two sections of a fluid
stream and t denotes the time interval, then

The product is called the impulse and from the above equation, the impulse

equals the change in momentum.

This equation is rewritten as

where the mass flow rate of the fluid can be written as .

Finally the force exerted by the body on the fluid by virtue of change in the velocity of the

fluid is .

From Newton’s third law of motion, action and reaction are equal and opposite to each
other.

Therefore, the force exerted by the fluid on the body is .

This force acts in the direction of motion of the incident jet.

Force exerted by fluid jet on a stationary flat plate:

Let a jet of diameter ‘d’ and velocity ‘v’ issue from a nozzle and impinges onto a
stationary flat plate held perpendicular to the flow direction.
Assumptions:

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 ⦁ The plate is smooth and consequently no force of friction between the plate and
the jet.
⦁ No energy loss due to impact of jet.

⦁ Jet moves on and off the plate with same velocity.

⦁ Negligible variation in elevation of the incoming and outgoing jets.

⦁ Constant pressure; pressure everywhere is atmospheric.

Fig. 3 Impact of jet on a flat vertical stationary plate

If there are no friction losses, the jet after striking the plate will leave with velocity ‘v’
tangentially i.e., the jet will get deflected through 90˚.

The quantity of fluid striking the plate, ,

where cross-sectional area of jet,

From impulse momentum equation,

Force exerted by the jet in a direction normal to the plate is

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But the initial velocity is v1 = v. Further the jet gets deflected through 900 and accordingly
the component of velocity of leaving jet in a direction normal to the plate is zero i.e. v2 =
0.

Therefore,

Force exerted by a jet on a stationary inclined plate

Let a stationary smooth plate be held inclined at an angle θ to the direction of flow of jet
of diameter ‘d’ and velocity ‘v’, as shown in figure. It is assumed that there exists no
frictional resistance at the plate and there are no impact losses.
The discharge from the nozzle is divided in to two jets after impacting the plate.
Let Q1 be the discharge in upward direction and Q2 be the discharge in downward
direction.

Fig. 3 Impact of jet on a flat stationary inclined plate

Initial velocity of jet in the direction normal to the plate,

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Final velocity of jet in the direction normal to the plate,

Normal force on the plate,

This normal force can be resolve into two components:

⦁ Component parallel to the direction of jet,

⦁ Component normal to the direction of jet,

Upon striking the stationary inclined plate, the jet splits into two streams with flow rates
Q1 and Q2. Due to absence of friction, the resultant force parallel to the plate is zero.
Consequently the impulse momentum equation in the direction parallel to the plate can be
written as:

Also from continuity equation, total discharge,

On solving these two equations, we get

Ratio of discharge,

⦁ Note:

⦁ If θ = 900, the plate is perpendicular to the flow of water jet. In such a case with

water impinging on the vertical stationary flat plate, ratio of dicsharges is

same i.e. equal discharge is observed in vertically upward and downward

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 directions.

Jet Striking a Symmetrical Stationary Curved Vane At Centre

Let a horizontal jet of cross sectional area ‘a’ and having velocity ‘V’ be striking a
smooth stationary symmetrical curved vane at its centre on concave side. Let θ be the
angle between the two tangents drawn to the vane at its out let tips as shown.
After striking the vane the jet will divide itself and the each divided jets glides
over the vane and leaves the vanes at its both ends.

Fig. 4 Jet striking a symmetrical vane at the centre

Let the flow rate entering be ‘Q’ As the vane is symmetrical, the divided two jets
at exits will have the same discharge and equal to Q/2.
Force exerted by plate on fluid in x-direction is given by,

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Therefore force exerted by fluid on the vane in x-direction is

Similarly, Force exerted by the plate on fluid in y-direction is given by

Therefore force exerted by fluid on vane in y-direction is zero.

Resultant force,

Note:

⦁ For flat plate, θ=90˚;

⦁ For a symmetrical curved plate, the resultant force is

It can be observed that . Hence the force acting on a

curved vane is more than the force acting on a flat plate.

Jet striking an unsymmetrical stationary curved vane, tangentially at
one of the tips
Let a jet of cross-sectional area ‘a’ and velocity ‘v’, strike tangentially at one of the tips,
called the inlet tip, of a smooth curved vane as shown in figure. Let the tangent at inlet tip
makes an angle θ with the horizontal and that at the outlet tip make an angle Ø with the
axis.

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 Fig. 5 Jet striking an unsymmetrical vane at the tip
Now from Impulse-Momentum principle,
Force exerted by the fluid on the vane in x-direction =
[Momentum at entry –Momentum at exit] in x-direction

Therefore force exerted by fluid on vane in x-direction,

Force exerted by the fluid on the vane in y-direction =

[Momentum at entry –Momentum at exit] in y-direction

Therefore force exerted by fluid on vane in y-direction,

Resultant force,

Direction of the resultant force is given by

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 Special Case

⦁ If , the vane becomes Semi circular & the incoming and outgoing jets

are parallel to each other (x-axis) and opposite in direction. In this case y-
component of force is zero.

Fig. 6 Semi-circular

vane

Hence force acting on the semi-circular vane in x-direction is .

Note: Effective velocity is the velocity of jet relative to the plate, in the direction of the
jet strike.
Suppose when the vane is allowed to move with a velocity ‘u’ in the direction of jet,
effective velocity of incoming jet is (V-u), as relative velocity w.r.t plate is (V-u).

Force exerted by jet on moving flat vertical vane:

Let a jet of cross sectional area ‘a’ moving with absolute velocity ‘V’ strikes the flat
vertical vane moving with velocity ‘u’ as shown in fig. 7.

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 Fig. 7 jet striking on a moving flat plate
Since both the Moving vane and jet are in same direction, relative velocity of jet w.r.t
vane is (V-u).

The mass of fluid striking the plate, .

Therefore force exerted by jet on this moving vane along x-direction i.e. normal to the
plate is

Since the jet leaves along the plate vertically parallel to the surface, the force exerted is
zero.

y-direction is

Resultant force,

Work done = Resultant force × Displacement of the plate per unit time (i.e. plate
velocity)

Force Exerted By Jet on Moving Flat Inclined Vane

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Let a stationary smooth plate be held inclined at an angle θ to the direction of flow of jet
of diameter ‘d’ and velocity ‘V’, as shown in figure.

Fig. 8 Jet striking a moving inclined plate

Since both the Moving vane and jet are in same direction, relative velocity of jet w.r.t
vane is (V-u).

The mass of fluid striking the plate, .

Initial velocity of jet in the direction normal to the plate,

Final velocity of jet in the direction normal to the plate,

Normal force on the plate,

This normal force can be resolve into two components:

⦁ Component parallel to the direction of jet,

⦁ Component normal to the direction of jet,

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Work done = Resultant force × Displacement of the plate per unit time (i.e. plate
velocity)

Force on the curved plate when the plate is moving in the direction of
jet
Consider a curved vane moving with velocity ‘u’ as shown in figure. The jet of
diameter‘d’ impinges on the moving vane at the centre with velocity ‘V’.
Hence relative velocity = V-u.
If the plate is smooth and the loss of energy due to impact of jet is zero, then the velocity
with which the jet will be leaving the curved vane is = V-u.

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 Fig. 9 jet impinging on a moving curved vane
From the Impulse-Momentum principle,
Force exerted by Jet on the curved plate in the direction of jet = rate of change of
momentum

Work done by the jet on the vane per second, = Force exerted x velocity of the vane

Kinetic energy supplied by the jet per second (Input energy),

Efficiency of the jet,

On simplification, we get

For maximum efficiency of the jet,

On simplification, we get

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Case (i): If V = u, then the efficiency of jet is zero. This indicates that the jet will never

hit the plate and hence force acting on the plate is zero.

Case (ii): If V = 3u, then the velocity of jet is higher than the velocity of plate. Hence the

jet strikes the plate and the plate experiences a net force acting on it. At this condition, the

maximum efficiency of the jet,

For semi-circular vane, θ=00. In this case, maximum efficiency is

Jet striking a series of Curved vanes:

Jet striking a single moving vane is not feasible practically because the distance between

the vane and the nozzle outlet from which the jet is issued will be constantly increasing at

the rate of ‘u’ per second. This requires a continuous lengthening of the jet.

This difficulty is overcome by the arrangement of a series of such vanes at equal

spacing on the periphery of a large wheel which is capable of rotating in a vertical plane.
Thus as the wheel rotates, each vane will become normal to the jet in turn, so that the
entire fluid of the incoming jet issued from the nozzle will be utilized in striking the
vanes.

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Mass of the fluid striking the plate,

Force exerted by the je ton the series of vanes,

Work done by the jet on the wheel per second,

Kinetic energy supplied by the jet per second (Input energy),

Efficiency of the jet,

On simplification, we get

For maximum efficiency of the jet,

On simplification, we get

If the jet velocity is half the velocity of the vane, maximum efficiency could be obtained.

Hence maximum efficiency is obtained as

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For semi-circular vane, θ=00. In this case, maximum efficiency is

Force exerted by the jet of water on an unsymmetrical moving curved

plate when the jet strikes tangentially at one of the tips:
Consider a curved vane moving with velocity ‘u’. The jet of diameter ‘d’ is
striking the vane tangentially at inlet as shown in figure. Here the relative velocity will be
equal to vector difference of velocity of jet and velocity of plate.

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 Fig. 10 Jet striking the curved vane tangentially
Let V1 is the absolute velocity of jet.
u1 is the velocity of plate at inlet.
Vr1 is the relative velocity of jet and plate at inlet.
α is the angle between the direction of jet and the direction of motion of the plate.
Ɵ is the angle made by relative velocity with the direction of motion of vane at inlet. It is
also called “angle of vane” at inlet.
Vw1 is the component of velocity V1 in the direction of motion of the vane at inlet. It is
also known as whirl velocity at inlet.
Vf1 is the component of velocity V1 perpendicular to the direction of motion of vane at
inlet. It is also called flow velocity at inlet.
V2 is the absolute velocity of jet leaving the vane at the outlet.
Vr2 is the relative velocity of jet and plate at outlet.

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ϕ is the angle made by relative velocity with the direction of motion of vane at outlet.
β is the angle between the direction of jet and the direction of motion of the plate at outlet
also called guide blade angle.
Vw2 is the component of velocity V2 in the direction of motion of the vane at outlet.
Vf2 is the component of velocity V2 perpendicular to the direction of motion of vane at
outlet.

Velocity Triangles:
From impulse-momentum principle,
Force exerted by the jet on the vane in the direction of jet = change in momentum of the
fluid
Relative velocity at inlet with which jet strikes the plate in the direction of jet is =

Final velocity with which jet leaves the vane in the direction of jet =

( u1=u2=u)

Therefore,

The above equation is true only when β <900.

When β =900. Then Vw2=0.

When β is obtuse angle β > 900, then =

In general

Work done per sec =

Work done per sec. per unit weight of water striking the vane per sec,

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Efficiency of Jet:
The work done by the jet on the vane is the output of the jet where as the initial kinetic
energy of the jet is the input.

This is also no possible in practice. But the corresponding practical case is a series
of such vanes fixed radially to the rim of a wheel. such vanes are provided for radial flow
hydraulic turbines.

Force exerted on a series of radial vanes:

A radial flow is one in which a fluid particle during its flow through the vane of a
rotating wheel remains in a plane normal to the axis of rotation and its distance from the
axis of rotation is continuously changing.
Consider a series of radial curved vanes as shown in fig.11. For a radial curved
vane, the radius of the vane at inlet and outlet is different and hence tangential velocities
of the radial vane at inlet and outlet will not be equal.

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 Fig. 11 Curved vane mounted radially
The jet of water strikes the vanes and the wheel starts rotating at a constant angular speed.

Let R1 is the radius of the wheel at inlet of the vane.

R2 is the radius of the wheel at the outlet of the vane.
ω is the angular speed of the wheel.

Then tangential velocities at inlet and outlet are respectively.

Mass of water striking the vane per sec for a series of vanes =

Momentum of water striking the vanes in the tangential direction per sec at inlet

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= mass of water per second x component of V1 in the tangential direction =

Similarly, momentum of water at outlet per sec =

Negative sign is taken as the velocity V2 at outlet is in opposite direction.

Now, Angular momentum at inlet = momentum at inlet x radius at inlet =

Angular momentum at out let = momentum at out let x radius at outlet =

Torque Exerted by the water on the wheel, T = Rate of change of angular momentum.
= [Initial angular momentum per sec – final angular momentum per sec]

Work done per sec on the wheel = Torque x angular velocity

The above equation is for β < 900.

When β = 900,

When β is obtuse angle i.e. β > 900,

Efficiency of the radial curved vane:

The work done per second on the wheel is the output of the system where as the
initial kinetic energy per second of the jet is the input. Hence,

Efficiency,

Euler’s equation:

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The work done by the fluid on the vane is given as

This work done per unit weight is defined as the Euler’s equation of head.

For the power generating machines, work is done by the fluid on the vane. Hence Euler’s

equation for Turbines is

For the power consuming machines like pumps, compressors, fans and blowers, work is

done on the fluid. Hence Euler’s equation is

Energy Transfer in Turbomachinery

From the Euler’s equation,

We can write, from the inlet velocity triangle ABD,

Again from triangle BCD,

From these two equations we can write,

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Again we can write,

From the exit velocity triangle EFH,

From the triangle EGH,

From the above equations, we can write,

From the Euler’s equation,

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Finally, total head utilized from the fluid,

The term represents the dynamic head or change in kinetic energy due to

absolute velocity of jet per unit weight.

The term represents the static head. It is the sum of change in

kinetic energy due to rotor velocity and kinetic energy change due to change in the jet
velocity relative to the vane while flowing in between the rotor vanes per unit weight.

Similarly, total head gained by the fluid,

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 Turbomachinery Unit-II

Centrifugal Pumps

Objectives:

 To understand the working principles of Hydraulic Centrifugal pumps and draw the
performance characteristics of hydraulic pumps.

Syllabus:

Centrifugal Pumps: Component parts and Working, classification, Workdone by the

Impeller,Manometric head, Losses and Efficiencies, specific Speed, Pumps in series and
parallel,performance characteristic curves, NPSH

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Students will be able to:

 Understand the working mechanism and components of a centrifugal pump.

 Classify the centrifugal pumps.
 Draw the velocity triangles and calculate the work done on the impeller of the
Centrifugal pump.
 Understand the heads and efficiencies of centrifugal pump.
 Learn the construction of performance characteristic curves.
 Understand the Specific speed and its importance.

Definition:

 A device which raises or transfers liquids at the expense of power input is called
Pump.
 A machine designed to elevate, deliver and move various liquids called Pump.
 A unit that transfers the mechanical energy of motor or an engine into potential and
kinetic energy of liquid is called pump.

Note:

o By their action, the pump requires that energy must be expanded and as such they
belong to the category of power absorbing machines.
o Since the temperature gradients are minimal, pumps are the non thermal machines.

Classification of Pumps:

1. Dynamic Pumps
a) Centrifugal Pump
 b) Turbine
c) Propeller
d) Jet
2. Positive displacement Pumps
a) Reciprocating pump
i. Piston / Plunger
ii. Diaphragm
b) Rotor Pump
i. Gear type
ii. Lobe type
iii. Vane type
iv. Screw type
v. Rotary plunger

Selection criterion of Pump:

 Pressure and capacity of liquid being handled.

 Properties such as viscosity, temperature, corrosiveness and grittiness etc of the
flowing liquid.
 Initial and maintenance cost.
 Pump duty i.e whether the pump is to transfer the liquid or to meter it also.
 Availability of space, size and position of locating the pump.
 Speed of rotation and power required.
 Standardization with respect to the types and makes of pumps already available at the
site.
 Scale up problems.

Applications of Pumps:

Some notable applications of pump installation are in the field of

i. Agriculture and irrigation works.

ii. Municipal water works and drainage system.
iii. Condensing water, condensate, boiler feed, sump drain and such other services in
steam power plants.
iv. Hydraulic control systems.
v. Oil pumping.
vi. Transfer of raw materials, materials in manufacture and the finished products in
industry.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
INTRODUCTION:
 The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
(in the form of pressure energy) are called PUMPS.
  If the mechanical energy is converted in to pressure energy by means of centrifugal
force acting on a fluid, then the hydraulic machine is called CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP.
WORKING MECHANISM OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
 A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any pumping
process plant.
 Its purpose is to convert energy of a prime mover (an electric motor or a turbine)
firstinto velocity or kinetic energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is
being pumped.

Fig. 1 Working of Centrifugal pump

 The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impellerand
the volute or diffuser. The impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy
intothe kinetic energy. The volute or diffuser is the stationary part that converts the
kineticenergy into pressure energy.

Note: All of the forms of energy involved in a liquid flow system are expressed in terms of
height of liquid column i.e. head.

Generation of Centrifugal Force:

 The liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye (center) of a revolving device
known as an impeller.
 When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the vanes
outward and provides centrifugal acceleration as shown in figure 5.1.
 As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is created causing more
liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller blades are curved, the fluid is
pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force.
Conversion of Kinetic Energy to Pressure Energy:
 The key point is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. And
the amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or
vane tip of the impeller.
 The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be
the velocity of the liquid at the inlet vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to
the liquid.
  This kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a
resistance to the flow (decreasing the velocity of flow by increasing the passage cross
sectional area).
 The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that slows the liquid down,
due to its increasing passage cross sectional area as shown in figure 5.2. In the
discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity is converted to
pressure according to Bernoulli‟s principle.

Fig. 2 Working of Centrifugal Pump

GENERAL COMPONENTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:

A centrifugal pump has two main components:
i. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.
ii. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft

Fig. 3 Components of a Centrifugal Pump

The general components, both stationary and rotary, are depicted in Figure
 Fig. 3(b) Impeller components

Components of centrifugal pump showing in line diagram (Figure 5.3b) with front view and
sectional side view.

i. Stationary Components:

Casing: Casings are generally of three types: volute, vortex and circular.
 Volute casingsbuild a higher head.A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the
discharge port as shown in Fig 5.4. As the area of the cross-section increases, the
volute reduces the speed of the liquid and increases the pressure of the liquid. But
large amount of energy is lost in volute casing due to formation of eddies.
 In Vortex casing a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller
as shown in figure 5.4. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to
formation of eddies is reduced.The vortex casing may be with or without guide
blades/vanes. The volute casing will not have guide vanes/blades.
 Circular casingsare used for low head and high capacity.Circular casingis as shown in
Fig 5.4, whichhave stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery that
convert velocity energy to pressure energy. Hence this type of casing is also called
Diffuser ring casing.
 Conventionally, thediffusers are applied to multi-stage pumps.

Fig. 4 Types of Casing

Suction and Discharge pipes:

The suction and discharge pipes are part of the casings itself. The suction pipe carries
liquid from ground to the eye of an impeller while the delivery pipe carries the liquid from
casing (impeller outlet) to the delivery tank. They commonly have the following
configurations.
End suction/Top discharge- The suction nozzle is located at the end of and concentric to, the
shaft while the discharge nozzle is located at the top of the case perpendicular to the shaft.
This pump is always of an overhung type
Top suction Top discharge-The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the top of the
case perpendicular to the shaft. This pump can either be an overhung type or between-bearing
type but is always a radially split case pump.
Side suction / Side discharge - The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the sides of
the case perpendicular to the shaft.

Seal Chamber and Stuffing Box

Seal chamber and Stuffing box both refer to a chamber, either integral with or separate from
the pump case housing that forms the region between the shaft and casing where sealing
media are installed. When the sealing is achieved by means of a mechanical seal, the chamber
is commonly referred to as a Seal Chamber. When the sealing is achieved by means of
packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing Box. Both the seal chamber and the stuffing
box have the primary function of protecting the pump against leakage at the point where the
shaft passes out through the pump pressure casing.

Bearing housing
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the shaft. The bearings keep the shaft
or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial and transverse
loads. The bearing house also includes an oil reservoir for lubrication, constant level oiler,
jacket for cooling by circulating cooling water.

Rotating Components:
Impeller
The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration tothe fluid.
They are often classified in many ways.
 Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation
o Radial flow
o Axial flow
o Mixed flow
 Based on suction type
o Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side.
o Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the impeller symmetricallyfrom both sides.
 Based on mechanical construction (Figure 5.5)
o Closed: Shrouds or sidewall enclosing the vanes. (For pumping pure liquids)
o Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes.(For pumping semi-solids like mud)
o Semi-open or vortex type. (For Pumping Stringy materials like debris, mango pulp...etc)

Fig. 5 Types of Impellers

The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when
starting and during operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must
do this job with a deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and
stationary parts.

Shaft Sleeve
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers and
leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by renewable sleeves.

TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:

Centrifugal pumps are classified as given below
 Based on casing design: volute, vortex and circular type casing centrifugal pumps
 Based on suction and discharge pipes locations: End suction/Top discharge, Top
suction Top discharge&Side suction / Side discharge type centrifugal pumps
 Based on direction of flow in reference to the axis:Radial flow, Axial flow, Mixed
flow type centrifugal pumps
 Based on number of suctions: Single suction, Double suction type centrifugal pumps
 Based on impeller design: Open, closed, semi-open impeller type centrifugal pumps

WORK DONE BY THE IMPELLER:

In centrifugal pump work is done by the impeller on the water. The expression for work done
by the impeller is obtained by drawing the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the
impeller.
 Let „α‟ be the angle made by absolute velocity of water entering at inlet of vane of
impeller w.r.t the tangent at inlet.
 „β‟ be the angle made by absolute velocity of water leaving at outlet of vane of impeller
w.r.t the tangent at outlet.
 „θ‟ be the angle made by the vane of impeller at inlet w.r.t the tangent at inlet. (Blade
angle at inlet)
 „Ø‟ be the angle made by the vane of impeller at outlet w.r.t the tangent at outlet. (Blade
angle at outlet)
 „v1‟ be the absolute velocity of jet at inlet of the vane & „v2‟ be the absolute velocity of jet
at outlet of the vane.
 „vf1‟ be the flow velocity over the vane at inlet & „vf2‟ be the flow velocity over the vane
at outlet. „vf‟ is the vertical component of absolute velocity „v‟. The flow velocity „vf‟ is
responsible for flow of water over the vane.
 „vw1‟ be the whirl velocity over the vane at inlet & „vw2‟ be the whirl velocity over the
vane at outlet. „vw‟ is the horizontal component of absolute velocity „v‟. The whirl
velocity „vf‟ is responsible for motion of vane.
 „vr1‟ be the relative velocity of water entering the vane at inlet & „vr2‟ be the relative
velocity of water leaving the vane at outlet as shown in figure.
 „u1‟ & „u2‟ be the tangential velocity of impeller at inlet & out let respectively.
 „N‟ be speed of impeller in r.p.m.
 „D1‟ & „D2‟ be the diameter of impeller at inlet & outlet respectively.

When the pump is working at a rotational speed of N rpm,

 D1 N
Peripheral velocity of blade, at inlet, u1 
60
 D2 N
Peripheral velocity of blade, at outlet, u2 
60
 Fig. 6 Velocity Triangles
Discharge „Q‟ is given by Q   D1bV
1 f 1   D2 b2V f 2

b1=width/breadth of vane at inlet and b2=width/breadth of vane at outlet.

Work done by the impeller is given by W  Q Vw2u2  Vw1u1 
Since the entry to the pump is radial   900 . Hence at the inlet,
Whirl component of velocity, Vw1  V1 cos   0
Flow component of velocity, V f 1  V1 sin   V1
Therefore work done/Output is W   QVw2u2
Vw 2u2
Head imparted to the impeller or Euler‟s head, H Eu 
g

HEADS AND EFFICIENCIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:

Static Suction Head (hS):
Head resulting from lifting of the liquid relative to the pump center line. If the liquid
level is above pump centerline, hsis positive. If the liquid level is below pump
centerline, hsis negative. Negative hscondition is commonly denoted as a “suction lift”
condition.
Static Discharge Head (hd):
It is the vertical distance between the pump centerline and the point of free discharge
or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Friction Head (hf):
The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is
dependent upon the size (diameter & length) of pipe, condition and type of pipe,
number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid.
(Note: The Subscripts„s‟refers to suction conditions and„d‟refers to discharge
conditions.)
Hence, hf1& hf2are the head lost due to friction in suction and delivery pipes respectively.
And hf is the total head lost due to friction.
Vapor Pressure Head (hvp):
Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid and its vapor co-exist in equilibrium at a
given temperature. The vapor pressure of liquid can be obtained from vapor pressure tables.
When the vapor pressure is converted to head, it is referred to as vapor pressure head, hvp.
Velocity Head (hv):
It is the energy of a liquid due to the result of its motion at some velocity „v’. It is the
equivalent head through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or
in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water to that velocity v. The velocity
head is usually insignificant and can be ignoredin most high head systems. However, it
can be a large factor and must be considered in low head systems. Therefore „hvs‟ & „hvd‟ are
the velocity heads in suction and delivery pipes respectively.
Pressure Head (hp):
Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping system either begins at the suction point
(Sump, Ground water point) or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than
atmospheric. Simply pressure head at the sump/suction point is hps at that of delivery is hpd
Total Suction Head (HS):
The total suction head is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange, converted to height of
liquid. Therefore HS = hpS+ hS+ hvS– hfS
Total Discharge Head (Hd):
The total discharge head is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to length
of liquid. Therefore Hd= hpd+ hd+ hvd+ hfd

Total Differential Head (HT):

It is the total discharge head minus the total suction
head.
HT = Hd+ HS (with a suction lift)
HT = Hd- HS (with a suction head)
Manometric Head (Hm):

Manometric efficiency(Ƞman): The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the
impeller to the water.
ManometricHead
Ƞman=
Workdoneonwater
wQH m gH m
 
 Qvw1u1 vw1u1
Mechanical efficiency (Ƞm): The ratio of power given by the impeller on water to the power
available at the impeller shaft (S.P).
 Q[vw 2u2 ]
Ƞm=
S .P
Overall efficiency (Ƞo): The ratio of power output of pump to the input shaft power of pump.
 wQH m
Ƞo=
S .P
Ƞo=Ƞman×Ƞm
NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head):
NPSH is one of the most widely used and least understood terms associated withpumps.
Understanding the significance of NPSH is very much essential duringinstallation as well as
operation of the pumps.When discussing centrifugal pumps, the two most important NPSH
terms are NPSHr (Net Positive Suction Head Required) andNPSHa (Net Positive Suction
Head Available).
 We know that, Pumps can pump only liquids, not vapors and rise in temperature and fall
in pressure induces vaporization.
 This makes it clear that if we are to pump a fluid effectively, it must be kept always in the
liquid form and thus, the pump always needs to have a sufficientamount of suction head
present to prevent this vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the pump.
 The manufacturer usually tests the pump with water at different capacities, created
bythrottling the suction side. When the first signs of vaporization induced cavitation
occur,the suction pressure is noted (the term cavitation is discussed in detail later).
Thispressure is converted into the head. This head number is published on the pump
curveand is referred as the "net positive suction head required (NPSHr) or sometimes in
short as the NPSH.
 Thus the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the total head at the suction flange of
the pump less the vapor pressure converted to fluid column height of the liquid.
 NPSHr is a function of pump design: (Reason for decrease in pressure in the impeller)
1. NPSH required is a function of the pump design and is determined based onactual
pump test by the vendor. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eyeof
the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decrease.
2. There are alsopressure losses due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the
impeller.
3. Thecentrifugal force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and
decreases thepressure of the liquid.
 NPSHr increases as capacity increases: The NPSH required varies with speed and
capacity within any particular pump. The NPSH required increase as the capacity is
increasing because the velocity of the liquid is increasing, and as anytime the velocity of a
liquid goes up, the pressure or head comes down.
 NPSHa: Net Positive Suction Head Available is a function of the system design in which
the pump operates. It is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its vapor
pressure as it arrives at the pump suction, to be sure that the pump selected does not
cavitate.Therefore,
Important Notes on NPSH:
 Simply NPSH refers to NPSHr and it is not NPSHa.
 NPSH or NPSHr is a function of pump design where asNPSHa is the function of system
design in which the pump has to operate.
 NPSH = hvps at the given operating temperature.
 The NPSH is always positive since it is expressed in terms of absolute fluid column
height. The term "Net" refers to the actual pressure head at the pump suction flange and
not the static suction head.
 It is to be noted that the net positive suction head required (NPSHr) number shown on the
pump curves is for fresh water at 20°C and not for the fluid or combinations of fluids
being pumped.
 Any discussion of NPSH or cavitation is only concerned about the suction side of the
pump. There is almost always plenty of pressure on the discharge side.
Significance of NPSHr and NPSHa:
The NPSH available must always be greater than the NPSH required for the pump to operate
properly. It is normal practice to have at least 2 to 3 feet of extra NPSH available at the
suction flange to avoid any problems at the duty point.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES:
 The capacity and pressure needs of any system can be defined with the help of a graph
called a system curve.
 Similarly the capacity vs. pressure variation graph for a particular pump defines its
characteristic pump performance curve as shown in figure.

The pump suppliers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump curve
that satisfies these needs as closely as possible. A pumping system operates where the pump
curve and the system resistance curve intersect. The intersection of the two curves defines the
operating point of both pump and process. However, it is impossible for one operating point
to meet all desired operating conditions.
Developing a system curve:
The system resistance or system head curve is the change in flow with respect to head of the
system. It must be developed by the user based upon the conditions ofservice. These include
physical layout, process conditions, and fluid characteristics. It represents the relationship
between flow and hydraulic losses in a system in a graphic form and, since friction losses
vary as a square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape. Hydraulic losses in
piping systems are composed of pipe friction losses, valves, elbows and other fittings,
entrance and exit losses, and losses from changes in pipe size by enlargement or reduction in
diameter.
Developing a Pump performance Curve:
A pump's performance is shown in its characteristics performance curve where its capacity
i.e. flow rate is plotted against its developed head. The pump performance curve also shows
its efficiency (BEP), required input power (in BHP), NPSH, speed (in RPM), and other
information such as pump size and type, impeller size, etc. This curve is plotted for a constant
speed (rpm) and a given impeller diameter (or series of diameters). It is generated by tests
performed by the pump manufacturer. Pump curves are based on a specific gravity of 1.0.
Other specific gravities must be considered by the user.
MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
If centrifugal pump consist of two or more impellers then the pump is called multistage
centrifugal pump. Multistage centrifugal pumps are used either to produce a high head or to
discharge a large quantity of liquid than that of single centrifugal pump.
 If a high head is to be developed, the impellers are connected in series (or on same shaft)
 If a high discharge is to be developed, the impellers are connected in parallel (or on
individual shaft/individual pump).
Pumps operating in series:
 To connect two pumps in series means that the discharge from the first pump is piped into
the inlet side of the second pump (Figure ).
 In this type of arrangement all the flow successively passes from one pump to the next
with each pump adding more energy to the water. This is a typical arrangement in multi-
stage pump where the same discharge passes through all stages and each builds additional
head.

Figures showing
a) Two pumps connected In a series
b) Head versus discharge characteristic curves for two pumps operating in series.
Pumps operating in parallel:
 To connect two pumps in parallel means that the discharge from eachindividual (separate)
pump is piped into single pipe line at the end. Figure presents a parallel configuration of
two pumps.

Figures shows a) Two pumps connected in parallelb) Head versus discharge characteristic
curves for two pumps operating in parallel.
SPECIFIC SPEED:
a) SPECIFIC SPEED AS A MEASURE OF THE GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY OF PUMPS
Specific speed (Ns) is a non-dimensional design index that identifies the
geometricsimilarity of pumps. It is used to classify pump impellers as to their type and
proportions.Pumps of the same Ns but of different size are considered to be geometrically
similar,one pump being a size- factor of the other.
b) SPECIFIC SPEED CALCULATION:

Where N is speed in r.p.m, Q is Discharge,H is head in „m‟

As per the above formula, it is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a
geometrically similar impeller would operate if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon
per minute flow against one-foot head. The understanding of this definition is of design
engineering significance only, however, and specific speed should be thought of only as an
index used to predict certain pump characteristics.
c) SPECIFIC SPEED AS A MEASURE OF THE SHAPE OR CLASS OF THE
IMPELLERS:
The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the impellers. As the specific
speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye diameter, D1,
decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller. Radial flowimpellers develop
head principally through centrifugal force. Radial impellers are generally low flow high head
designs. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and partly
by axial force. A higher specific speed indicates a pump design with head generation more by
axial forces and less by centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific
speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through axial forces. Axial flow
impellers are high flow low head designs.
Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of the impeller eye diameter
(D1) to the impeller maximum diameter (D2) in designing a good impeller.
Ns: 500 to 5000; D1/D2 > 1.5 - radial flow pump
Ns: 5000 to 10000; D1/D2 < 1.5 - mixed flow pump
Ns: 10000 to 15000; D1/D2 = 1 - axial flow pump
TROUBLES & REMEDIES:
There are two Basic Requirements for Trouble-Free Operation of CentrifugalPumps.
 The first requirement is that no cavitation of the pump occurs throughout the broad
operating range.
 The second requirement is that a certain minimum continuous flow is always maintained
during operation.
A clear understanding of the concept of cavitation, its symptoms, its causes, and its
consequences is very much essential in effective analyses and troubleshooting of the
cavitation problem.
Just like there are many forms of cavitation, each demanding a unique solution, there
are a number of unfavorable conditions which may occur separately or simultaneously when
the pump is operated at reduced flows. Some include:
oCases of heavy leakages from the casing, seal, and stuffing box
oDeflection and shearing of shafts
oSeizure of pump internals
oClose tolerances erosion
oSeparation cavitation
oProduct quality degradation
oExcessive hydraulic thrust
oPremature bearing failures
Each condition may dictate a different minimum flow low requirement. The final
decision on recommended minimum flow is taken after careful “techno-economical” analysis
by both the pump user and the manufacturer. The consequences of prolonged conditions of
cavitation and low flow operation can be disastrous for both the pump and the process. Such
failures in hydrocarbon services have often caused damaging fires resulting in loss of
machine, production, and worst of all, human life. Thus, such situations must be avoided at
all cost whether involving modifications in the pump and its piping or altering the operating
conditions. Proper selection and sizing of pump and its associated piping can not only
eliminate the chances of cavitation and low flow operation but also significantly decrease
their harmful effects.
 Turbomachinery Unit-III
Hydraulic Turbines
Syllabus: Classification and working of turbines, Work done and efficiency of Pelton wheel
Turbine , Work done and efficiency of Francis Turbine, Work done and efficiency of Kaplan
Turbine, Draft tube- theory functions and efficiency, Surge tank

Performance under unit head –unit Quantities of Hydraulic Turbine, Performance under
Specific conditions Hydraulic Turbine, Selection of Hydraulic Turbine, Performance
characteristic curves of Hydraulic Turbine

Course objectives:

 To study the working and performance characteristics of various hydraulic turbines

Learning outcomes:

Students will be able to

 Explain the working of various components of hydroelectric power plants.

 Analyze the power developed and efficiency of different turbines
 Design a hydraulic turbine based on the given conditions
Degree of Reaction (R): It is the parameter which characterizes the proportions of changes
in the dynamic head and static head in the rotor of a fluid machine.
It is defined as the ratio of energy transfer by the change in static head to the total
energy transfer in the rotor.
In the case of Impulse machines, R = 0, because there is no static pressure change in
the rotor. A machine with any degree of reaction must have an enclosed rotor so that the fluid
can expand in all directions.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines:

1. According to action of the water flowing through the turbine runners
a) Impulse Turbine
 In Impulse Turbine all the available energy of water is converted into
kinetic energy or velocity head by passing it through a converging nozzle
provided at the end of the penstock.
 Pelton wheel, Turgo impulse wheel, Girrard turbine, Banki Turbine ad
Jonval turbine are the examples for an Impulse Turbine
 Degree of reaction is zero
 Impulse machines always an axial flow or tangential flow
 Paddle wheel is best example for impulse machine.
b) Reaction Turbine
 In Reaction Turbine, at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the
available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy and a substantial
part remains in the form of pressure energy.
 Pressure at inlet to the turbine is much higher than pressure at the outlet of
the reaction turbine
 Examples for reaction turbine are Fourneyron Turbine, Thomson Turbine,
Francis Turbine, Propeller, Kaplan Turbine etc.
 Degree of reaction R is R>0 or 0<R<1 for reaction turbine.
 Reaction machines are always radial flow machines.
 Lawn sprinkler is the best example for reaction turbine
2. According to the main direction of flow of water in the runner
a) Tangential flow turbine
 In tangential flow Turbine the water flows along the tangent to the path of
rotation of the runner.
 Pelton wheel is a tangential flow Turbine.
b) Radial flow Turbine
 In radial flow turbine the water flows along the radial direction and
remains wholly and mainly in the plane normal to the axis of rotation, as it
passes through the runner.
 In an Inward Radial flow Turbine the water enters at the outer
circumference and flows radially inwards towards the center of the runner.
 Old Francis Turbine, Thomson Turbine, Girard radial flow Turbine are
examples for Inward Radial flow Turbine.
  In an Outward Radial flow Turbine water enters at the center and flows
radially outwards towards outer periphery of the runner.
 Fourneyron Turbine is an example for Outward Radial flow Turbine
c) Axial flow Turbine
 In Axial flow turbine the flow of water through the runner is wholly and
mainly along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner
 Girrad axial flow turbine, propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine are examples
for axial flow turbine
d) Mixed flow turbine
 In mixed flow turbine water enters the runner at outer periphery in the
radial direction and leaves it at the center in the direction parallel to the
axis of rotation of the runner.
 Modern francis turbine is the example for mixed flow turbine
3. According to the head available
a) High head turbine:
 Head available is more than 300 m
 Example: Pelton wheel.
b) Medium head turbine:
 head available is in between 60 m – 250m
 example : Modern Francis Turbine
c) Low head Turbine:
 Head available is less than 60m.
 Example: Kaplan and other Propeller Turbines
4. According to specific speed of the Turbine
a) High specific speed Turbine:
 Specific speed varying from 300 to 1000rpm
 Example: Kaplan and other Propeller Turbines
b) Medium specific speed Turbine:
 Specific speed varying from 60 to 400rpm
 example : Modern Francis Turbine
c) low specific speed Turbine:
 specific speed less than 60 rpm
 Example: Pelton wheel.

Pelton wheel Turbine

 It is an impulse machine, in which the change in static head in the rotor is zero.
 The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow Impulse Turbine.
 The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner.
 The energy available at the inlet of turbine is only kinetic energy.
 The pressure at the inlet and outlet of turbine is atmospheric.
 This turbine is used for high Heads.
Main components of Pelton turbine are:
1. Guide mechanism / Nozzle and Flow regulating arrangement(Spear):
 The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a
spear in the nozzle as shown.
 The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or
automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit.
 When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of water striking the
runner is reduced.

Fig. 1 Guide mechanism

2. Buckets and Runner:

 It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly
spaced are fixed.
 The shape of the bucket is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl.
 Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by dividing a wall which is known
as splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal parts.
 The buckets are shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 1600 or 1700.
 Buckets are made of cast Iron, cast steel, bronze or stainless steel depending upon the
head at the inlet of the turbine.

Fig. 2 Arrangement of buckets

3. Casing:
 The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge the
water to tail race.
 It also acts as safe guard against accidents.
 It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
 Fig. 3 Turbine casing
4. Breaking Jet:
 When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero.
 Due to inertia, the runner goes on revolving for a long time
 To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of
water on the back of the vanes, this jet of water is called breaking jet.

Velocity triangles and work done for Pelton wheel

Fig. 4 Velocity triangle for Impulse turbine

Notations:
u1, u2 – blade velocities at inlet and outlet respectively
Vr1, Vr2 – relative velocities at inlet and outlet respectively
Vf1, Vf2 – Flow velocities at inlet and outlet respectively
Vw1, Vw2 – tangential; or whirl component of velocity at inlet and outlet respectively.
Let H = Net head acting on Pelton wheel = Hg – hf.
where Hg = Gross head
 4 flV 2
hf  = loss of head due to friction
2 gd
Let d = diameter of penstock;
N = speed of wheel in RPM;
V = velocity of fluid in penstock;
f = coefficient of friction
Velocity of jet at inlet, V1  2 gH
 DN
u  u1  u2 
Peripheral velocity, 60
where D is diameter of Wheel.
Relative velocity at inlet, Vr1  V1  u1.  V1  u
V V
Whirl component of velocity at inlet, w1 1
 0.
  0.
Vr1  Vr 2
From outlet velocity triangle
Vw2  Vr 2 cos   u2
Whirl component of velocity at inlet,

The Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is Fx   aV1 Vw1  Vw2 
(Positive sign will be taken when β<900.

Where a = cross-sectional area of jet. Now

Work done by the jet on the runner per second = P  Fx  u   aV1 Vw1  Vw2   u

 aV1 Vw1  Vw2   u

Power given to the runner by the jet = Fx  u  kW
1000

 aV1 Vw1  Vw 2   u
Work done per sec. per unit weight of water striking the vane per sec =
 aV1  g

=
Vw1  Vw2   u
g
Hydraulic Efficiency = work done per sec
Kinetic energy of the jet per second

1
Kinetic Energy of Jet striking the vane per sec. =  av1  v12
2
  av1  vw1  vw 2   u 2  vw1  vw 2   u
h   ---------------------(1)
1 v12
  av1   v12
2
Condition for Maximum efficiency:

From Inlet velocity triangle,

vw1  v1 , vr1  v1  u1  v1  u
Vr 2  v1  u ( vr1  vr 2 )
vw2  vr 2 cos   u2   v1  u  cos   u

Substituting the values of vw1 and vw 2 values in Equation (1)

2  v1  (v1  u ) cos   u   u 2  v1  u  1  cos    u

h  2
=
v1 v12


The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of v1 when h   0. i.e
u

  2u (v1  u )(1  cos  )  1  cos  d


u  v12
  0. or 2  2uv1  2u 2   0.
 v1 du

d
du
 2uv1  2u 2   0.   2v1  4u   0.  u  1 .
v
2

 v  v v  v
2  v1  1  1  cos    1 2  1  1  cos    1
2 1  cos  
 Maximum efficiency  
2
=  
2 2
2 2

v1 v1 2

Important points to be remembered

 The velocity of jet at Inlet is given by v1  cv 2 gH
Where cv is coefficient of velocity = 0.98 or 0.99 and H = Net head.
 The velocity of wheel is given by u   2 gH
Where  is the speed ratio. The value of speed ratio varies from 0.43 to 0.48
 The angle of deflection of the jet through the buckets is taken at 1650, if no angle of
deflection is given.

1. Radial Flow reaction Turbines:

Radial flow turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in the radial
direction. The water may flow radially from outwards to inwards or from inwards to
outwards. If the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is
known as inward radial flow turbine. And if the water flows from inwards to outwards, the
turbine is known outward radial flow turbine.
 Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic
energy as well as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure
energy goes on changing into kinetic energy. Thus the water through the runner is under
pressure. The runner is completely enclosed in an air- tight casing and the runner is always
full of water.

Main Parts of Radial flow Reaction Turbine:

The main parts of radial flow reaction turbine are:
1. Casing 2. Guide Mechanism
3. Runner and 4. Draft
tube.

Casing:
The water from the penstock enters the casing which
is of spiral shape in which the area of cross-section of
the casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing
completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The
casing is made of concrete, cast steel or plate steel.

Fig. 5 Reaction turbine

Guide Mechanism:
It consists of stationary circular wheel all round the runner of the turbine. The stationary
guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the
vanes fixed on the runner without shock at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width
between two adjacent vanes of guide mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water
striking the runner can be varied.

Runner:
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is
made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the
runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast Iron, or stainless steel.

Draft tube:
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at the exit cannot be directly discharged to tail race. A tube or pipe of
gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail
race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
 Fig. 7Inward radial flow reaction turbine

Velocity Triangles:

Fig. 8 Velocity triangles

2. Francis Turbine
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis
turbine. In modern Francis turbine, the water enters and the runner of the turbine in the radial
direction at the outlet and leaves in axial direction at the inlet of the runner.
Inward flow reaction turbine:
Water from the casing enters the stationary guide wheel. The guiding wheel consists of guide
vanes which direct the water to enter the runner which consists of moving vanes. The water
flow over moving vanes in the inward radial direction and is discharged at the inner diameter
of the runner.
The work done per second on the runner by water is W   av1 vw1u1  vw2u2 
vw1 is the velocity of whirl at inlet.
vw 2 is the velocity of the whirl at outlet.
u1 is the tangential velocity of the wheel at inlet.
u2 is the tangential velocity of wheel at outlet.
The work done per second per unit weight of water striking the vane per second is

 av1 vw1u1  vw2u2  1

=   vw1u1  vw2u2 
  av1  g g
For Francis turbine β=900.
1
Work done per second per unit weight of water striking the vane per second is = vw1u1 
g
R.P  vw1u1  vw2u2 
Hydraulic Efficiency is =
W .P gH
For Francis turbine β=90 .
0
 1
Hydraulic Efficiency is h  vw1u1 
gH

Fig. 9 Velocity triangles for Francis turbine

3. Outward flow Reaction Turbine:

Fig. shows outward flow reaction turbine in which the water from the casing enters
the stationary guide wheel. The guide wheel consists of guide vanes which direct water to
enter the runner which is around the stationary guide wheel. The water flows through the
vanes of the runner in the outward radial direction and is discharged at the outer diameter of
the runner. The inner diameter of the runner is the inlet and outer diameter is the outlet.

Fig. 10 Outward flow reaction turbine and velocity triangles with When β=900

4. Axial Flow turbines:

If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is known
as Axial flow Turbine. And if the head at the inlet of the turbine is the sum of pressure energy
and kinetic energy and during the flow of water through the runner a part of pressure energy
is converted to kinetic energy, this turbine is known as reaction turbine.
 For the axial flow reaction turbine, the shaft of the turbine is vertical. The lower end
of the shaft is made larger which is known as hub or boss. The vanes are fixed on the hub and
hence, hub acts as a runner for axial flow reaction turbine.

Fig. 11 Kaplan Turbine

The main parts of the Kaplan turbine are:

1. Scroll casing 2.Guide vane mechanism 3. Hub with vanes 4. Draft tube.
Fig. 11 shows all main parts of Kaplan Turbine. The water from penstock enters the
scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From the guide vanes, the water turns
through 900 and flows axially through the runner.


The discharge through the runner, Q   D02  Db2   v f 1
4

Where D0 is the outer diameter of the runner

Db is the diameter of the hub.

V f 1 is the velocity of flow at inlet.

5. Draft Tube:
The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the outlet of the
runner to the tail race. It is used for discharging water from the exit of the runner to the tail
race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called Draft tube. One end of the draft tube is
connected to the outlet of the runner while the other end is submerged below the level of
water in the tail race.

Advantages of draft tube:

1. It permits a negative head to be established at the outlet of the runner and thereby
increase the net head on the turbine. The turbine may be placed above the tail race
without any loss of net head and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
2. It converts a large portion of the kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine into
useful pressure energy. Without the draft tube, the kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of
the turbine will go waste to the tail race.

Hence by using draft tube, the net head on the turbine increases. The turbine develops more
power and also the efficiency of the turbine increases.

Types of draft Tubes:

The following are the important types of draft- tubes which is commonly used.
1. Conical draft- tubes.
2. Simple elbow tubes.
3. Moody spreading tubes.
4. Elbow draft- tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.

Fig. 12 Types of draft tubes

Draft tube Theory:

Consider a conical draft tube as shown in fig. 13.
Hs = vertical height of draft tube above tail race.
y = distance of bottom of draft tube from tail race.
 Fig. 13 Draft tube
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to inlet (section 1 -1) and outlet of the draft tube(section 2-2)
and taking section 2-2 as datum line.
P1 V12 P V2
  ( H s  y)  2  2  0  h f
 g 2g  g 2g
Where hf is loss of energy between section 1-1 and 2-2
p2 p
 a  y = atmospheric pressure head + y
g g
p
Substituting the value of 2 in the above equation.
g
P1 V12 P V2
  ( H s  y)  a  y  2  h f
 g 2g g 2g
2 2
P1 P V V
 a  H s  ( 1  2  hf )
g g 2g 2g

Efficiency of Draft Tube:

The efficiency of the draft tube is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head
into pressure head in the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube
Efficiency of draft tube = Actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head/kinetic head at
the inlet of the draft tube.
V1 = velocity of water at inlet of draft tube.
V2 = Velocity of water at the outlet of draft tube.
hf = loss of head at the inlet of draft tube.
V 2  V22
Theoretical conversion of kinetic head into pressure head in draft tube = 1
2g
V12  V22
Actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head =  hf
2g
 V12  V22
 hf
2g
Therefore d 
V12  V22
2g
Specific Speed:

It is defined as the speed of the turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical

dimensions, blade angles, gate openings etc., with the actual turbine but of such a size that it
will develop unit power when working under unit head. It is denoted by Ns. It is used in
comparing the different types of turbines as every type of turbine has different specific speed.
S .P P
0  
W .P  gQH
P  Q H
Now let D= diameter of actual turbine.
N= speed of actual turbine
u = tangential velocity of turbine.
Ns = Specific speed of the turbine.
V = Absolute velocity of water.
Considering V  u  H
 DN
u  u  DN
60
H
From the above equations: H  DN  D 
N
The discharge through of the turbine is given by Q = Area x velocity
3
H H 2
QD 2
H Q 2 H Q 2
N N
3 5 5
2 4
H 2 H H
Power α P  2  H  P  2  N 
N N P
5/2
H
P= K 2 where K is constant of proportionality.
N
If P =1, H=1, the speed N= specific speed Ns. substituting these values in the above equation,
we get
K 1
5/ 2

1
N s2
Or N s2  K
H 5/2 N P
P  N s2 2
or N s  5/4
N H
Significance of specific speed:

Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of turbine. Also the performance
of the turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the turbine.
Unit Quantities:

In order to predict the behavior of the turbine under varying conditions of head, speed, output
and gate openings, the results are expressed in terms of the quantities which may be obtained
when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of the turbine under unit
head are such that the efficiency of the turbine is unaffected.

Important unit quantities are

i. Unit speed
ii. Unit discharge
iii. Unit power

Unit speed (Nu):

It is defined as the speed of the turbine working under a unit head.
N = Speed of a turbine under Head H.
u = tangential velocity
Tangential velocity, u  k 2 gH  u  H
 DN
Also u   N u H
60
N = K1 H where K1 is proportionality constant.
If head on the turbine becomes unity, the speed becomes unit speed. Or when H =1, N = Nu
Therefore Nu = K1
N
N  Nu H  N u 
H

Unit discharge (Qu):

It is defined as the discharge passing through a turbine, which is working unit head.
H = head of water on turbine.
Q = discharge passing through the turbine when head on the turbine is H.
Q= area x velocity.
Q α velocity α H
Q = K2 H
Where K2 is constant of proportionality.
If H =1, then Q = Qu.
Therefore Qu = K2.
From the above
Q
Q  Qu H  Qu 
H

Unit Power:
It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, working under a unit head. Denoted by Pu
Let H = head of water on the turbine.
P = power developed by the turbine under a head of H
Q = discharge through the turbine under head H
 S .P P
The overall efficiency 0  
W .P  gQH
1 3
P  Q H  P  H 2  H  P  H 2

P = K3 H3/2
where K3 is constant of proportionality.
When H=1m, P=Pu.
Therefore Pu = K3.
Substituting the K3 Value, P = Pu H3/2
P
Pu  3/2
H

Cavitation:
Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing liquid in
a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure and the sudden
collapsing of these vapor bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapor bubbles
collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces above which these bubbles
collapse, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus
cavities are formed on the metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are
produced.

Effects of cavitation:

(i) The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
(ii) Due to sudden collapse of vapor bubble, considerable noise and vibrations are
produced.
(iii) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action, the
surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by water on the
turbine blades decreases. Hence the work done by water or Output horse power
becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.

Characteristic curves of hydraulic turbines:

Characteristic curves of hydraulic turbines are the curves, with the help of which the exact
behavior and performance of the turbine under different working conditions can be known.
These curves are plotted from the results of the tests performed on the turbine under different
working conditions. The important parameters which can be varied during a test on a turbine
are

(i) Speed (ii) Head (iii) Discharge (iv) Power (v) Overall efficiency and (vi) Gate
opening.

The following are the important characteristic curves.

1. Main characteristic curves or constant head curves

2. Operating characteristic curves or constant speed curves.
3. Constant efficiency curves.
Main characteristic curves or Constant Head curves:

Main characteristic curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and constant Gate
openings on the turbine. The speed of the turbine is varied by changing the load on the
turbine. For each values of the speed (N) the corresponding values of power (P) and
discharge (Q) are obtained. Then the overall efficiency (η0) for each value of the speed is
calculated. From these readings, the values of unit speed (Nu), unit power (Pu), and unit
discharge (Qu) are determined. Taking Nu as abscissa, the values of the values of Qu, Pu, P
and η0 are plotted. By changing the gate openings the values of Qu, Pu, P and η0 and Nu are
determined and taking Nu as abscissa, the values of the values of Qu, Pu, and η0 are plotted.

Fig. 14 Main characteristic curves for pelton wheel

Fig. 15 Main characteristic curves for reaction turbine

Constant efficiency curves or Iso Efficiency curves:

These curves are obtained from the speed Vs efficiency and speed Vs discharge Curves for
different Gate openings. For a given efficiency
from the Nu Vs η0 curves, there are two speeds.
From Nu Vs Qu curves corresponding to two
values of speeds there are two values of
discharge. Hence for a given efficiency, there are
two values of discharge for a particular gate
opening. This means for a given efficiency there
are two values of speeds and two values of
discharge for a given gate opening. If the
efficiency is maximum there is only one value.
These two values of speed and two values of
discharge corresponding to particular gate
opening are plotted. The procedure is repeated
for different gate openings and the curves Q Vs N
are plotted. The points having the same efficiency
are plotted. These are iso efficiency curves. Fig. 16 Iso-efficiency curves

Governing of Pelton wheel Turbine

The operation by which the speed of the turbine is kept constant under all conditions
of working is called as governing.

 Governing is done automatically by means of a governor, which regulates the rate of

flow through the turbines according to the changing load conditions on the turbine.
 Governing of a turbine is necessary as a turbine is directly coupled to an electric
generator, which is required to run at constant speed under all fluctuating conditions.
 The frequency of power generation by a generator of constant number of pair of poles
under all varying conditions should be constant
 This is possible only when the speed of generator, under all changing load condition,
is constant.
 The speed of the generator will be constant, when the speed of the turbine is constant.
 When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the generator is increases
beyond the normal speed (constant speed).
 Then speed of the turbine also increases beyond the normal speed.

If the turbine or the generator is to run at constant speed, the rate of flow of water to
the turbine should be decreased till the speed becomes normal. This process by which the
speed of the turbine is kept constant under varying condition of load is called governing.

Governing of Impulse Turbine (Pelton wheel):

Governing of impulse turbine is done by means of Oil pressure governor, which

consist of following components

i. Oil sump.
 ii. Gear pump / oil pump, which is driven by the power obtained from turbine
shaft.
iii. Servomotor/ Relay cylinder.
iv. Control valve / Distribution valve / Relay valve
v. Centrifugal governor or pendulum, which is driven by belt or gear from the
turbine shaft.
vi. Pipes connecting the oil sump with the control valve and control valve with
servomotor.
vii. Spear rod or needle.

The following figure shows the position of the piston in the relay cylinder, position of
control or relay valve and fly balls of the centrifugal governor, when the turbine is running at
the normal speed.

When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the generator increases. This
increases the speed of the turbine beyond the normal speed. The centrifugal governor, which
is connected to the turbine main shaft, will be rotating at an increased speed. Due to increase
in the speed of centrifugal governor, the fly balls move upward due to increased centrifugal
force on them. Due to the upward movement of the fly balls, the sleeve will also move
upward.

A horizontal lever, supported over a fulcrum, connects the sleeve and the piston rod of
the control valve. As the sleeve moves up, the lever turns about the fulcrum of the piston rod
of the control valve moves downward. This closes the valve V1 and opens the valve V2 as
shown in below figure.

The oil pumped from the oil pump to the control valve or relay valve, under pressure
will flow through the valve V2 to the servomotor and will exert force on the face A of the
piston of the relay cylinder.

The piston along with the piston rod and spear will moves towards right. This will
decrease the area of flow of water at the outlet of the nozzle. This decrease of area of flow
will reduce the rate of flow of water to the turbine which consequently reduces the speed of
turbine. When the speed of turbine becomes normal, the fly balls, sleeve, lever and piston rod
of control valve come to its normal position as shown in figure below.

When the load on generator increases, the speed of the generator and hence turbine
decreases. The speed of the centrifugal governor is also decreases and hence centrifugal force
acting on the fly balls also reduces. This brings the fly balls in down ward direction. Due to
this, the sleeve moves down ward and lever turns about the fulcrum, moving the piston rod of
the control valve in the upward direction.

This closes the valve V2and opens the valve V1. The oil under pressure from the
control valve will move through valve V1 to the servomotor and will exert a force on face B
of the piston. This will move the piston along with the piston rod and spear towards left,
increasing the area of flow of water at the outlet of the nozzle. This will increase the rate of
flow of water to the turbine and consequently, the speed of the turbine will also increase, till
the speed of the turbine becomes normal.

Fig. 17 Governing mechanism of Pelton wheel turbine

 Unit _IV Steam Turbines
Introduction

Steam turbine is a turbo machine. Turbo machines are those devices in which energy is
transferred either to or from a continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic action of one or
more moving blade rows. Here energy is transferred from fluid to blade rows and is
decreasing along the flow direction.

Principle of operation of steam turbine:

Steam turbine is a prime mover which converts the heat energy of steam (at high pressure
and temperature) into mechanical work.

The principle of operation of any turbine depends on Newton’s second law of motion.

The motive power in a turbine is obtained by the change in momentum of high velocity
jet impinging on a curved blade.

The steam from the boiler is expanded in a nozzle where due to

fall in pressure of steam, thermal energy of steam is converted in kinetic energy of steam,
resulting in the emission of a high velocity jet of steam which impinges on the moving
vanes or blades, mounted on a shaft; here it undergoes a change in direction of motion
which gives rise to a change in momentum and therefore, a force. This constitutes the
driving force of the machine. This arrangement is shown in Fig.1

1
In brief, the turbine is a prime mover in which the working fluid enters at higher energy
level and comes out at low energy level and in doing so it does work.

History : The first turbine historically recorded, worked on the reaction principle. It was
the “Hero turbine” shown in the Fig .2 developed about 150 B.C. the steam generated in
the boiler, flowing through hollow trunnions enters a hollow spherical receiver. As the
pressure in the receiver increases, the steam issues tangentially from the nozzles at the
end of the two opposite arms. The reaction of the steam leaving the nozzle rotates the
sphere about its axis.

Types of steam turbines:

⦁ On the basis of principles of operations, steam turbines are classified as:

⦁ Impulse turbine

⦁ Impulse reaction turbine

⦁ Impulse turbine: If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of a
turbine takes place in such a manner that “the steam is expanded only in nozzles,
and pressure at the outlet side of blades is equal to that at inlet side”, i.e. drop in
pressure of steam takes place only in nozzles and not in moving blades; such a
turbine is termed as impulse turbine because it works on the principle of impulse.
This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross sectional area.

⦁ Impulse reaction turbine: Expansion of steam takes place in nozzles as well as in

moving blades. If the pressure of steam at the outlet from the moving blades of a
turbine is less than that at inlet side of blades; this pressure drop suffered by steam
while passing through the moving blade causes a further generation of kinetic
energy within the blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to the propelling force
which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft, such a turbine is termed as
an impulse-reaction turbine because it works on the principle of impulse and
reaction, both. This is achieved by varying the blade passage cross sectional area
(converging type).

⦁ On the basis of direction of flow, steam turbines may be classified as

⦁ Axial flow turbine (all power plants turbines are of this type)

⦁ Radial flow turbines

2
 Steam turbines are usually ‘axial flow’; turbines, i.e. the steam flows
over the blades in a direction parallel to the axis of xthe wheel. “Radial flow”
turbines are also made but they are very rarely used.

The simple impulse turbine:

This type of turbine works on the principle of impulse and is shown in Fig. 3 It
consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles, a rotor mounted on a shaft, one set of moving
blades attached to the rotor and casing etc.

The uppermost portion of the diagram shows a longitudinal section through the upper half
of the turbine,

The middle portion shows the development of the nozzles and blading i.e. the actual
shape of the nozzles and blading,

The bottom portion shows the variation of absolute velocity and absolute pressure during
flow of steam through passage of nozzles and blades.

An example of this type of turbine is the De-Laval turbine.

Fig. Simple Impulse Turbine

It can be seen from the figure that the complete expansion of steam from the

3
boiler pressure to the exhaust pressure of condenser pressure takes place only in one set
of nozzles i.e. the pressure drop takes place only in nozzles. It is assumed that the
pressure in the recess between nozzles and blades remain the same. The steam at
condenser pressure or exhaust pressure enters the blade and comes out at the same
pressure i.e. the pressure of the steam in the blade passages remains approximately
constant and equal to the condenser pressure.

Compounding of impulse turbine:

This method is employed for reducing the rotational speed of the impulse turbine
to practical limits. If the high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of
moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 rpm, which is too high for
practical use. Not only this, the leaving loss is also very high. It is therefore, essential to
incorporate, improvements in the simple impulse turbine as to make it more efficient and
pragmatic.

This is achieved by making use of more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in series,
keyed to a common shaft, so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed
by the turbine in stages. This also reduces the leaving loss. This process is called
compounding of steam turbine. There are three main types of compound turbines:

⦁ Pressure compounded impulse turbine

⦁ Velocity compounded impulse turbine

⦁ Pressure and Velocity compounded impulse turbine

Pressure compounded impulse turbine:

In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for pressure of steam only i.e. to
reduce the high rotational speed of the turbine the whole expansion of steam is arranged
in a number of steps by employing a number of simple impulse turbine in a series on the
same shaft as shown in the Fig.4. Each of the simple impulse turbine consists of one set
of nozzles and one row of moving blades is known as a stage of the turbine, and thus, this
turbine consists of several stages. The exhaust from each row of moving blades enters the
succeeding set of nozzles. Thus we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting
up of the whole pressure drop from the steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure
into a series of smaller pressure drops across several stages of impulse turbine, and hence,
this turbine is called pressure compounded impulse turbine.

The pressure and velocity variation is also shown in the Fig.4 The nozzles are
fitted into a diaphragm which is locked in the casing. This diaphragm separates one wheel

4
chamber from another. All rotors are mounted on the same shaft and the blades are
attached on the rotor.

The expansion of steam only takes place in the nozzles while pressure remains
constant in the moving blades because each stage is a simple impulse turbine. It can be
seen from the pressure curve that the space between any two consecutive diaphragms is
filled with steam at constant pressure; the pressure on either side of the diaphragm is
different. Since the diaphragm is a stationary part, there must be clearance between the
rotating shaft and the diaphragm. The steam tends to leak through this clearance for
which devices like labyrinth packing etc. are used.

Since the drop in pressure of steam per stage is reduced, the steam velocity
leaving the nozzles and entering the moving blades is reduced which in turn reduces the
blade velocity. Hence for economy and maximum work shaft speed is significantly
reduced to suit practical purposes. Thus rotational speed may be reduced by increasing
the number of stages according to ones need. The leaving velocity of the last stage of the
turbine is, thus, much less compared to the de-Lavel turbine and, the leaving loss is not
more than 1 to 2% of the initial total available energy. This turbine was invented by the
late Prof. L. Rateau and so it is also known as Rateau turbine.

Velocity compounded impulse turbine:

In this turbine, the compounding is done for velocity of steam only i.e. velocity
drop is arranged in many small drops through many moving rows of blades instead of
single row of moving blades. It consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of
moving blades attached to the rotor or wheel and, rows of fixed blades attached to the
casing as shown in fig.

5
 The fixed blades are guide blades that guide

the steam to the succeeding rows of moving blades suitable arranged between the moving
blades but set in a reversed manner. In this turbine, three rows or rings of moving blades
are fixed on a single wheel or rotor and this wheel is termed as the three row wheel. The
arrangement consists of two rows of guide blades or fixed blades placed between the first
and the second and the second and the third rows of moving blades.

6
Fig. Velocity compounding - Principle Fig. Pressure-Velocity compounding -

7
Principle

The expansion of steam from the steam chest pressure down to the exhaust pressure takes
place in the nozzles only. There is no drop in pressure either in the moving blades or the
fixed blades i.e. the pressure remains constant in the blades as in the simple impulse
turbine. The steam velocity from the exit of the nozzle is very high similar to the simple
impulse turbine. The steam with high velocity enters the first row of moving blades and,
on passing through these blades, the velocity reduces slightly i.e. the steam gives up a part
of its kinetic energy and reissues from this row of blades. It then enters the first row of
guide blades which directs it to the second row of moving blades. A slight drop in
velocity takes place in the fixed or guide blades due to friction. On passing through the
second row of moving blades, there is a slight drop in velocity again i.e. steam gives up
some more of its kinetic energy to the rotor. After this, it is again directed y the second
row of guide blades to the third row of moving blades, again drop in velocity occurs and
finally the steam leaves the wheel with a much reduced velocity in a more or less axial
direction. Compared to the simple impulse turbine, the leaving velocity is small being
about 2% of initial total available energy of steam.

So we can say that this arrangement is nothing more than the splitting up of the
velocity gained from the exit of the nozzles into many small drops through several rows
of fixed and moving blades. This type of turbine is also termed as Curtis turbine.
Because of its low efficiency a three row wheel is used for driving small machines. It may
be noted that a two row wheel is more efficient than the three row wheel.

Pressure-Velocity compounded impulse turbine:

This turbine is a combination of pressure-velocity compounding and is shown in

fig. The arrangement in the figure is for two rotors. There are two wheels and two rotors
and only two rows of moving blades are attached on each rotor because two row wheels
are more efficient than three row wheels. The steam on passing through each wheel or
rotor reduces in velocity i.e. drop in velocity is achieved by the many rows of moving
blades and is velocity compounded. The whole pressure drop takes place in the two sets
of nozzles i.e. the whole pressure drop is divided into small drops, hence it is pressure
compounded.

In the first set of nozzles, there is a slight decrease in pressure which gives some
kinetic energy to the steam and there is no pressure drop in the two rows of moving
blades of the first wheel and in the first row of fixed blades. However, there is a velocity
drop in moving blades which also occurs in the fixed blade due to friction. In second set
of nozzles, the remaining pressure drop takes place, but the velocity here increases and,
the drop in velocity take place in the moving blades of the second, wheel or rotor.

8
Compared to the pressure compounded impulse turbine this arrangement was more
popular due to its simple construction, but because of its low efficiency it is rarely used
now a day.

Impulse reaction turbine:

This turbine utilizes the principle of impulse and reaction both and is shown in
fig. There are a number of rows of moving blades attached to the rotor with an equal
number of fixed blades attached to the casing. In this turbine, the fixed blades are set in a
reverse manner compared to the moving blades, and correspond to nozzles mentioned in
connection with the impulse turbine. Due to the position of the fixed row of blades at the
entrance, in place of nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole circumference and hence
there is an all round or complete admission. In passing through the first row of fixed
blades, the steam undergoes a small drop in pressure and hence its velocity increases
slightly. It then enters the first row of moving blades just as in the impulse turbine, and
suffers a change in direction and therefore results in momentum. This momentum gives
rise to an impulse on the blades.

But in this turbine, the passage of the moving blades is so designed that there is a
small drop in pressure of steam in the moving blades which results in an increase in the
kinetic energy of steam. This kinetic energy gives rise to a reaction in the direction
opposite to that of added velocity. Thus, the gross propelling force or driving force is the
vector sum of impulse and reaction forces. Commonly this type of turbine is known as
Reaction turbine. The pressure and velocity variations are shown the fig. It can be seen
in the figure that there is a gradual drop in pressure in both the moving and the fixed

9
blades.

In this turbine as the pressure falls, the specific volume increases and hence the
height of blades is increased in steps i.e. up to 4 stages it may remains constant then it
may increase and remain constant for the next two stages.

In this turbine, the steam velocities are comparatively moderate and its maximum
value is nearly equal to blade velocity. In general practice, to reduce the number of stages,
the steam velocity is arranged greater than the blade velocity. The leaving loss is about 1
to 2% of the total initial available energy. This turbine is popular in power plants. An
example of this type of turbine is the Parsons-Reaction turbine.

Pure Reaction turbine:

Pure reaction turbine is not possible in

practice. However, the principle of pure reaction turbine needs explanation; fig. shows a
reaction turbine in which steam expands through nozzles which are moving. High
temperature and pressure steam from the boiler enters a hollow disc through a hollow
shaft. The disc contains four radial openings through the tubes, the ends of which are
shaped as nozzles. With the escape of steam through Fig. Principle of Pure Reaction
Turbine
these tubes, it expands and there is an increase in steam velocity relative to the rotating
disc.
This gives rise to a reaction force which sets the disc in rotation. Note that the disc and
shaft rotate in the opposite direction of the steam jet.

10
Combination turbines:

A combination of two different types of turbines offers certain advantages. Such a

turbine is called combination turbine. The most common combination are as under:

⦁ Velocity compounded impulse wheel turbine followed by several single row

impulse wheel turbine termed as Curtis and Rateau type.

⦁ Velocity compounded impulse wheel turbine followed by several stages of

impulse reaction blading, termed as Curtis-Parsons type. This is common practice
in steam power plant to reduce number of stages.

⦁ One or more single row impulse stages followed by several stages of impulse
reaction blading, termed as Rateau-Parsons type. This is common in steam power
plant to reduce number of stages.

Difference between Impulse and Reaction turbine:

IMPULSE TURBINE REACTION TURBINE

⦁ Pressure drops in nozzles and not in ⦁ Pressure drops in fixed blades as well
moving blade channels. as moving blades.
⦁ Constant blade channels area. ⦁ Varying blade channels area.
⦁ Profile type blades. ⦁ Aerofoil type blades.
⦁ Restricted round or incomplete ⦁ All round or complete admission.
admission of steam.
⦁ Diaphragm contains the nozzles. ⦁ Fixed blades similar to moving blades
attached to casing serve as nozzles
and guide the steam.
⦁ Not much power developed. ⦁ Power developed is considerable.
⦁ Occupies less space for same power. ⦁ Occupies more space for same power.
⦁ Lower efficiency. ⦁ Higher efficiency.
⦁ Suitable for small power requirements. ⦁ Suitable for medium and high power
requirements.
⦁ Blade manufacturing is not difficult and ⦁ Blade manufacturing process is difficult
thus not costly. compared to impulse and hence
costly.
⦁ Velocity of steam is higher. ⦁ Velocity of steam is less.
⦁ In multi stage impulse turbine drop per ⦁ In multi stage reaction turbine, pressure
stage varies from 2 to 3. drop per stage varies from 1.5 to 2.

11
Velocity diagrams for impulse turbine:

The main parts of the impulse turbine are nozzles and blades. The steam is
utilized in the nozzles to produce a jet of steam moving with a high velocity. The function
of the blades is to change the direction of the high velocity steam and thus, the
momentum of the jet or jets of steam so as to produce a force which propels the blades.
Since this propelling force is caused by a change of momentum through a change in the
direction of flow of the steam, it is essential to draw the diagrams showing the variation
of velocity of steam during its flow through the blade passages.

It is an established fact that velocity is a vector quantity. It has a) magnitude (b)

direction and (c) sense of direction. Thus we can represent velocity by a straight line and
indicate (a) its magnitude by the length of that straight line drawn to a suitable scale, (b)
its direction relative to the said straight line with reference to some fixed direction and (c)
its sense of direction by an arrow placed on the straight line

Let suffixes 1 and 2 refer to inlet and outlet conditions of blades as shown in fig.

C1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to the moving blade, i.e. exit velocity of
nozzle
α1 = Angle of nozzle or angle made by the entering steam having velocity C1 with
tangent of the wheel at entrance of moving blade
Cr1 = Relative velocity of steam with respect to the tip of the blade at inlet
Cw1 = Tangential component of velocity C1 known as velocity of whirl or the
component of velocity responsible for the whirling or rotating of the turbine
rotor at inlet
Cf1 = Axial component of C1 called velocity of flow
C2 = Absolute velocity of steam at outlet from the blade
Cr2 = Relative velocity with respect to the tip of blade at outlet
α2 = Angle to the tangent of wheel at which the absolute velocity of steam C2
leaves the blades
β2 = Outlet angle of the blade
Cf2 = Outlet axial velocity of flow at outlet
Cw2 = Tangential component of velocity C2 known as the velocity of whirl at outlet
m = Mass flow rate, kg/s
u = Peripheral velocity of blade
k = Blade velocity coefficient
Cr1 = Cr2 for case of without friction

12
 kCr1 = Cr2 for case of with friction

Fig. Impulse Rotor

Fig. velocity diagram for impulse turbine

The jet of steam with absolute velocity C1 impinges on the moving blade at an
angle of α1 to the tangent of blade. The tangential component of this jet does work on the
blade, because it is in the same direction as the motion of the blade u; this tangential
component is known as the velocity of whirl Cw1. The axial component Cf1 of velocity C1
does not work on the blade because it is perpendicular to the direction of the motion of
the blade. This component Cf1 is known as the velocity of flow because it is responsible

13
for the flow through the turbine. The velocity of flow causes an axial thrust on the rotor.

Due to the motion of the blade u in the peripheral direction the entering steam jet
with velocity C1 will have a relative velocity Cr1 to the blade which makes an angle of β1
to the tangent of blade. This relative velocity may be found by subtracting the vectors of
the steam velocity C1 and the blade velocity u.

As the steam is to glide over the blade without shock, it follows that the surface of
the blade at inlet must be parallel to the relative velocity Cr1. That is, the moving blade at
inlet must be inclined to the tangent of the blade at an angle β1. This is the principle on
which the blade is designed.

A similar vector diagram is shown at the outlet tip of the moving blade. The steam
glides off the blade and rushes out with a relative velocity Cr2 inclined at an angle of β2 to
the tangent. Addition of the vector of blade velocity u and relative velocity Cr2 gives the
absolute velocity of the leaving steam at C2 inclined at an angle α2 to the tangent. After
obtaining the vector C2 its tangential component Cw2, the axial component Cf2 may be
drawn.

Combination of vector diagram:

The industrial method of constructing vector diagrams is to combine both the

velocity diagrams at inlet as well as at the outlet of the blade into a single diagram as
shown in fig. In this figure, both the velocity diagrams are drawn on a common base
representing the blade velocity u.

When there is no friction, (Cr1 = Cr2) and β1 = β2, then Cf1 = Cf2.

Fig. Combined velocity diagrams

14
Effect of blade friction on velocity diagrams:

In actual practice, there is frictional resistance to the flow of steam jet over the
blade, the effect of which is to cause a slowing down of the relative velocity Cr2 which is
in the range of 85 to 90% of Cr1. Thus due to frictional resistance

Cr2 = K Cr1

where K is called the blade velocity coefficient and takes into account the blade losses
due to friction.

DF = DB’ = K Cr1 = Cr2

The resultant force parallel to BF is inclined at an angle to the plane in which the
wheel rotates. This resultant force may be resolved into two components as shown in fig.

⦁ a useful thrust or tangential force (Ft) acting in the direction of blade motion

⦁ an idle thrust or axial force (Fa) perpendicular to the wheel plane

15
 Fig. Combined velocity diagram with friction effect and blade force diagram

Work done on the blade:

The work done on the blade may be found out from the change of momentum of
the steam jet during its flow over the blade. As earlier discussed, it is only the velocity of
whirl which performs work on the blade since it acts in its direction of motion.

From Newton's second law of motion,

Force (tangential) on the wheel = mass of steam ×acceleration

= mass of steam/sec × change of velocity

= ṁs (Cw1 - Cw2)

The value of Cw2 is actually negative as the steam is discharged in the opposite
direction to the blade motion, therefore due consideration should be given to the fact that
values of Cw1 and Cw2 are to be added while doing the solution of the problem. (i.e., α2
< 900).

Work done on the blades/se. = force × distance travelled/sec.

= ṁs (Cw1 - Cw2) × u

power per wheel = ṁs (Cw1 + Cw2) × u

= in KW

Blade or diagram efficiency =

If h1 and h2 be the total heats before and after expansion through the nozzles, then
(h1-h2) is the heat drop through a stage of fixed blades ring and moving blades ring.

Stage efficiency, ηstage =

Nozzle efficiency =

Also, ηstage = Blade efficiency × nozzle efficiency

16
 = ×

The axial thrust on the wheel is due to difference between the velocities of flow at
entrance and outlet.

Axial force on the wheel = mass of steam × axial acceleration

= ṁs (Cf1 - Cf2)

The axial force on the wheel must be balanced or must be taken by a thrust
bearing.

Energy converted to heat by blade friction = loss of kinetic energy during flow of
blades

= ṁs (

Blade velocity Co-efficient:

In an impulse turbine, if friction is neglected the relative velocity will remain

unaltered as it passes over blades. In practice the flow of steam over the blades is resisted
by friction. The effect of the friction is to reduce the relative velocity of steam as it passes
over the blades. In general there is a loss of 10 to 15% in the relative velocity. Owing to
friction in the blades, Cr2 is less than Cr1 and we may write

Cr2 = K Cr1

Where K is termed as blade velocity co-efficient

Expression for optimum value of the ratio of blade speed to steam speed (for a
maximum efficiency) for a single stage impulse turbine:

From fig.

Cw = PQ =MP + MQ = Cr1 cos β1+ Cr2 cos β2

= Cr1 cos β1

= Cr1 cos β1 (1 + K.Z) Where Z = ........

(i)

Generally, the angles β1 and β2 are nearly equal for impulse turbine and hence it
can safely assumed that Z is constant.

17
 But, Cr1 cos β1 = MP = LP - LM = C1 cos α1 - u

From equation (i), Cw = (C1 cos α1 - u) (1 + K.Z)

We know that, Blade efficiency, ηb = ..................... (ii)

ηb =

let us introduce a parameter blade velocity ratio ρ = and u= ρ C1

substitute 'u' value in above equation we get,

= 2(ρ cos α1 - ρ2)(1+KZ) ....(iii)

Where ρ = is the ratio of blade speed to steam speed and is commonly called as
"Blade speed ratio".

For particular impulse turbine α1, K and Z may assumed to be constant and from
equation (iii) it can be seen clearly that ηb depends on the value of ρ only. Hence
differentiating (iii),

= 2 (cos α1 - 2ρ)(1+KZ)

For a maximum or minimum value of ηblade this should be zero.

cos α1 - 2ρ = 0, ρ=

Now, = 2(-2)(1+KZ) = -4(1+KZ)

which is negative quantity and thus the value so obtained is the maximum.

Optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam speed is

ρopt =

Substituting this value of ρ in equation (iii),we get

(ηb)max = 2 × (1+KZ)

= (1+KZ)

It is sufficiently accurate to assume symmetrical blades (β1 = β2) and no friction in

fluid passage for the purpose of analysis.

Z = 1 and K = 1

18
 (ηb)max =

The work done per kg of steam is given by

W = (Cw1 + Cw2) × u

Substituting the value of (Cw1 + Cw2) as Cw then

W = (C1 cos α1 - u) (1 + K.Z) × u

= 2 u (C1 cos α1 - u) when K = 1 and Z = 1

The maximum value of W can be obtained by substituting the value of cos α1from
equation.

cos α1= 2ρ = 2

Wmax = 2 u(2 u - u) = 2 u2

It is obvious from the equation that the blade velocity should be approximately
half of absolute velocity of steam jet coming out from the nozzle for the maximum work
developed per kg of steam or for maximum efficiency. For the other values of blade speed
the absolute velocity at outlet from the blade will increase, consequently, more energy
will be carried away by the steam and efficiency will decrease.

For equiangular blades with no friction losses, optimum value of corresponds to

the case, when the outlet absolute velocity is axial as shown in fig.

Since the discharge is axial, α2= 900, so C2 = Cf2 and Cw2 = 0.

The variations of ηb or work developed per kg of steam with is shown in fig. This
figure shows that:

⦁ When = 0, the work done becomes zero as the distance travelled by the blade
(u) is zero, even though the torque on the blade is maximum.

⦁ The maximum efficiency is and maximum work done per kg of steam is 2

u2 when .

⦁ When = 1, the work done is zero as the torque acting on the blade becomes
zero even though the distance travelled by the blade is maximum.

Reaction turbines (Impulse reaction Turbines):

The reaction turbines which are used these days are really impulse-reaction

19
turbines. Pure reaction turbines are not in general use. The expansion of steam and heat
drop occur both in fixed and moving blades.

Velocity diagram for reaction turbine blade:

Fig. shows the velocity diagram for reaction turbine blade. In case of an impulse
turbine blade the relative velocity of steam either remains constant as the steam glides
over the blades or is reduced slightly due to friction. In reaction turbine blades, the steam
continuously expands at it flows over the blades. The effect of the continuous expansion
of steam during the flow over the blade is to increase the relative velocity of steam.

Cr2 > Cr1 for reaction turbine blade

Cr2 ≤ Cr1 for impulse turbine blade

Let AB = C1, be the jet velocity at the outlet from the nozzles or the fixed blades. AD = u
is the blade velocity. Then DB will be the relative velocity at the inlet to the blade.

The angle is made appreciably less than . for pure impulse the relative velocity of the
steam at the outlet from the blade would be DG = K Cr1 where k is blade velocity
coefficient. So the final absolute velocity would be AG. The change in velocity suffered
by the steam would be presented by BG.

The change in velocity would give rise to the impulse force gb, which is equal to m (GB)
and parallel to GB

Due to expansion of steam in the moving blades, the steam velocity is increased from GD
to GF. This increase in outlet relative velocity give s rise to a reaction force fg which is
equal to m(FG) and parallel to FG. By combining the impulse force gb and reaction
force fg, we get the resultant force fb which is equal to m(FB). Components of the
resultant force is tangential and axial directions give the tangential and axial force
respectively

20
 Fig. Combined velocity diagram and blade force diagram for Impulse - Reaction turbine

Degree of reaction:

The degree of reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of heat drop over
moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.

Thus the degree of reaction of reaction turbine is given by:

Rd =

Fig. velocity diagram for Parsons reaction turbine

The heat drop in moving blades is equal to increase in relative velocity of steam
passing through the blade.

21
 Δhm =

The total heat drop in the stage (Δhf + Δhm) is equal to the work done by the steam
in the stage and it is given by

(Δhf + Δhm) = (Cw1 - Cw2) × u

Rd = …………….. (iv)

Referring to fig.

Cr2 = Cf2 cosec β2 and Cr1 = Cf1 cosec β1

and Cw1 - Cw2 = Cf1 cot β1 + Cf2 cot β2

The velocity of flow generally remains constant through the blades.

Cf1 = Cf2 = Cf

Substituting the values of Cr1, Cr0 and (Cw1 - Cw2) in eqn. (iv) we get,

Rd =

= (cot β2– cot β1)

If the turbine is designed for 50% reaction (Δhf = Δhm) then the above equation
can be written as

= (cot β2 – cot β1)

u = Cf (cot β2 – cot β1)

Also U can be written as

u = Cf (cot β2 – cot α2)

u = Cf (cot α1 – cot β1)

Cf1 = Cf2 = Cf is assumed in writing the above equations.

Comparing the above equations we can write, β1 = α2 and β2= α1, which means
that moving blade and fixed blade must have the same shape if the degree of reaction is
50%. This condition gives symmetrical velocity diagrams. This type of turbine is known
22
as Parson’s reaction turbine. Velocity diagram for the blades of this turbine is given in
fig.

Conditions for maximum efficiency:

The condition for maximum efficiency is derived by making the following

assumptions:

⦁ The degree of reaction is 50%

⦁ The moving and fixed blades are symmetrical

⦁ The velocity of steam at exit from the preceding stage is same as velocity of
steam at the entrance to the succeeding stage.

Work done per kg of steam,

W = (cw1 + Cw2) × u

= u [C1 cos α1 + (Cr2 cos β2 – u)]

As β2 = α1 and Cr2 = Cr1 as per the assumptions

W = u [2C1 cos α1 – u]

= [2ρ cos α1 – ρ2], where ρ =

The K.E. supplied to the fixed blade =

The K.E. supplied to the moving blade =

Total energy supplied to the stage, Δh = + as Cr2= C1 for symmetrical triangles

Δh = +

= C1 2 -

Considering ΔLMS from fig.

Cr12 = C12 + u2 – 2C1 u cos α1

Substituting this value of Cr12 in above equation, we get

Total energy supplied to the stage,

23
 Δh = C12- (C12 + u2 – 2C1 u cos α1)/2

= (C12 - u2 + 2C1 u cos α1)/2

= [1+2ρ cos α1 – ρ2]

The blade efficiency of the reaction turbine is given by,

ηb =

Substituting the value of W and Δh from above equations:

ηb =

=2-

The ηb becomes maximum when the value of [1+2ρ cos α1 – ρ2] becomes
maximum.

The required equation is:

(1+2ρ cos α1 – ρ2) = 0

2 cos α1– 2 ρ = 0

ρ = cos α1

Substituting the value of ρ from above equation to eqn. the value of maximum
efficiency is given by:

(ηb)max = 2 - = 2[1 - ] =

Hence (ηb)max =

24
25
 UNIT-V

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Learning Objectives:

⦁ To study the working and performance characteristics of rotary compressors.

Syllabus:
Centrifugal compressors: Mechanical details and principle of operation – velocityand
pressure variation. Energy transfer, impeller blade shape losses, velocity triangles,
analysis of flow through compressors, slip factor, power input factor, pressure coefficient,
adiabatic coefficient, compressor efficiency, surging and choking.

Axial Flow Compressors: Mechanical details and principle of operation – velocity

triangles and energy transfer per stage, degree of reaction, work done factor -isentropic
efficiency- pressure rise calculations – Polytropic efficiency, comparison of centrifugal
and axial compressors. Surging and stalling

Learning Outcomes:At the end of the unit, the student will be able to

⦁ Describe the working of rotary compressors

⦁ Analyze the performance of centrifugal and axial flow compressors

1
 Centrifugal Compressors
⦁ Construction:
A centrifugal compressor is a radial flow roto dynamic fluid machine that uses
mostly air as the working fluid and utilizes the mechanical energy imparted to the
machine from outside to increase the total internal energy of the fluid mainly in
the form of increased static pressure head.
A centrifugal compressor essentially consists of three components.
⦁ A stationary casing
⦁ A rotating impeller as shown in Fig. 1 (a) which imparts a high velocity to
the air. The impeller may be single or double sided as show in Fig. 1 (b)
and (c), but the fundamental theory is same for both.
⦁ A diffuser consisting of a number of fixed diverging passages in which the
air is decelerated with a consequent rise in static pressure.

Fig. 1 (a)

Fig. 1 Schematic views of a centrifugal compressor

2
 Fig. 2 Single entry and single outlet centrifugal compressor
Figure 2 is the schematic of a centrifugal compressor, where a single entry radial
impeller is housed inside a volute casing.
⦁ Principle of operation: Air is sucked into the impeller eye and whirled outwards
at high speed by the impeller disk. At any point in the flow of air through the
impeller the centripetal acceleration is obtained by a pressure head so that the
static pressure of the air increases from the eye to the tip of the impeller. The
remainder of the static pressure rise is obtained in the diffuser, where the very
high velocity of air leaving the impeller tip is reduced to almost the velocity with
which the air enters the impeller eye.
Usually, about half of the total pressure rise occurs in the impeller and the
other half in the diffuser. Owing to the action of the vanes in carrying the air
around with the impeller, there is a slightly higher static pressure on the forward
side of the vane than on the trailing face. The air will thus tend to flow around the
edge of the vanes in the clearing space between the impeller and the casing. This
results in a loss of efficiency and the clearance must be kept as small as possible.
Sometimes, a shroud attached to the blades as shown in Figure.1(d) may eliminate
such a loss, but it is avoided because of increased disc friction loss and of
manufacturing difficulties.
⦁ The straight and radial blades are usually employed to avoid any
undesirable bending stress to be set up in the blades. The choice of radial
blades also determines that the total pressure rise is divided equally
between impeller and diffuser.
⦁ Before further discussions following points are worth mentioning for a
centrifugal compressor.
⦁ The pressure rise per stage is high and the volume flow rate tends to be
low. The pressure rise per stage is generally limited to 4:1 for smooth
operations.
⦁ Blade geometry is relatively simple and small foreign material does not
affect much on operational characteristics.
⦁ Centrifugal impellers have lower efficiency compared to axial impellers
and when used in aircraft engine it increases frontal area and thus drag.

3
 Multistage is also difficult to achieve in case of centrifugal machines.

Fig. 3 Process representation on h-s chart

⦁ Pressure velocity variation curve:

Fig.4: Pressure velocity variation curve

⦁ Advantages of centrifugal compressors:
⦁ Low weight, easy to design and manufacture.
⦁ Suitable for continuous compressed air supply, such as cooling unit.

4
 ⦁ The oil free in nature.
⦁ They have fewer rubbing parts.
⦁ High-flow rate than the positive displacement compressor.
⦁ Relatively energy efficient.
⦁ Wide range of rotational speed.
⦁ Centrifugal compressors are reliable, low maintenance.
⦁ Generating higher pressure ratio per stage as compared to axial flow
compressor.
⦁ It does not require special foundation.

⦁ Disadvantages of centrifugal compressors:

⦁ Large frontal area for a given air flow rate compared to the axial flow
compressor.
⦁ Unsuitable for very high compression, limited pressure.
⦁ They are sensitive to changes in gas composition.
⦁ They work at high speed, sophisticated vibration mounting needed.
⦁ Problem of surging, stalling and choking.

⦁ Applications of centrifugal compressors:

⦁ Food and beverage industry - centrifugal compressor provides oil free
compressed air for some sensitive application such as food processing.
⦁ Centrifugal compressor meets high demand of compressed air.
⦁ Gas turbines, in automobile turbochargers and supercharger.
⦁ Oil refineries, natural-gas processing.
⦁ Refrigeration, air-conditioning and HVAC.
⦁ Manufacturing process compressed air for pneumatic tools.

⦁ Different vane shapes:

⦁ The impellers may be classified depending on the exit angle β2 into
(i) Backward curved vanes – β2<900
(ii) Radial vanes – β2 = 900
(iii) Forward curved vanes – β2> 900
⦁ Velocity diagrams:
⦁ Fig 5 shows theimpellerandvelocitydiagramsattheinletandoutlet.

5
 Fig 5: inlet and outlet velocity triangles for various types of impeller blades
V1= absolute velocity at inlet (C1)
V2= absolute velocity at outlet (C2)
Vf1= flow velocity at inlet (Cf1)
Vf2= flow velocity at outlet (Cf2)
Vw1= whirl velocity at inlet (Cw1)
Vw2= whirl velocity at outlet (Cw2)
Vr1= relative velocity at inlet (Cr1)
Vr2= relative velocity at outlet (Cr2)
U1, U2 are the corresponding blade velocities
Whentheairenterstheimpellerinthe axialdirection then absolute
velocityattheinlet,V1=Vf1. TheabsolutevelocityV1hasawhirlcomponent
Vw1.Intheidealcase,aircomesoutfromtheimpellertipaftermakingan angleof
90º(i.e.,intheradialdirection),soVw2= U2.Thatis,thewhirlcomponentis
exactlyequaltotheimpellertipvelocity.
⦁ Dimensionless parameters
⦁ Flow coefficient: It is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate to the mass flow
rate referred to the impeller. Its value varies between 0.28 - 0.32.

Flow coefficient, ,
Here mass flow rate,
where A2 – flow area at the tip of the impeller, ρ2 – density of the fluid at the tip
of impeller

Flow coefficient,

6
⦁ Head Coefficient: It is defined as the ratio of enthalpy increase in a stage to the
kinetic energy corresponding to the tip peripheral velocity.

Head coefficient,
⦁ Pressure coefficient: It is defined as the ratio of isentropic enthalpy increase to
the kinetic energy corresponding to the tip peripheral velocity.

Pressure coefficient,

Also from the efficiency of compressor,

Pressure coefficient,
⦁ Reaction: It is defined as the temperature increase in the rotor to the temperature
increase in the stage.

Reaction,

⦁ Slip and Slip Factor:

Slip: Under ideal conditions, the fluid particles follow the path of the blades
resulting in such a relative velocity at impeller tip that makes an angle with
tangential direction equal to the blade tip angle. This may be possible from an
impeller with infinite number of blades of very less thickness. In this case the
stream passes through the each blade channel following exactly the path of the
blade. But in actual practice where the number of blades is finite, the air is
trapped between the impeller vanes due to its inertia and thus the fluid is
reluctant to move in the impeller.
This results in a difference of pressures across the vane; there being a
high pressure at the leading face and low pressure at the trailing face which gives
rise to the relative velocity gradient. In high pressure side, the fluid leaves the
vane tangentially and on the low pressure side, the fluid leaves the vane with
certain circumferential component across the channel from one leading face to
the other trailing face. Therefore the fluid slips with respect to the impeller
during its passage through it.
Slip factor: It is defined as the ratio of workdone under actual conditions (when
no. of blades is finite) to the workdone under ideal conditions (when no. of
blades is infinite).

7
 Slip factor,
For an impeller with no pre-whirl,

Finally, slip factor,

⦁ Work done or Euler’s work:
The theoretical torque will be equal to the rate of change of angular momentum
experienced by the air. Considering a unit mass of air, this torque is given by
theoretical torque,
τ=Vw2r2 - Vw1r1
Where,Vw2iswhirlcomponentofV2andr2isimpellertipradius.
Let ω = angularvelocity.Thenthetheoreticalworkdoneontheairmaybewrittenas:
2

TheoreticalworkdoneW=C w2r2 ω -C w1r1 ω

W= Cw2U2 - Cw1U1

8
 Fig. 6 Inlet and Outlet Velocity triangles for backward curved vane
From the inlet velocity triangle, ACD,
Using the principle of Cosine rule to ΔABD,

On simplification,
Similarly, from the outlet velocity triangle, EGH,
Using the principle of Cosine rule to ΔEFH,

On simplification,

9
Finally, work done,

10
 UNIT-VI

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

⦁ Axial Flow Compressors

The basic components of an axial flow compressor are a rotor and stator, the former carrying
the moving blades and the latter the stationary rows of blades. The stationary blades convert
the kinetic energy of the fluid into pressure energy, and also redirect the flow into an angle
suitable for entry to the next row of moving blades. Each stage will consist of one rotor row
followed by a stator row, but it is usual to provide a row of so called inlet guide vanes. This is
an additional stator row upstream of the first stage in the compressor and serves to direct the
axially approaching flow correctly into the first row of rotating blades. For a compressor, a
row of rotor blades followed by a row of stator blades is called a stage.
Two forms of rotor have been taken up, namely drum type and disk type. A disk type rotor
illustrated in Fig. 7 The disk type is used where consideration of low weight is most important.
There is a contraction of the flow annulus from the low to the high pressure end of the
compressor. This is necessary to maintain the axial velocity at a reasonably constant level
throughout the length of the compressor despite the increase in density of air. Fig. 8illustrate
flow through compressor stages. In an axial compressor, the flow rate tends to be high and
pressure rise per stage is low. It also maintains fairly high efficiency.

Fig. 7 Axial flow compressor

1
The basic principle of acceleration of the working fluid, followed by diffusion to convert
acquired kinetic energy into a pressure rise, is applied in the axial compressor. The flow is
considered as occurring in a tangential plane at the mean blade height where the blade
peripheral velocity is U . This two dimensional approach means that in general the flow
velocity will have two components, one axial and one peripheral denoted by subscript w ,
implying a whirl velocity. It is first assumed that the air approaches the rotor blades with an
absolute velocity, V1, at and angle α1to the axial direction. In combination with the
peripheral velocity U of the blades, its relative velocity will be Vr1 at and angle β1 as shown
in the upper velocity triangle (Fig. 9). After passing through the diverging passages formed
between the rotor blades which do work on the air and increase its absolute velocity, the air
will emerge with the relative velocity of Vr2 at angle β2 which is less than β1. This turning of
air towards the axial direction is, as previously mentioned, necessary to provide an increase
in the effective flow area and is brought about by the camber of the blades. Since Vr2 is less
than Vr1 due to diffusion, some pressure rise has been accomplished in the rotor. The
velocity Vr2 in combination with U gives the absolute velocity V2 at the exit from the rotor
at an angle α2 to the axial direction. The air then passes through the passages formed by the
stator blades where it is further diffused to velocity V3 at an angle α3 which in most designs
equals to α1 so that it is prepared for entry to next stage. Here again, the turning of the air
towards the axial direction is brought about by the camber of the blades.

Fig. 8 Arrangement of vanes and flow directions

2
Velocity triangles

Fig. 9 Velocity triangles

Two basic equations follow immediately from the geometry of the velocity triangles. These are:

-----------Eq 5.1

------Eq 5.2

In which is the axial velocity, assumed constant through the stage. The work done
per unit mass or specific work input, w being given by

-------Eq 5.3
This expression can be put in terms of the axial velocity and air angles to give

-------Eq 5.4
or by using Eqs. 5.1 and 5.2

-------Eq 5.5

This input energy will be absorbed usefully in raising the pressure and velocity of the air. A part
of it will be spent in overcoming various frictional losses. Regardless of the losses, the input
will reveal itself as a rise in the stagnation temperature of the air . If the absolute velocity
of the air leaving the stage V3 is made equal to that at the entry. V1, the stagnation temperature
rise will also be the static temperature rise of the stage, , so that

3
----- Eq 5.6
In fact, the stage temperature rise will be less than that given in Eq. (5.6) owing to three
dimensional effects in the compressor annulus. Experiments show that it is necessary to
multiply the right hand side of Eq. (5.6) by a work-done factor λ which is a number less than
unity. This is a measure of the ratio of actual work-absorbing capacity of the stage to its ideal
4
 Assignment-Cum-Tutorial Questions
III B.Tech I Semester – 2019-20*Mechanical Engineering*
Turbomachinery
Unit –V & VI
Centrifugal and Axial Compressors

A) Objective Questions
⦁ In a centrifugal compressor, assuming the same overall dimensions, blade inlet
angle and rotational speeds, which of the following bladings will give the
maximum pressure rise?
(a) forward curved blade (b) backward curved blade
(c) radial blades (d) all of the above [
]
⦁ In an RFC, the radial blades are employed [
]
(a) to avoid surging (b) to avoid stalling
(c) to reduce cost (d) to increase efficiency
⦁ In a centrifugal compressor terminology, the vaneless space refers to the space
between [
]
(a) the inlet and blade inlet edge (b) blades in the impeller
(c) diffuser exit and volute casing (d) impeller tip and the diffuser exit
⦁ The slip in the RFCs is the reduction of [
]
(a) specific work (b) reaction (c) speed (d) utilization factor
⦁ The effect of increase in the number of blades on the impeller in a centrifugal
compressor is [
]
(a) increase in slip (b) decrease in slip
(c) zero slip (d) maximum efficiency
⦁ The purpose of inducer section in RFCs is [
]
(a) to have a high specific work (b) to increase the flow rate of fluid
(c) to avoid surging (d) to have a smooth intake of flow
⦁ The power input factor or work-done factor is [
]
(a) ideal work/actual work (b) actual work/theoretical work
(c) isentropic work/actual work (d) ideal work/Euler work
⦁ For the diffusion of a specified quantity of kinetic energy, the diffusion efficiency

1
 is
(a) isentropic rise in static pressure/actual rise in static pressure
(b) isentropic rise in dynamic pressure/actual rise in dynamic pressure
(c) actual rise in static pressure/isentropic rise in static pressure
(d) actual rise in dynamic pressure/isentropic rise in dynamic pressure [
]
⦁ Diffusion efficiency depends on [
]
(a) the rate of change of pressure (b) the rate of change of velocities
(c) the rate of change of temperature (d) the rate of change of areas
⦁ AFCs have [
]
(a) purely impulse stages (b) purely reaction stages
(c) impulse and reaction stages (d) alternate stages of impulse and reaction
⦁ Pick the wrong statement. [
]
(a) An AFC has larger frontal areas than an RFC.
(b) An AFC has higher pressure ratios than an RFC.
(c) An AFC has higher a weight-to-power ratio than an RFC.
(d) In an AFC, it is easier to have multi-staging than in an RFC.
⦁ In a centrifugal air compressor the pressure developed depends on [
]
(a) impeller tip velocity (b) inlet air temperature
(c) compression index (d) all of the above
⦁ In a centrifugal air compressor the pressure ratio is increased by
_________________.
(a) increasing the speed of the impeller keeping its diameter fixed
(b) increasing the diameter of the impeller keeping the speed constant
(c) reducing the inlet temperature, keeping the impeller diameter and speed fixed
(d) all of the above
⦁ Surging basicaly implies [
]
(a) unsteady, periodic and reversed flow
(b) forward motion of air at a speed above sonic velocity
(c) the surging action due to the blast of air produced in the compressor

2
 (d) forward movement of aircraft
⦁ Surging in an RFC is due to [
]
(a) the positive slope of the load line (b) the negative slope of the load line
(c) the positive slope of the characteristic (d) the negative slope of the
characteristic
⦁ Stalling of the blades means [
]
(a) loss of drag (b) loss of lift
(c) separation of flow (d) loss of performance
⦁ Stalling of blades in an axial flow compressor is the phenomenon of [
]
(a) air stream blocking the passage (b) motion of air at sonic velocity
(c) unsteady, periodic and reversed flow
(d) air stream not able to follow blade contour
⦁ Phenomenon of choking in compressor means
(a) no flow of air
(b) fixed mass flow rate regardless of pressure ratio
(c) freducing mass flow rate with increase in pressure ratio
(d) increased inclination of the chord with air stream
⦁ Assertion (A): The specific work input for an axial flow compressor is lower than
that of the centrifugal compressor for the same pressure ratio.
Reason (R): Isentropic efficiency of axial flow compressor is much higher than
that of a centrifugal compressor.
[ ]
(a) Both A & R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A & R are individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
⦁ The capacity of an air compressor is specified as 3 m3/min. It means that the
compressor is capable of [
]
(a) supplying 3 m3 of compressed air per minute
(b) compressing 3 m3 of free air per minute
(c) supplying 3 m3 of compressed air per minute at NTP
(d) compressing 3 m3 of standard air per minute
3
 ⦁ Centrifugal compressors are more suitable as compared to axial compressor for
(a) high head, low flow rate (b) low head, low flow rate
(c) low head, high flow rate (d) high head, high flow rate [
]
⦁ Consider the following statements:
In centrifugal compressors, there is a tendency of increasing surge when
1. the number of diffuser vanes is less than the number of impeller vanes
2. the number of diffuser vanes is greater than the number of impeller vanes
3. the number of diffuser vanes is equal to the number of impeller vanes
4. mass flow is greatly in excess of that corresponding to the design mass flow
Which of the these statements is / are correct? [
]
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 alone (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
⦁ For a multistage compressor, the polytropic efficiency is [
]
(a) the efficiency of all stages combined together
(b) the efficiency of one stage
(c) constant throughout all the stages
(d) a direct consequence of the pressure ratio

B) Subjective Questions
⦁ What is a slip factor and pressure coefficient?
⦁ Describe briefly an axial flow compressor.
⦁ What do you mean by surging and choking?
⦁ Explain the construction and working of centrifugal compressor. Draw velocity
triangles and obtain the expression for work done.
⦁ Explain the construction and working of axial flow compressor. Draw velocity
triangles and obtain the expression for work done.
⦁ Compare (i) reciprocating and rotary air compressors (ii) reciprocating and
centrifugal compressors (iii) centrifugal and axial flow compressors.
⦁ Distinguish between the working principles of centrifugal, mixed and axial flow
compressors.

⦁ Derive the expression: in the case of

centrifugal compressor and explain its significance.

4
⦁ A centrifugal air compressor delivers 18.2kg/s of air with a total head pressure
ratio of 4 to 1. The speed of the compressor is 15000r.p.m. Inlet total head
temperature is 150C, slip factor is 0.9, power input factor is 1.04 and 60%
isentropic efficiency. Calculate the overall diameter of the impeller and power
input.

⦁ A centrifugal compressor running at 10000 r.p.m delivers 660 m3/min of free air.
The air compressed from 1 bar and 200C to a pressure ratio of 4 with an isentropic
efficiency of 82%. Blades are radial at outlet of impeller and flow velocity of 62
m/s may be assumed through constant. The outer radius of impeller is twice the
inner and the slip factor is assumed as 0.9. The area coefficient is 0.9 at the inlet.
Calculate:
⦁ Final temperature of air
⦁ theoretical power
⦁ impeller diameters at inlet and outlet
⦁ breadth of impeller at inlet
⦁ impeller blade angle at inlet.
⦁ A centrifugal compressor compresses 5m3/s of air from 1 bar and 150C to 1.5bar.
The index of compression is 1.5. The flow velocity at inlet and outlet of the
machine is the same and equal to 70m/s. The inlet and outlet impeller diameters
are 0.3m and 0.6m respectively. The blower rotates at 7000r.p.m.calculate
⦁ Blade angles at inlet and outlet of the impeller

⦁ The absolute angle at the tip of the impeller

⦁ The breadth of blade at inlet and outlet.

⦁ No diffuser employed and the whole pressure rise takes place in the
impeller and the blades have negligible thickness.

⦁ Air at a temperature of 300K flows in a centrifugal compressor running at

18000r.p.m. The other data is as follows.

⦁ Isentropic total head efficiency=0.76

⦁ Outer diameter of blade tip=550mm

⦁ Slip factor=0.82

⦁ Calculate: (i) The temperature rise of air passing through the compressor
(ii) The static pressure ratio. Assume absolute velocities at inlet and outlet
are same. Take Cp of air=1.005kJ/kg.K

⦁ A single stage single sided centrifugal compressor delivers 18 kg/sec of air, with a
pressure ratio 4 when running at 15000 r.p.m. The inlet conditions are 1 bar and
5
 200C. The slip factor is 0.9. The power input factor is 1.04 and the isentropic
efficiency of compressor is 75%. Calculate the (i) the final temperature of air (ii)
power required (iii) the tip diameter of the impeller (iv) the blade angles at
impeller eye which has root and tip diameter 15 cm and 25 cm respectively.
⦁ The following data pertains to a centrifugal compressor:
Total pressure ratio : 3.6:1
Diameter of inlet eye of impeller : 35 cm
Axial velocity at inlet : 140 m/s
Mass flow : 12 kg/s
The velocity on the delivery duct : 120 m/s
The tip speed of impeller : 460 m/s
Speed of impeller : 16000 rpm
Total head isentropic efficiency : 80%
Pressure coefficient : 0.73
Ambient conditions : 1.013 bar and 150C
Calculate: (i) The static pressure and temperature at inlet and outlet of compressor
(ii) the static pressure ratio
(iii) Work of compressor per kg of air
(iv) The theoretical power required.
⦁ Following particulars relate to a centrifugal compressor:
Inlet diameter of impeller = 61.4 cm
Outlet diameter of impeller = 123 cm, pressure ratio = 1.33
Speed = 5000 r.p.m, velocity of flow = 61.6 m/sec, free air delivered = 1000
m3/min
Index of compression = 1.6. Assuming that all the pressure rise takes place in the
impeller, find the angles at which the air from impeller enters the casing, breadth
of the impeller blade inlet and outlet.
⦁ The following data relate to an axial flow compressor:
Blade velocity : 240 m/s
Flow velocity : 190 m/s
Inlet and exit angles of the air : 450 and 140 respectively
Calculate: (i) the pressure rise (ii) the work done per kg of air.

⦁ An axial flow compressor having eight stages and with 50% reaction design
compresses air in the pressure ratio of 4:1. The air enters the compressor at 200C
and flows through it with a constant speed of 90 m/sec. The rotating blades of
compressor rotate with a mean speed of 180 m/sec. Isentropic efficiency of the
compressor may be taken as 82%. Calculate: (i) Work done by the machine (ii)
Blade angles.

⦁ An axial flow compressor compresses the air from an inlet condition of 1 bar and
290 K to a delivery pressure of 5 bar with an overall isentropic efficiency of 87%.
The degree of reaction is 0.5 and the blade angles at inlet and outlet are 440 and
130 respectively. The mean blade speed and axial velocity are constant throughout
the compressor. Assuming a blade velocity of 180 m/sec, and work done factor

6
 0.85, calculate the number of stages.

⦁ In an eight stage axial flow compressor, the overall stagnation pressure ratio
achieved is 5:1 with an over all isentropic efficiency of 90%. The temperature and
pressure at inlet are 200C and 1bar. The work is divided equally between the
stages. The mean blade speed is 175m/s and 50% reaction design is used. The
axial velocity through the compressor is constant and equal to 100m/s, calculate
the power required and blade angles.
⦁ A multistage axial flow compressor delivers 20 kg/s of air. The inlet stagnation
condition is 1 bar and 170C. The power consumed by the compressor is 4.35 MW.
Calculate:
(i) Delivery pressure
(ii) Number of stages
(iii) Overall isentropic efficiency of the compressor. Assume temperature rise in
the first stage is 150C, the polytropic efficiency of compression is 88% and the
stage stagnation pressure ratio is constant

C) GATE/IES Questions

⦁ Blower delivers gaseous fluids at pressure ratios ___________ (above/below) 1.15

and _________ (have/ have no)artificial cooling arrangement. [GATE-1992]

⦁ For reversible adiabatic compression in a steady flow process, the work transfer per
unit mass is [ ]
[GATE-1996]

(a) (b) (c) (d)

⦁ The specific speed of a centrifugal compressor is generally [ ]

[GATE-1997]

(a) higher than that of an axial compressor

(b) less than that of a reciprocating compressor

(c) independent of the type of compressor, but depends only on the size of the
compressor

(d) more than the specific speed of the reciprocating compressor but less that of the
axial compressor

⦁ Air enters a compressor at a temperature of 270C. The compressor pressure ratio is 4.

Assuming an efficiency of 80%, the compressor work required in kJ/kg is [

7
 ]

(a) 160 (b) 172 (c) 182 (d) 225 [GATE-1998]

⦁ A gas contained in a cylinder is compressed, the work required for compression being
5000 J. During the process, heat interaction of 200 kJ causes the surroundings to be
heated. The change in internal energy of the gas during the process is [
]

(a) -7000 kJ (b) -3000 kJ (c) 3000 kJ (d) 7000 kJ

[GATE-2004]

⦁ In a steady state steady flow process taking place in a device with a single inlet and a

single outlet, the work done per unit mass flow rate is given by , where
v - is the specific volume and p is pressure. The expression for w given above [
]

(a) is valid only if the process is both reversible and adiabatic

(b) is valid only if the process is both reversible and isothermal

(c) is valid for any reversible process

(d) is incorrect; it must be

[GATE-2008]

⦁ A compressor undergoes a steady reversible flow process. The gas at inlet and outlet
of the compressor is designated as state 1 and state 2 respectively. Potential and kinetic
energy changes are to be ignored. The following notations are used: v = specific
volume and p - pressure of the gas. The specific work required to be supplied to the
compressor for this gas compression process is
[ ][GATE-2009]

(a) (b) (c) (d)

8
9