Lesson

1 Reproduction and Development

Reproduction is an essential characteristic of organisms to perpetuate

their kind. Plants and animals can reproduce either sexually or asexually. The
table below shows the difference between asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

No. of parents
One Two
involved
Present; sperm has to fertilize the
Gametes No need for gamete union
egg
Genetic
Genetically identical to parent
composition of Generally, are hybrids of parents.
(Clone)
offspring

In terms of maximizing reproductive success, what is the advantage of

asexual reproduction? How about its disadvantage? (although, asexual
reproduction is extremely common to plants, it still has a downside).

Now that you already know the difference between sexual and asexual
reproduction, let us continue learning into a deeper understanding of plants and
animal reproduction.

PLANT REPRODUCTION
For plants, every structure in the body and physiological processes exists
for only one reason and it is to maximize its chances to produce offspring.
Reproduction is what’s unconsciously goal of every organisms do.

a. Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Many of the plants on earth are produced through asexual means. This
type of plants is advantageous when they are adapted to a particular
environment and the genetic variation among plant members is not a necessity.
One strategy of plants reproducing asexually is through vegetative reproduction
(a type of reproduction in plants from its vegetative parts or specialized
reproductive structures). The new plant that results from this type of reproduction
is identical to its parent plant. The structure in plants that reproduce vegetatively
came mostly from modified stems, such as runners, tubers, corm and rhizomes.

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 Stolon

Rhizome

Tuber Buds on leaf

Another method used for plants to grow is by means of artificial plant

propagation with a little help from the human. It is very useful because plants
can grow faster than plants grown from the seeds. Some plants such as
sugarcane, apple, pineapple, and other ornamental plants, can be propagated by
stem cuttings using this method.

Woody plants are reproduced through grafting, which attaches a piece of

stem from one plant to the root or root-bearing of another plant. The result of
combining it to a root-bearing stem host is called stock, and the grafted stem
part is called the scion. When the vascular stem of scion merged with that of the
stock, it will form a continuous vascular stem producing xylem and phloem to
transport water and other nutrients through the plant’s body.

b. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Are you amazed by the beautiful flowers around you? Most of us want to
have a flower in our garden because they are decorative in nature and they gives
us a very refreshing and wonderful feeling of happiness.

Angiosperms or flowering plants are widely distributed in the world. Their

life cycle centers on reproducing sexually through their flower. In what part of
the flower do you think sexual reproduction occur? Sexual reproduction occurs in
the sexual organ of the flower.

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 Let us examine a typical flower to see its parts and their role in plant
reproduction. Look parts of a complete flower below.

Male Organs of a Flower:

a. Stamen – male reproductive part of a flower.
b. Anther – makes tiny grains
called “pollen”, which contains
male sex cells
c. Filament – holds up the
anther.
Female Organs of a Flower:
a. Carpel – female
reproductive part
b. Stigma – top part of the
carpel with sticky surface to
trap the pollen
c. Style – joins the stigma and
the ovary
d. Ovary – Contains the female
sex cells called ovules Figure 2: Parts of a Flower

Now that you already know the reproductive parts of a flower, we can now
continue our lesson on how the attractive flower is useful in reproduction.

Flowering plants may develop and reproduce through pollination wherein

the pollen is transfer from the anther to the stigma. This will happen with the
help of insects, animals, and wind.

Another way on how flowering plants may be developed is through the

process of double fertilization. Double fertilization process is seen in plants that
bear fruits which may contain one or many seeds.

What do you think is the main purpose of fruits? Fruits have two purpose:
(1) to protect the seed from damage against animals and infectious agents, (2) to
aid in seed dispersal. A fruit sometimes can be a mature ovary and its seeds or
may include other parts of the flower. Some plants produce fleshy and edible
fruits such as apples and tomatoes, whereas others produce dry and inedible
fruits. Inside the seed, a plant embryo awaits its favorable growth.

Having an ovary allows the plant to produce seeds enclosed within the
fruits. Seeds protect the future embryo from harm and only grow when favorable
conditions exist. Seed can be classified as monocot and dicot. Monocot is a plant

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with one cotyledon inside its seed, while dicot is a plant with two cotyledons
inside its seed.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Just like this, reproduction is part of a life cycle in which individuals grow,
develop, and reproduce according to instructions encoded in DNA. And such is,
the most vital function of living organisms.

a. Asexual Reproduction in Animals

The type of reproduction in animals that reproduce asexually are commonly

found among lower forms of organisms such as protists, cnidarians, hydra,
amoeba, and some complex animals. The resulting offspring are identical to the
parent in terms of characteristics.
Why asexual reproduction is also called as ‘clonal reproduction’? There
are three mechanism how asexual reproduction mitosis occur to unicellular
organism showing the exact copy of the parent.
1. Fission – involves the division of body into two or more equal parts.
Example: Amoeba and Paramecium.
2. Budding – a new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) from its parent.
The new outgrowth can become an independent animal or may remain
to be attached to the parent forming a colony. Example: Hydra
3. Fragmentation – the body breaks into two or more parts, with each
fragment capable of becoming a complete individual. Example: Starfish
and Earthworms.

Did you know that animals which can reproduce asexually also reproduce
sexually? Well, in this case, a reproductive strategy is needed to ensure the
perpetuation and survival of their species. Some parasitic worms reproduce
asexually during certain stages of their life. Some species like flatworms,
roundworms annelids, crustaceans, insects, fishes, and some reptiles can
reproduce through the process known as parthenogenesis (parthenos-virgin;
genesis-birth). This modified process of sexual reproduction results in a complete
offspring from unfertilized eggs. Some species are completely parthenogenic
whereas others can switch between parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction,
depending on the condition of their environment.

The adaptive advantage of reproducing asexually is that an organism can

produce many offspring in a short period of time without exerting much energy
to produce a gamete or to find a mate. The population of organism can increase
rapidly when the conditions are favorable. The disadvantages include the lack of

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variation among individuals and the changing environment may wipe out a group
of organisms that cannot easily adapt to sudden changes of environment.

b. Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Most animals, particularly the higher forms, reproduce sexually (a process

in which new individuals are formed from sex cells or gametes) produced by the
parents in their sexual organs. The majority of these animals are dioecious
(separate sexes).

Sexual reproduction in animals occurs in three fundamental steps:

1. Gametogenesis : production of gametes
2. Spawning or mating: bringing gametes together
3. Fertilization: fusion of gametes (external fertilization or internal
fertilization)

Most numbers of vertebrates, earthworms, and some fishes are

hermaphrodites. Few vertebrates, many fishes and some lizards undergo the
process of sequential hermaphroditism or sex reversal (can change their sex) in
response to social or environmental challenges.

Animals like cnidarians develop temporary reproductive organ known as

gonads during fall (mating season). The rest of the animals in the kingdom has
permanent reproductive organs, such as testis (produce sperm) and ovaries
(produce eggs). The reproductive systems of animals have accessory ducts and
organs that aid the reproductive process of bringing the gametes together.

Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the joining of male and
female gametes during fertilization. The offspring inherit a mixture of genes from
both parents, so are different to each other and their parents. The advantages of
sexual reproduction: (1) produces genetic variation in the offspring; (2) the species
can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival
advantage, and (3) a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a
population. The only disadvantages of sexual reproduction are time and energy
are needed to find a mate and it is not possible for an isolated individual to
reproduce.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Human reproduction consists of two components – main reproductive

organs and accessory organs. Similar to other forms of animals, both have a pair
of gonads (testis and ovaries) containing germ cells that will later on, give rise to
mature sex cells or gametes. Male and female hormones control the maturity of
the reproductive systems and the development of secondary sexual
characteristics to prepare the body for reproductive processes.

Male Reproductive System

Examine the diagram showing the parts of the male reproductive system.
Be familiar with the specific functions of the parts.
• Testis – produce sperm cells
• Scrotum– pouch-like sac that holds the testis
• Penis – places sperms into the vagina during mating
• Vas deferens - transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that
carries urine or sperm to outside of the body, in preparation for
ejaculation.
• Glands - Provide liquid in which sperm can swim
a. seminal vesicle - Secretes one of the components of the semen
b. prostate gland - Secretes a milky fluid that is discharged into the
urethra as part of the semen.
c. Bulbourethral gland - Mucous secreting glands located at the base
of the penis.

Figure 3: Cross
Section of Male
Reproductive
System

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Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system has the following functions:

1. Production of female sex cells
2. Reception of sperm cells from the male.
3. Nurturing the development of, and providing nourishment for, the new
individual

Take a look at the diagram showing the parts of a female reproductive system.
Now, study the function of each part.
• Ovary - produces egg cells
• Oviduct - passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus (also the same
place where the egg is fertilized).
• Uterus - place where fertilized egg develops.
• Vagina - receives the penis of male during mating.
The female reproductive organ consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes
(fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands. The
internal reproductive organs of the female are located within the pelvis, between
the urinary bladder and rectum. The uterus and the vagina are in the middle
line, with an ovary on each side of the uterus.

Let us continue our discussion. Trace what happens to the ovulated egg after
fertilization until birth.

Figure 4: Female
Reproductive
System

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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Fertilization begins with the fusion of sperm and egg cell to form a fertilized
egg called a zygote. A series of cell division will take place as the zygote travels
down the fallopian tube going to the uterus. The journey will take about 6 to 7
days after fertilization. The zygote is like a ball of cells attached itself to the
uterine lining (endometrium) of the uterus in the process called implantation.
When the zygote is already attached, it is known as embryo. The embryo/fetus
will stay in the uterus for 9 months to develop until it is ready for birth.
The illustration shown in figure 5 will help you understand the early steps
of fertilization.

Figure 5: Steps of Fertilization

https://www.google.com/search?q=early+steps+of+fertilization&sxsrf=ALeKk00QxrkmW2W_keMcT3eJ3P

Embryonic and Fetal Development

Three weeks after fertilization, almost one-fourth of the inner surface of

the uterus will become a spongy tissue composed of endometrium and embryonic
membranes, the chorion. Through this tissue, the placenta and the embryo
receive nutrients and oxygen from the mother and send out wastes in return.

By looking at the figure, you will how the embryo developed from the first
trimester of the nine months of human development that extends from
fertilization to the end of the third month. It is the most critical period of
embryonic development. In the second trimester, the development period is from
the start of the fourth month to the end of the sixth month. All major organs
have formed, and the growing individual is now called a fetus. And in the third
trimester, the development of the fetus extends from the seventh month until
birth. By the middle of the third trimester, the fetus will be able to survive on its
own if born prematurely or removed surgically from the uterus. The advancement

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in medical science has allowed fetuses, as young as 23-25 weeks to survive early
delivery. Survival chances increase to about 95 percent in the 9th month.

Birth takes place about 9 months or approximately 40 weeks after

fertilization. The birth process begins when the uterus starts to contract. Birth
typically occurs less than an hour after full dilation. Immediately afterward,
uterine contraction forces fluid, blood, and the placenta from the body. The
umbilical cord is now cut, and the newborn embarks on its nurtured existence
in the outside world.

Figure 6: Human Development from Fertilization to Birth

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