CHAPTER

09

Ray Optics
Light is a form of energy which produces sensation of vision to our eyes and
makes objects visible. The branch of physics which deals with the study of nature
of light, its properties, effects and propagation is known as optics. The subject of
optics can be divided into two main branches—ray optics and wave optics.
(i) Ray or geometrical optics This branch of optics deals with propagation of
light in terms of rays which are valid, if sizes of obstacles are large in
comparison with wavelength of light (in nm range). Ray optics concerns
itself with image formation, reflection, refraction and dispersion of light by
geometrical methods.
(ii) Wave or physical optics This branch of optics deals with wave
phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarisation. Inside
In this chapter, we are going to learn ray optics step by step followed by
1 Reflection of light
light sources as well as properties of light. Reflection by a plane mirror

Light sources 2 Spherical mirrors

Image formation by spherical
We obtain light from different types of natural sources like sun, stars etc, and mirrors
from artificial sources (man made) like-candle, electric bulb, etc. On the basis of Mirror formula
this, light source can be categorised in two types as follows Magnification
Uses of spherical mirrors
(i) Luminous sources These sources can produce their own light, e.g. sun,
stars, electric bulb, etc. 3 Refraction of light
Refractive index (µ or n)
(ii) Non-luminous sources These sources cannot produce their own light but Image due to refraction at a
return the light coming from a luminous source, e.g. moon, glass, etc. plane surface
Refraction through a glass slab
Properties of light Critical angle and Total Internal
Reflection (TIR)
Following are the properties of light
4 Refraction at spherical
(i) Light is itself invisible but in its presence we can see objects due to surfaces
scattering of light. Lenses
Image formation by lens
(ii) Light is an electromagnetic wave which requires no medium for its
propagation and its speed in vacuum is 3 × 10 8 m/s. 5 Prism
Dispersion of light by a prism
(iii) The wavelength of visible light ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm. Combination of prisms
(iv) Light can be considered to propagate from one point to another, along a 6 Optical instruments
straight line joining them. The path is called a ray of light and a bundle of 7 Defects of vision
such rays constitutes a beam of light. Defects of images
(v) Light can pass through transparent mediums like glass, air, etc. However, it
cannot pass through non-transparent mediums like wood, iron, etc.
558 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(vi) Speed of light is different in different mediums. (ii) Second law The incident ray, the reflected ray and
(vii) Light can reflect from polished surfaces. the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
(viii) When light travels from one medium to another
These laws are valid for plane as well as curved
medium, it deviates from the path.
surfaces as shown in the figure given below.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
r
When light is incident on a polished smooth surface, i
i
then most of the incident light returns to the same r r
medium. This phenomenon of returning of light after i
striking a smooth polished surface is called reflection
of light.
Fig. 9.2 Reflection of light from curved surfaces
After reflection, velocity, wavelength and frequency of
light remains same but intensity decreases. Note
(i) In geometrical optics angles are measured with normal.
Incident Normal Reflected (ii) Also in geometrical optics, we deal with plane and spherical
ray N ray surfaces. In case of spherical surface, normal to surface will pass
A B
through centre of sphere.

Normal Normal
i r
M M′
O C
Fig. 9.1 Reflection of light (plane surface) 90°

Fig. 9.3
Some important terms related with Example 9.1 A ray of light is incident at an angle of 30° with
reflection of light the plane of a plane mirror. Find the angle of reflection.
(i) Reflecting surface The surface, after striking Sol. Consider the situation shown in the figure. Angle made by
which, light reflects is called reflecting surface the incident ray with the plane of the mirror MM ′ is
(MM ′). ∠AOM = 30°. Therefore, angle of incidence,
N
(ii) Incident ray The incident ray (AO ) on the reflecting A B
surface is called incident ray.
(iii) Reflected ray The reflected ray (OB ) after striking
i r
the reflecting surface is called reflected ray. 30°
M M′
(iv) Point of incidence It is the point (O) on the O
reflecting surface at which incident light strikes.
∠AON = i = ∠NOM − ∠AOM = 90° − 30° = 60°
(v) Normal It is the normal (ON) to the surface drawn Also, angle of reflection, ∠BON = r = i = 60°
from point of incidence (O) on the reflecting surface.
(vi) Angle of incidence It is the angle (i ) between Image
incident ray (AO) and the normal (ON). In the given Light rays emerging from an object (or a point) after
figure, ∠AON = i. reflection or refraction meets or appears to meet at a point
is called image of object (or first point).
(vii) Angle of reflection It is the angle (r ) between
reflected ray (OB) and the normal (ON). In the given Images are of two types
figure, ∠NOB = r. (i) Real image
When light rays emerging from a point object really meets
Laws of reflection at a point, the later point is called real image of the first
There are two laws for reflection of light from a smooth point. These types of images can be obtained on a screen.
reflecting surface.
(ii) Virtual image
(i) First law The angle of incidence is equal to the When light rays emerging from a point object appears to
angle of reflection, i.e. ∠i = ∠r. meet at a point, the later point is called virtual image of
Ray Optics 559

the first point. These types of images cannot be obtained

on a screen. Reflection by a plane mirror
Note If the incident rays diverge from a point object, the object is Characteristics of a plane mirror are given below
real object.
If rays are converging towards a mirror, the point where these
Properties of image formed by plane mirror
rays would meet if there was no mirror is a virtual object. The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, of
same size and at the same distance from the mirror as
Mirror the distance of object from mirror. The ray diagram of
There are two types of mirror the image of a point object and of an extended object is
as shown below.
(i) Plane mirror The mirror whose reflecting surface
is plane is called plane mirror. It’s one side is silvered
and reflection takes place from other side as shown
in the figure. O I
Reflecting surface Point object Image
Polished
surface

B B′
Extended object Image
A A′

Fig. 9.4 Plane mirror

Fig. 9.7 Formation of images by a plane mirror
(ii) Spherical mirror It is the part of a spherical When a convergent beam is incident on the plane mirror,
transparent medium. One of the curved surfaces is the object (O) is virtual as shown in figure. In this case
polished and reflection takes place from other side. image (I) formed by the plane mirror is real.
Spherical mirrors are of two types
(a) Concave mirror In this mirror, outer curved
surface is polished and reflection takes place from
inner curved surface as shown in figure. I O
(Real image) (Virtual object)
Reflecting Polished
surface surface
Fig. 9.8 Formation of image by plane mirror of a virtual object

Note To find the location of image of an object from an inclined

plane mirror, you have to see the perpendicular distance of the
object from the mirror.
Fig. 9.5 Concave mirror

(b) Convex mirror In this mirror, inner curved surface is

polished and reflection takes place from outer curved
M O
surface as shown in figure. M

O
Correct Wrong
OM = M OM = M
Fig. 9.9
Polished
surface
Deviation produced by a plane mirror
The angle between reflected ray and the ray extended in
Reflecting surface
the direction of incident ray, is called deviation produced
Fig. 9.6 Convex mirror by plane mirror.
560 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

A B Two important results based on the field of view are given

below
i r (i) The minimum height of a plane mirror to see object’s
δ
Plane mirror full height in it is H/2, where H is the height of
O object. But the mirror should be placed in a fixed
position as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Fig. 9.10 Deviation produced by plane mirror due to single reflection
A
Deviation produced by plane mirror is given by x F
B
δ = 180 ° − (i + r ) x
C
= 180° − 2i y
(x + y)

= 180° − 2r (Q i = r ) D
G
The deviation produced by reflection at two mirrors y
inclined to each other at an angle θ is E
Object
δ = 360 ° − 2θ
Fig. 9.12 Minimum height of plane mirror to see object’s full height
It is independent of the angle of incidence.
(i) If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at Height of the object AE = 2(x + y ) = H
90°, then the ray reflected at two mirrors becomes H
parallel to incident ray. Height of the mirror = (x + y ) =
2
As, δ = 360 ° − 2θ Note The mirror can be placed anywhere between the centre line BF
Here, θ = 90 ° (of AC ) and DG (of CE ).

∴ δ = 360 ° − 2 × 90 ° = 180 ° (ii) Minimum height of the plane mirror fixed on the
i.e. the reflected ray is parallel to incident ray. wall of a room in which an observer at the centre of
the room can see the full image of the wall behind
(ii) If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at 60° him, is one third the height of wall.
and a ray of light is incident on one mirror parallel
to other, then after reflection from two mirrors, the The minimum height of mirror in this case should be
reflected ray becomes parallel to the first mirror. H/3, where H is the height of wall. The ray diagram
in this case is drawn in Fig. 9.13.
Rotation produced in reflected ray due to A
J
2x
rotation of a plane mirror E x B
(i) For a given fixed incident ray, if the plane mirror is F x
rotated through an angle θ in the plane of incidence, (x + y) (x + y)
C
the reflected ray turns through an angle 2θ. y
I
M
M G y D
2y
θ K
C
θ Wall Man Mirror
θ d d
Fig. 9.13 Minimum height of plane mirror to see the wall of the room

Fig. 9.11 Rotating plane mirror by angle θ Height of the wall is 3 (x + y ) while that of the
(ii) If a plane mirror is rotated in its own plane, the mirror is (x + y ).
incident ray and the reflected ray remain at same
positions. Special cases of image formation through
a plane mirror
Field of view of an object for a plane mirror (i) If the object is displaced by a distance a towards or
The field of view is the region between the extreme away from the plane mirror, image will also be
reflected rays and depends on the location of the object in displaced by a distance a towards or away from the
front of the mirror. mirror.
Ray Optics 561

(ii) If an object approaches or recedes from the plane Example 9.2 A point object O is at an angle of 30° from the
mirror with velocity v, then the image also moves in plane mirror M, as shown in figure. If OO′ = 2 m, then find
the location of image.
the same manner from the mirror with velocity v.
O
But the velocity of the image with respect to object
will be 2v. 2m
(iii) If plane mirror moves a distance x towards or away 30°
from the object, the image will move a distance 2x M
O′
towards or away from the mirror/object.
(iv) If both plane mirror and object are moved by a Sol. To find the location of image, we have to draw a
perpendicular on the mirror M from point O as shown in figure.
distance x, each in opposite directions, the image
O
will be displaced by a distance 3x in the direction of
the displacement of the mirror.
2
(v) If a luminous object is placed in front of a thick glass
mirror, multiple images are formed due to multiple 30° A
M
reflections. The second image formed by the first O′
reflection by the polished surface is much brighter
than the others. The intensity of the other images
rapidly fade away. I

(vi) If an object is placed between two mirrors facing each Now from the triangle O ′ AO, we have
other at an angle θ, then the number of images is sin 30° =
OA
⇒ OA = 2 × sin 30° = 1 m
360° 2
given by = N and actual number of images are
θ ∴ Distance of the image from the mirror is AI = OA = 1 m.
n, where Example 9.3 Consider a ray of light is incident on a plane
mirror M. If deviation produced by the mirror in the incident
light ray is 120° then, find i and r.
O 1 2

θ r
i
Fig. 9.14 M
Sol.Deviation produced by the mirror is,
(a) n = N −1, if N is even integer. δ = 180° − 2i = 120° (given)
(b) n = N, if N is odd integer and object is not on the ⇒ 2i = 60° ⇒ i = 30°
bisector of mirrors. ∴ r = i = 30°
(c) n = N −1, if N is odd integer and object is on the Example 9.4 Two plane mirrors M1 and M 2 are inclined at
bisector of mirrors. angle θ as shown below. A ray of light 1, which is parallel to
360° M1 strikes M 2 and after two reflections, the ray 2 becomes
(d) If = N is a fraction, the number of images will parallel to M 2 . Find the angle θ.
θ
be equal to its lower boundary of integral part. 2
M2
Note
(i) If the mirrors are placed parallel to each other like shown below,
1
then Number of images = ∞ and distance between nth images,
N1 N2
I2 I1 O I1′ I2′
θ
M1
2p p q 2q 4q
Sol. Different angles are as shown in figure. In triangle ABC,
4p
Fig. 9.15
I mI n ′ = 2 mp + 2nq or I nI n ′ = 2n( p + q) θ
B
α
(ii) The number of images formed by two mutually perpendicular θ α
(θ = 90° mirrors will be 3. All these three images will lie on a circle αα α =90°– θ
with centre at C, the point of intersection of mirrors M1 and M2 and
θ θ θ
whose radius is equal to distance between C and the
A C
object O.
562 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

From ∆ABC, Sol. The object is moving towards right with a velocity of
θ + θ + θ = 180° u = 5 m/s
∴ θ = 60° (i) Velocity of image w.r.t. the mirror,
vIM = − u = 5 m/s, towards left.
Example 9.5 A ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an (ii) Velocity of image w.r.t. the object,
angle of 30° as shown in figure. Now the mirror is rotated vIO = − 2u = 2 × 5 m/s = 10 m/s, towards left.
through 30° in anti-clockwise direction. Find the angle and
sense of rotation of the reflected ray. Example 9.8 Consider two plane mirrors inclined at an angle
θ as shown in figure. Find the number of images of object O
formed by these mirrors when
M2
30°
M

Sol. Angle rotated by the plane mirror, θ = 30°, anti-clockwise. O

∴ Angle rotated by reflected ray, θr = 2θ = 60°, anti-clockwise. θ
M1
Example 9.6 A point source of light S, placed at a distance L
in front of the centre of a mirror of width d, hangs vertically (i) θ = 60°
on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror along a line (ii) θ = 72° and the object is at 40° from M1
parallel to the mirror at a distance 2L from it as shown (iii) θ = 72° and the object is at 36° from M1
below. Find the greatest distance over which he can see the (iv) θ = 80°
image of the light source in the mirror.
Sol. Two mirrors M1 and M 2 are inclined at angle θ.
360°
S Let, N =
d θ
360°
L (i) For θ = 60°, N = = 6 = even integer
2L 60°
∴ Number of images formed
Sol. The ray diagram will be as shown in figure given below.
HI = AB = d ⇒ DS = CD = d /2 n = N −1= 6 −1= 5
360°
Since, AH = 2AD (ii) For θ = 72°, N = = 5 = odd integer and the object
72°
G is not on the bisector,
C
∴ Number of images formed, n = N = 5
A φ 360°
φ
H (iii) For θ = 72° , N = = 5 = odd integer and the
D 72°
d S object is also at the bisector which is at 36°.
E
I ∴ Number of images formed
B
n = N −1= 5 −1= 4
F 360°
(iv) For θ = 80°, N = = 4.5 = a fraction
J 80°
∴ GH = 2 CD = 2 (d /2) = d ∴ Number of images formed,
Similarly, IJ = d n = integral part = 4
6m
∴ GJ = GH + HI + IJ = d + d + d = 3d Example 9.9 Two plane mirrors are placed
parallel to each other at a separation of 6m
Example 9.7 Consider a point object moving towards a as shown in figure. Find the (i) number of O
stationary plane mirror with velocity 5 m/s. Find velocity of images of the object O and (ii) separation 2m
image w.r.t. between 5th image.
Sol. Given, mirrors are placed parallel to each
other. Therefore,
5 m/s
I (i) Number of images formed = ∞
O
(ii) Distance between 5th images, I 5I 5′ = 2 × 5(x + y )
where, x = 6 − 2 = 4 m ⇒ y = 2 m
⇒ I 5I 5 ′ = 10(4 + 2) = 60 m
(i) the mirror (ii) the object
Ray Optics 563

CHECK POINT 9.1

1. Light falls on a plane reflecting surface. For what angle of 6. A man is 180 cm tall and his eyes are 10 cm below the top
incidence is the reflected ray normal to the incident ray? of his head. In order to see this entire height right from top
(a) 60° (b) 45° to head, he uses a plane mirror kept at a distance of 1 m
(c) 90° (d) 30° from him. The minimum length of the plane mirror is
2. Which of the following is correct for the image formed by a (a) 180 cm (b) 90 cm (c) 85 cm (d) 170 cm
plane mirror? 7. An object is moving towards a stationary plane mirror with
(a) Always real a speed of 2 m/s. Velocity of the image w.r.t. the object is
(b) Always virtual (a) 2 m/s (b) 4 m/s
(c) Virtual and laterally inverted (c) 1 m/s (d) None of these
(d) Real and laterally inverted
8. To get three images of a single object, one should have two
3. A plane mirror reflects a pencil of light to form a real image, plane mirrors at an angle of
then the pencil of light incident on the mirror is (a) 30° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 150°
(a) parallel (b) convergent
9. An object (O) is placed between two parallel plane mirrors as
(c) divergent (d) None of these
shown in figure. Distance between 4th image is
4. A ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an angle of 4m
30°. The deviation produced in the ray after reflection is
(a) 30° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 120°
5. If the reflected ray is rotated by an angle of 4θ in O
anti-clockwise direction, then the mirror was rotated by 1m
(a) 2θ in anti-clockwise direction
(b) 4θ in anti-clockwise direction
(c) 2θ in clockwise direction
(d) 4θ in clockwise direction (a) 16 m (b) 32 m (c) 8 m (d) 64 m

SPHERICAL MIRRORS Terms related to spherical mirror

These mirrors are those types of mirrors whose In case of these thin spherical mirrors important terms and their
reflecting surface is a part of a hollow sphere. definitions are as follows
Spherical mirrors are of two types (i) Pole (P) It is the mid-point of the mirror.
(i) Concave mirror (ii) Centre of curvature (C ) It is the centre of the sphere of
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards which the mirror is a part.
the centre of the sphere is called concave mirror. (iii) Radius of curvature (R ) Distance between pole and centre
Reflecting of curvature is called radius of curvature. In the given
surface A figure, the distance CP is radius of curvature.
Polished
R
surface (iv) Principal axis The line joining the pole P and centre of
P (Pole) curvature C when produced is called principal axis.
C

B
(v) Aperture (AB ) Effective diameter of light reflecting area of
Fig.9.16 Concave mirror as a the mirror is called aperture.
part of hollow sphere (vi) Principal focus or focus It is a point on the principal axis
(ii) Convex Mirror of the mirror at which the light rays coming parallel to
principal axis actually meet after reflection (or appears to
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away
meet).
from the centre of the sphere is called convex
mirror.
A
R Polished C F P
Reflecting surface P
surface P C F C
(Pole)
B
Fig. 9.17 Convex mirror as a part Fig. 9.18 Principal focus of (a) concave mirror (a converging
of hollow sphere mirror) (b) convex mirror (a diverging mirror)
564 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Concave Convex
Focus of concave mirror is real, while focus of convex
mirror is virtual.
(vii) Focal length The distance between pole and focus of a
spherical mirror is called its focal length. It is C C
represented by f. Focal length is independent of
medium. i.e., If a spherical mirror is placed in water or
any other mediums, its focal length remains unchanged. Fig. 9.20
Focal length of a mirror is equal to the half of radius
R Ray 2. A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection
of curvature of the mirror. i.e. f = . either actually passes through the principal focus F or
2 appears to diverge from it.
Note Focal length of a plane mirror is infinity and hence its power is
zero.

Sign convention
F F
To derive the relevant formulae for reflection by spherical
mirrors (concave or convex), we must first adopt a sign
convention for measuring distances. Fig. 9.21
Mirror Ray 3. A ray passing through the principal focus F or a
Direction of
Heights incident light ray which appears to converge at F is reflected parallel to
upwards the principal axis.
positive +ve
C (−ve), F (−ve) P (Pole)
Heights Distances against X-axis P F (+ve) C (+ve)
downwards incident light −ve
negative negative Distances along
incident light positive
Concave mirror Convex mirror F F

Fig. 9.19 Cartesian sign convention

Fig. 9.22
According to the Cartesian sign convention,
(i) All the distances are measured from pole (P ) of the Ray 4. A ray striking at pole P is reflected
mirrors. symmetrically back in the opposite side following the
(ii) The principal axis of the mirror is taken as X-axis laws of reflection.
and the pole as origin.
(iii) Distances measured in the direction of the incident
light are taken as positive and opposite to the
P
direction of incident light as negative. P
(iv) The heights measured upwards with respect to X-axis
and normal to the principal axis of the mirror are
taken as positive and the heights measured Fig. 9.23
downwards are taken as negative.

Rules for image formation in Image formation by spherical

spherical mirrors mirrors
In ray optics, to locate the image of an object, tracing of a
ray as it reflects is very important. Following four types of 1. Image formation by concave mirror
rays are used for image formation. In case of a concave mirror, the image is erect and virtual
Ray 1. A ray through the centre of curvature which strikes when the object is placed between F and P. In all other
the mirror normally and is reflected back along the same path. positions of object, the image is real and inverted as
shown in the table.
Ray Optics 565

Table for image formation by concave mirror

S.No. Position of Object Ray Diagram Properties of Image

A
At F
(i) At infinity infinity P Real, inverted, very small at F
C
B

M′

M
O

(ii) Between infinity and C P Real, inverted, diminished between F and C

C F

M′

M
O

(iii) At C P Real, inverted, equal in size at C

C F

M′

M
O

(iv) Between F and C P Real, inverted and very large between C and infinity
C F

I M′

M
O

(v) At F P Real, inverted, very large at infinity

C F

M′

(vi) Between F and P C Virtual, erect, large in size behind the mirror
F P
566 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

2. Image formation by convex mirror (ii) v versus u graph for a plane mirror
Image formed by convex mirror is always virtual, erect The focal length and the radius of curvature are infinite
and diminished no matter where the object is placed. All for a plane mirror.
the images formed by this mirror will be between pole and ∴ 1 1
From mirror formula + = 0 ⇒ v = − u
focus as shown in the table given below. v u
Table for image formation by convex mirror Thus, v versus u graph for a plane mirror is a straight line
with slope equal to − 1as shown in figure.
Position v
S.No. Ray Diagram Properties of Image
of Object
(i) At infinity Virtual, erect, very
M
A small in size at F
Image 135°
P u
F O
C
At infinity
B
N
Fig. 9.25 v versus u graph of a plane mirror
(ii) In front of Virtual, erect,
mirror (at diminished between P (iii) v versus u graph for a spherical mirror
finite and F
distance) For a spherical mirror v versus u graph is a rectangular
P F hyperbola as shown in figure.
v v

Mirror formula u
The relation among object distance (u ), image distance (v ) −f O f (+f, +f )
u
and focal length (f ) of a mirror (concave or convex) can be −f
(−f, −f )
O f
established as
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
For a concave mirror For a convex mirror
Fig. 9.26 v versus u graph for a spherical mirror
C I F 1 1
P
O (iv) versus graph for a spherical mirror
v u
1 1
f For a spherical mirror versus graph is a straight line as
R v u
v shown in figure.
u
1
Fig. 9.24 Image and object distances in a concave mirror v +1
f
Important informations related to
mirror formula 1
(i) Newton’s formula −1 O +1 u
Co
nv

f f
Co

ex

In case of spherical mirrors, if object distance x 1 and image −1

n
ca

m
ve

irr

f
distance x 2 are measured from focus instead of pole, then
or
m
irr

u = (f + x 1 ) and v = (f + x 2 ). The mirror formula,

or

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = reduces to, + = Fig. 9.27 versus graph for a spherical mirror
v u f f + x 2 f + x1 f v u
which on simplification gives, Note Coordinates of an object if given by (x0, y 0 ), then coordinates of
image is
x 1x 2 = f 2
 fx fy 0 
This formula is called Newton’s formula. ( x1 , y1) =  0 , 
 x0 − f f − x0 
Ray Optics 567

| vI | < | v o |
Magnification (b) When the object moves from F to P, the virtual
The ratio of height of image formed by the mirror to height image moves from infinity (∞) to P, then
of object is called magnification produced by the mirror. | vI | > | v o |
The lateral, transverse or linear magnification (m) (c) When object is either at C or P, then
When an object is placed perpendicular to principal axis | vI | = | v o |
then the lateral, transverse or linear magnification is given
as, Areal magnification (m a )
It is given by ratio of area of image (AI ) and area of object (AO )
Height of image
m= AI v 
2
 f  f −v
2 2
Height of object ∴ ma = =  =  = 
AO  u  f − u  f 
v f f −v
Also, m=− = = Few important points related to magnification of mirrors
u f −u f
(i) For real extended object, if the image is erect and
Axial or longitudinal magnification (m L ) virtual, then for,
When an object is placed along principal axis, then Concave mirror : m > 1,
Plane mirror : m = 1and
u2
Convex mirror : m < 1
u1
I (ii) If the image is real, then the mirror is concave and
P for the object
O
v1
v2 Beyond C : m < −1
At C : m = −1and Between C and F : m > −1
Fig. 9.28 An object placed in front of concave mirror
Example 9.10 An object is 30.0 cm from a spherical mirror,
− Length of image (v − v 1 ) ∆v along the central axis. The absolute value of lateral
mL = =− 2 =−
Length of object u 2 − u1 ∆u magnification is 1/2. The image produced is inverted. What
is the focal length of the mirror?
If length of the object is small,
Sol. Image is inverted, so it is real, u and v both are negative.
dv 1 u
mL = Magnification is , therefore, v = .
du 2 2
1 1 1 Given, u = – 30 cm and v = –15 cm
from mirror formula, + = Using the mirror formula,
v u f
1 1 1
By differentiation, we get + =
v u f
1 dv 1
− 2 =0 1 1 1 1
v 2 du
u we have, = − =−
f −15 30 10
dv v 2  ∴ Focal length f = –10 cm
or = −  2  ⇒ mL = − m 2
du u  Example 9.11 A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a
Here, du = object length and dv = image length convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the location of the
image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the
Also, when object is moving, then we can write needle is moved farther from the mirror?
2 2
Velocity of image (v I ) v   f  Sol. Using the relation,
=−  =−  1 1 1
Velocity of object (v O ) u u − f  = + , we get
f u v
On the basis of the above relation, following inferences
1 1 1 1  1 
can be given = − = − 
v f u 15  −12
(a) When object moves from − ∞ to F, the real image
20
moves from F to − ∞ and when the object is placed ∴ v= cm = + 6.67 cm ≈ 6.7 cm
between − ∞ to C, then 3
The positive sign shows that the image is formed behind the
| vI | < | v o |
mirror.
But, when the object is placed between C to F, then
568 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

v Example 9.14 Find the distance of object from a concave

Using the relation, magnification m = − , we get
u mirror of focal length 10 cm, so that image size is four times
(20 / 3) 5 the size of the object.
m=− =+
−12 9 Sol. Concave mirror can form real as well as virtual image. Here
Hence, the image is virtual, erect and diminished. nature of image is not given in the question. So, we will
consider two possible cases.
As the needle is moved farther from the mirror, the image
moves towards the focus (upto the focus only) and gets smaller Case I (When image is real) Real image is formed on the
and smaller in size. same side of the object, i.e., u, v and f all are negative. So let,
u=−x
Example 9.12 A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed 27 cm
v
in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 36 cm. At then, v = − 4x as = |m | = 4
what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in u
order to obtain a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of and f = –10 cm
the image. 1 1 1
1 1 1 Substituting in, + =
Sol. (a) Using the relation, + = v u f
u v f 1 1 1 5 1
1 1 1 1 1 We have − = or =
= − = − – 4x x −10 4x 10
v f u −18 (−27)
∴ x =12.5 cm
∴ v = − 54 cm
Note |x| > |f| and we know that in case of a concave mirror, image is
The negative sign shows that the image is formed in front of
real when object lies beyond F.
the mirror, i.e., on the side of the object itself. Thus, the screen
must be placed at a distance of 54 cm in front of the mirror. Case II (When image is virtual) Mirror image is virtual
v I when it is formed behind the mirror, i.e., u and f are negative
(b) Magnification, m = − = while v is positive. So let,
u O
I (−54) u=− y
we get, =− then, v = + 4 y and f = − 10 cm
2.5 (−27)
1 1 1
or I = (2.5) × (−2) = −5 cm Substituting in, + =
v u f
Thus, clearly the image is real, inverted and magnified.
1 1 1
Example 9.13 Determine the diameter of the image formed by we have, − =
4 y y −10
a spherical concave mirror of focal length 8 m. The diameter
of the moon is 3450 km and the distance between the earth 3 1
or =
and the moon is approx. 4 × 10 5 km. 4 y 10
Sol. or y = 7.5 cm
d Note Here|y | < |f |, as we know that image is virtual when the object

D θ P
lies between F and P.

Example 9.15 A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of

24 cm. How far is an object from the mirror, if an image is
f formed that is
L (i) virtual and 3.0 times the size of the object,
(ii) real and 3.0 times the size of the object and
The image will be formed at focus because object is at (iii) real and 1/3rd the size of the object?
large distance.
Sol. Given, R = − 24 cm (concave mirror)
The angle subtended by diameter of moon at pole,
R
D D
tan θ = , since θ is small, tan θ = radian Hence, f = = − 12 cm
L L 2
d D (i) Image is virtual and 3 times larger. Hence, u is negative
By similar triangles, θ = = and v is positive. Simultaneously, | v | = 3 | u |. So let,
f L
u = – x then, v = + 3x
Diameter of image of moon, 1 1 1
Substituting values in the mirror formula + = , we
v u f
D 3450 × 103
d = fθ = f =8× = 0.069 m = 6.9 cm have
L 4 × 108
Ray Optics 569

1 1 1 1 1 5 − 8 + 5 −3
– = =− + = =
3x x –12 v f 8f 8f 8f
∴ x = 8 cm 8f
Therefore, object distance is 8 cm. ⇒ v=−
3
(ii) Image is real and three times larger. Hence, u and v both
are negative and | v | = 3 | u |. So let,
u=−x A′ B′
P
then, v = − 3x
Substituting values in mirror formula, we have
1 1 1
− =−
−3 x x 12 2f
or x =16 cm 8f / 5

∴ Object distance should be 16 cm. 8f

Image length, A′ B ′ = − 2 f = −2 f / 5
1 5
(iii) Image is real and rd the size of object. Hence, both u
3 −A ′ B ′ 2 f / 5
|u | Longitudinal magnification, m L = = =2
and v are negative and | v | = . So let, AB f /5
3
u=−x
x Uses of spherical mirrors
then, v=−
3 Uses of spherical mirrors (concave and convex mirrors) are
Substituting values in the mirror formula, we have given below
3 1 1 Concave mirrors
– – =–
x x 12
(i) It is used as reflectors in search light, cinema
or x = 48 cm
projectors and headlights of vehicles, etc.
∴ Object distance should be 48 cm.
(ii) Concave mirror is also used as face looking or shaving
Example 9.16 A thin stick of length f/5 is placed along the mirror because it forms erect and magnified image.
principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length f such that (iii) These mirrors are used in dish antennas.
its image which is real and elongated just touches the stick.
What is the magnification? (iv) Concave mirrors are used by dentists and ENT
Sol. One end of image coincides with one end of stick i.e., either
specialists, in solar cookers, etc.
A or B is centre of curvature. Convex mirrors
(i) It is used as a reflector in street lamps to diverge the
B A light over a large area.
P
8f (ii) Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirror (or
f/5 5 driver’s mirror) in vehicles, because it has a wider
field of view than a plane mirror as shown in figure.
2f

Since image is elongated, i.e. point B is centre of curvature.

Image of B is formed on B itself. Field of
Image of A view
Field of of convex
− 8f
u = − (2f − f / 5) = view mirror
3 of a
O
plane
f = − f, v = ? mirror
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
1 1 1
⇒ + =
v −8 f / 5 − f
Fig. 9.29
570 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

CHECK POINT 9.2

1. A concave mirror of focal length f (in air) is immersed in 6. The focal length of a concave mirror is 50 cm. Where should
water (µ = 4/ 3). The focal length of the mirror in water will be the object placed, so that its image is two times and
be inverted?
4 3 7 (a) 75 cm (b) 60 cm
(a) f (b) f (c) f (d) f
3 4 3 (c) 125 cm (d) 50 cm
2. An object is placed 40 cm from a concave mirror of focal 7. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length 30 cm
length 20 cm. The image formed is is a quarter of the size of the object. The distance of the
(a) real, inverted and same in size object from the mirror is
(b) real, inverted and smaller in size (a) 30 cm (b) 90 cm (c) 120 cm (d) 60 cm
(c) virtual, erect and larger in size
8. A concave mirror gives an image three times as large as the
(d) virtual, erect and smaller in size
object placed at a distance of 20 cm from it. For the image
3. A point object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a to be real, the focal length should be
convex mirror of focal length 30 cm. The image will form at (a) 10 cm (b) 15 cm
(a) infinity (b) pole (c) 20 cm (d) 30 cm
(c) focus (d) 15 cm behind the mirror
9. An object of size 7.5 cm is placed infront of a convex mirror
4. An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a concave of radius of curvature 25 cm at a distance of 40 cm.The size
mirror and its real image is formed at a distance of 30 cm of the image should be
from the mirror. The focal length of the mirror is (a) 2.3 cm (b) 1.78 cm
(a) − 15cm (b) − 45cm (c) 1 cm (d) 0.8 cm
(c) − 30 cm (d) − 20 cm
10. A point object is placed at a distance of 10 cm and its real
5. A convex mirror of focal length f forms an image which is1/ n image is formed at a distance of 20 cm from a concave
times the object. The distance of the object from the mirror is mirror. If the object is moved by 0.1 cm towards the mirror,
n − 1
(a) (n −1) f (b)  f the image will shift by about
 n  (a) 0.4 cm away from the mirror
n + 1
(c)  f (d) (n + 1) f (b) 0.8 cm away from the mirror
 n  (c) 0.4 cm towards the mirror
(d) 0.8 cm towards the mirror

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When a light passes from one medium to another medium, Laws of refraction
it deviates from its original path. The phenomenon of There are two laws of refraction as follows
change in path of light at the boundary of separation of
(i) For two particular media, the ratio of the sine of the
two media, as it goes from one medium to another medium
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
is called refraction. sin i
refraction is constant, i.e. = constant …(i)
sin r
In
ci
d

Inc

This is known as Snell’s law.

en
t

ide
ra
y

i (ii) The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray at
nt

1 Air (Rarer) Denser

ray

i the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

2 Glass (Denser) Note The angle of deviation on refraction is δ =|i − r |. If the incident
Re

r Re
Rarer
fra

r fra ray is normal, refraction takes place without bending. In this case
cte
cte

d ray i = r = 0, i.e., incident ray passes undeviated.

dr
ay

Refractive index (µ or n)
Fig.9.30 Refraction of light sin i
The constant ratio is called the relative refractive
● When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser sin r
medium, it bends towards the normal. index, for light passing from the first to the second
● When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
medium, it bends away from the normal. sin i µ 2
Thus, µ= = …(ii)
sin r µ 1
Ray Optics 571

Absolute refractive index µ2 µ1

(iii) Since, 1µ 2 = and 2µ1 =
When light travels from vacuum (or air) to any transparent µ1 µ2
medium, then refractive index of medium with respect to 1
vacuum (or air) is called absolute refractive index i.e., ∴ 1µ 2 =
2µ1
speed of light in vacuum c
µ= = Similarly, for three mediums,
speed of light in medium v
µ2 µ µ1
1µ 2 = , 2 µ 3 = 3 and 3µ1 =
Relative refractive index µ1 µ2 µ3
When light travels from medium (1) to medium (2), then ∴ 1 µ 2 × 2µ 3 × 3µ1 = 1
refractive index of medium (2) with respect to medium (1)
For n mediums,
µ
is called relative refractive index i.e., 1 µ 2 = 2 1µ 2 × 2µ 3 × 3µ 4 × K × (n − 1)µ n = 1µ n
µ1
It is called reversibility of light. According to this
Refractive index is a dimensionless quantity and have no principle, when a light ray, after suffering n number
unit. of reflections and refractions, will has its final path
reversed, i.e. it travels back along its entire initial
Dependence of refractive index path.
The value of refractive index depends on
(iv) Snell’s law can also be written as,
(i) The nature of the two media.
sin i v 1 λ µ
(ii) The temperature of the media. 1µ 2 = = = 1 = 2 …(iii)
(iii) The wavelength of the light. sin r v 2 λ 2 µ 1
(iv) It does not depend on the value of i (however Here, v 1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v 2 in
sin i medium 2. Similarly, λ 1 and λ 2 are the
refractive index = ) for a pair of media.
sin r corresponding wavelengths.
(v) According to Cauchy’s formula,
B
µ =A+ 2
λ i1 i
1 Rarer 1 Denser
where, A and B are constants.
2 Denser 2 Rarer
∴ As λ increases, µ decreases. i
r
Important points about refractive index
(i) Refractive index is a property of the medium. i>r i<r
(ii) A medium with higher value of µ is called denser v2 < v1 v2 > v1
medium and with the lower value of µ is called rarer µ 2 > µ1 µ2 < µ1
λ2 < λ1 λ2 > λ1
medium.
(a) (b)
(iii) The minimum value of refractive index (absolute) is
Fig. 9.31 Light ray travelling from (a) Rarer to denser medium and
1 for vacuum. For air, it is 1.003 but practically, we (b) denser to rarer medium
will use µ = 1for air.
(iv) Maximum value of µ is 2.46 for diamond. (v) As a ray of light moves from medium (1) to medium
(2), its wavelength changes but its frequency remains
Special points about refraction constant.
(i) We can write Snell’s law as, Medium 1 Medium 2
µ sini = constant …(i)
For two media, µ 1 sin i = µ 2 sin r
µ2 sin i
or = = 1µ 2 …(ii)
µ 1 sin r
λ1 λ2
(ii) From Eq. (i), we can see that i > r if µ 2 > µ 1, i.e. if a
ray of light passes from a rarer to a denser medium it
bends towards normal and vice-versa.
Fig. 9.32
572 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(vi) Experiments show that, if the boundaries of the Sol. In the figure, r = 90 – i
media are parallel, then the emergent ray CD, is
parallel to the incident ray, however it is laterally Incident ray Reflected ray
displaced.
i i
We can also directly apply the Snell’s law, in 90° – i
i
medium 1 and 5, i.e. µ 1 sini1 = µ 5 sini 5 r
⇒ i1 = i 5 if µ 1 = µ 5 (Qµ sini = constant)
Refracted ray
D

From Snell’s law,

Emergent ray
sin i sin i sin i
i5 1.5 = = = = tan i
C sin r sin (90° – i ) cos i
∴ Angle of incidence, i = tan–1 (1.5) = 56.3°
B
i1 Example 9.20 Refractive index of glass with respect to water
is ( 9/8). Refractive index of glass with respect to air is (3/2).
Incident ray
Find the refractive index of water with respect to air.
A Sol. Given, wµ g = 9/8 and aµ g = 3 /2
1 2 3 4 5
As, aµ g × gµ w × wµ a = 1
Fig. 9.33
1 aµ g
∴ = aµ w = aµ g × gµ w =
If any of the boundary is not parallel we cannot use µ
w a wµ g
this law directly by jumping the intervening media.
∴ Refractive index of water with respect to air,
Example 9.17 (i) Find the speed of light of wavelength 3 /2 4
aµ w = =
λ = 780nm (in air) in a medium of refractive index 9/8 3
µ = 1.55.
Example 9.21 Figures (a) and (b) show refraction of an
(ii) What is the wavelength of this light in the given medium?
incident ray in air at 60° with the normal to a glass-air and
c 3.0 × 108 water-air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of
Sol. (i) Speed of light, v = =
µ 1.55 refraction in glass when the angle of incidence in water is
45° with the normal to a water-glass interface [Fig. (c)]
= 1.94 × 108 m/s
(ii) Wavelength of light in the given medium,
λ 780 35°
λ medium = air = ≈ 503 nm 60° α
µ 1.55 Glass Air Glass
Air Water Water
Example 9.18 Light of wavelength 300 nm in medium A 60° 45°
enters into medium B through a plane surface. If frequency 47°
of light is 5 × 1014 Hz and v A /v B = 4/5, then find absolute (a) (b) (c)
refractive indices of media A and B.
Sol. Speed, v A = νλ A = 5 × 1014 × 300 × 10−9 = 1.5 × 108 m/s Sol. From Fig. (a),
8 i = angle of incidence = 60°
c 3 × 10
Absolute refractive index, µ A = = =2 r = angle of refraction = 35°
v A 1.5 × 108
∴ Refractive index of glass with respect to air,
1 sin i sin 60° 0.8660
We have, µ∝
v aµ g = = = = 1.51
sin r sin 35° 0.5736
µ A vB 2 5 From Fig. (b), here, i = 60° and r = 47°
∴ = ⇒ =
µB v A µB 4 ∴ Refractive index of water with respect to air,
2×8 sin i sin 60° 0.8660
Refractive index, µ B = = 3.2 aµ w = = = = 118
.
5 sin r sin 47° 0.7314
Example 9.19 A ray of light falls on a glass plate of ∴ We have aµ g = aµ w × wµ g
refractive index µ = 1.5. What is the angle of incidence of aµ g 1.51
the ray, if the angle between the reflected and refracted rays or wµ g = = = 1.28
is 90°? aµ w 1.18
Ray Optics 573

From Fig. (c), i = angle of incidence = 45° In the figure, ∠AOB will be r and ∠AIB is i. For
∴ Using the relation, normal incidence, (i.e. small angles of i and r)
sin i
wµ g = D
sin r
C
sin 45° Air
i
or 1.28 =
sin r Medium A B
i r d/µ
sin 45° 1 / 2 (Glass, I
or sin r = = water, etc.)
1.28 1.28 r
0.707 d
O
= = 0.5525
1.28 Fig. 9.34 Object is in denser medium
= sin 33.53°
AB
∴ Angle of refraction, r = 33.53° sin i ≈ tan i = …(i)
AI
Example 9.22 A pile 4 m high driven into the bottom of a AB
lake is 1 m above the water. Determine the length of the and sin r ≈ tan r = …(ii)
shadow of the pile on the bottom of the lake, if the sun rays AO
make an angle of 45° with the water surface. The refractive On dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we have
index of water is 4/3. sin i AO
4 sin 45° =
Sol. From Snell’s law, = sin r AI
3 sin r AO  sin i 
or µ= Q = µ
A AI  sin r 
AO d
45

1m ∴ AI = =
°
45

D µ µ
°

B 1m
r If point O is at a depth of d from a water surface,
3m then the above result is also sometimes written as
AO (= d actual ) d
AI = d apparent = =
µ µ
C E F
 1
Solving this equation, we get, r = 32° ∴ Shift = OI = AO − AI = d 1 − 
Further, EF = (DE ) tan r = (3) tan 32° = 1.88 m  µ
∴ Total length of shadow, L = CF  1
or L = (1 + 1.88) m = 2.88 m Apparent shift = d 1 − 
 µ
Image due to refraction at a where, d is actual depth of the object in the denser
plane surface medium of refractive index µ.
When a light ray passes from one medium to another Lateral magnification
medium, then it bends at the interface of the two media. If immiscible liquids of refractive indices µ 1, µ 2 and µ 3
Due to this bending or refraction of light, image is formed (with µ 3 > µ 2 > µ 1) are filled in a vessel. Their depths are
which creates an illusion of the shifting of the object position. d 1, d 2 and d 3, respectively. Then, the apparent depth (for
Following two types of shifts are possible after refraction normal incidence) when seen from top of the first liquid
from a plane surface will be
Type I The object (O) is in denser medium (glass,
water, etc.) and is seen from rarer medium (air)
normally through plane surface. µ1 d1
In this condition, due to refraction of light, object in µ2 d2
the denser medium as seen from rarer medium
µ3 d3
seems to be raised above as compared to its actual
depth below the boundary of denser medium. Fig. 9.35
574 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

d1 d 2 d 3 Example 9.24 Consider the situation as shown in the diagram.

d app = + +
µ1 µ 2 µ 3
d1 d 2 d
Similarly for n liquids, d app = + + ... + n
µ1 µ 2 µn
1 h
Also apparent shift of the bottom will be upwards which is P
given as
µ
 1  1
Apparent shift = d 1 1 −  + d 2 1 −  d
 µ1   µ2 
 1
+ ... + d n 1 − 
 µn 
Type II The object (O) is in rarer medium (air) and is
seen from denser medium (glass, water, etc.), Find the distance between sparrow and fish as seen by
normally through plane surface. (i) sparrow and (ii) fish.
In this condition, due to refraction of light, object in Sol. (i) For sparrow, fish will appear nearer at distance d/µ
from P,
the rarer medium as seen from denser medium
seems to be raised above as compared to its actual S
height above the boundary of rarer medium. As the
ray of light passes from rarer to denser medium, it h
bends towards the normal and hence the object will
appear farther (at I) as shown in figure. P

I d/µ
r d
F′
O
µh
i F
h
i d
B Air SF ′ = h +
A Medium µ
r
(Glass, (ii) For fish, sparrow will appear farther at distance µh
water, etc.) from P
Fig. 9.36 Object is in rarer medium S′
Proceeding as previous Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get µh S
sin i tan i AB  AI  h
µ= = = ×  P
sin r tan r AO  AB 
⇒ AI = µ (AO ) = µ(h ) d
F
∴ Apparent height (AI ) = µ (actual height)
and shift = OI = AI − AO = (µ − 1)h FS ′ = d + µh
Note In all the above cases, the change in the value of x (depth or Example 9.25 A fish in an aquarium, approaches the left wall
height) is µ times whether it is increasing or decreasing. All the at a rate of 3 ms −1, and observes a fly approaching it at
relations can be derived for small angles of incidence as done in 8 ms −1. If the refractive index of water is (4/3), then find the
type I. actual velocity of the fly.
Example 9.23 A printed page is kept pressed by a glass cube
(µ = 1.5) of edge 9.0 cm. By what amount will the printed
letters appear to be shifted when viewed from the top?
x
Sol. The thickness of the cube = t = 9.0 cm. The shift in the y
position of the printed letters is
 1  1 µx
∆d = 1 −  d = 1 −  × 9.0 cm = 3.0 cm
 µ  1.5
Ray Optics 575

Sol. For the fish, apparent distance of the fly from the wall of Example 9.27 Consider the situation shown in figure.
the aquarium is µx. If x is actual distance, then apparent E
d (µx )
velocity will be =
dt 6 cm
(v app )fly = µ v fly
Now, the fish observes the velocity of the fly to be 8 ms−1. 3 µ=3 t3 = 6 cm
Therefore, apparent relative velocity = 8 ms−1
1 cm
⇒ v fish + (v app )fly = 8 ms−1 ⇒ 3 + µv fly = 8
2 µ=4 t2 = 4 cm
3
∴ Velocity of fly v fly = 5 × = 3.75 ms−1
4 1 cm

Example 9.26 A concave mirror of radius of curvature 2 m is 1 µ = 1.5 t1 = 3 cm

placed at the bottom of a tank of water. The mirror forms an
image of the sun when it is directly overhead. Calculate the 6 cm
distance of the images from the mirror for (i) 160 cm and (ii) O
80 cm of water in the tank. (Take, µ = 4/3 for water) Find distance of image of O from eye E.
Sol. (i) When the depth of the water is 160 cm. Sol. Shift by (1); t1(1 − 1/µ1) = 3(1 − 2 /3) = 1 cm
Shift by (2); t 2 (1 − 1 / µ 2 ) = 4 (1 − 1/ 4) = 3 cm
Shift by (3); t 3 (1 − 1/µ 3 ) = 6(1 − 1/3) = 4 cm
Total shift = 1 + 3 + 4 = 8 cm
I
160 cm Image of O is formed at I.
100 cm OI = 8 cm ⇒ EO = 6 + 6 + 1 + 4 + 1 + 3 + 6 = 27 cm
EI = EO − OI = 27 − 8 = 19 cm
P

R 200
Refraction through a glass slab
Focal length of mirror, f = = = 100 cm
2 2 Normal shift
For parallel rays, image is formed at focus of mirror, If a glass slab is placed in the path of a converging or
PI = 100 cm diverging beam of light, then point of convergence or point
(ii) When depth of water is 80 cm of divergence appears to be shifted as shown in figure.
 1
Normal shift, OO ′ = x = 1 −  t
O
 µ

I
A O
B
r I
100 cm i
µ 80 cm A B
i O′ O
x
µ
P
t
µ sin i = 1 × sin r Fig. 9.37 Normal shift by a glass slab
As angles i and r are small, sin i = tan i , sin r −~ tan r
Note Due to slab, if the µ slab > µ medium , then the shift is along the
µ tan i = tan r
direction of incident ray and if, µ slab < µ medium , then the shift will
4 AB AB 4 1 1
⋅ = ⇒ ⋅ = be in opposite direction.
3 OB BI 3 20 BI
BI = 15 cm Lateral shift
⇒ PI = 80 + BI = 80 + 15 = 95 cm When a light ray passes through a glass slab it is refracted
Alternatively twice at the two parallel faces and finally emerges out
4 parallel to it’s incident direction i.e., the ray undergoes no
µ (BI ) = BO ⇒ × BI = 20 ⇒ BI = 15 cm
3 deviation δ = 0.
576 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

The angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of t sin(i − r )  cos i 

incidence (i). The lateral shift of the ray is the Lateral shift, BC = = t sin i 1 − 
cos r  µ − sin2 i
2

perpendicular distance between the incident and emergent
ray and it is given by BC = d = t sec r sin(i − r ).  
cos 45°
= 4 sin 45° 1 − 
i  (2)2 − (sin2 45° ) 
P A Q
4  1/ 2 
= 1 − 
r 2 4 − 1/2 
(i−

t
r)

90º C
 1 
d = 2 2 1 −  = 1.76 cm
S D Be R
 7
Example 9.30 A point object O is placed in front of a concave
Fig. 9.38 Lateral shift by a glass slab mirror of focal length 10 cm. A glass slab of refractive index
  µ = 3/2 and thickness 6 cm is inserted between object and
cos i mirror. Find the position of final image when the distance x
or d = 1 −  t sin i
 µ 2 − sin 2 i  shown in figure is
(i) 5 cm and (ii) 20 cm
 µ − 1
For small angles of incidence, d = ti   6 cm
 µ 
Note Optical path is defined as distance travelled by light in vacuum
in the same time in which it travels a given path length in a
medium. Time taken by light ray to pass through the other
µx O
medium is , where x = geometrical path and µx optical path.
c

Example 9.28 A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from x

above from a distance of 50 cm. By what distance would the 32 cm
pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point
through a 15 cm thick glass slab held parallel to the table?
Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer depend on Sol. As we know, the normal shift produced by a glass slab,
the location of the slab?  1  2
∆x = 1 −  t = 1 −  (6) = 2 cm
t  1  µ  3
Sol. As we know, d = normal shift = t − = t 1 − 
µ  µ i.e., for the mirror the object is placed at a distance
 1  2 1 ( 32 – ∆x ) = 32 − 2 = 30 cm from it.
= 15 1 −  = 15 1 −  = 15 × = 5 cm Applying mirror formula,
 1.5  3 3
1 1 1
i.e., the pin appears to be raised by 5 cm. + =
v u f
No, the answer does not depend upon the location of the slab
for small angles of incidence. 1 1 1
or − =−
v 30 10
Example 9.29 A light ray is incident at an angle of 45° with or v = − 15 cm
the normal on a 4 cm thick plate (µ = 2.0). Find the shift in
(i) When x = 5 cm The light falls on the slab on its return
the path of the light as it emerges out from the plate.
journey as shown. But the slab will again shift it by a
Sol. Consider the ray diagram as shown below distance, ∆x = 2 cm. Hence, the final real image is
i= formed at a distance (15 + 2) = 17 cm from the mirror.
45
°
A
µ=2 i–r
r
I
t = 4 cm
∆x
90° C

D B
i Lateral shift 15 cm
Ray Optics 577

(ii) When x = 20 cm This time also the final image is at a

distance 17 cm from the mirror but it is virtual as
Applications of total internal reflection
shown. TIR has following applications
15 cm (i) Totally reflecting prisms
Prisms are right-angled isosceles triangle which turn, the
light ray by 90° or 180°. They are based on the phenomenon
of total internal reflection. Refractive index of crown glass is 3/2.
I
P
∆x 45°
45°
O A
45°
Critical angle and Total Internal 45°
45°
Reflection (TIR) Q R

Whenever a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a 45°

B
rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. As angle of (a) (b)
incidence in denser medium increases, angle of refraction Fig. 9.40 Prism reflectors
also increases in rarer medium.
 1  2
Hence, C = sin –1   = sin –1   ≈ 42°
i<c µ 3
Rarer µr
Denser i=c µd In totally reflecting glass prisms, angle of incidence is
i i
µd > µ r
made 45° ( > C ).
i>c
(ii) Optical fibres
It is a thin tube of transparent material that allows light to
Fig. 9.39 Total internal reflection
pass through, without being refracted into the air or
The angle of incidence (∠i ) in denser medium for which another external medium. These fibres work on the
the angle of refraction (∠r ) in rarer medium is 90° is principle of total internal reflection.
called the critical angle (∠C or ∠θ C ). Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite
sin C µ µ glass/quartz fibres. The refractive index of core is higher
⇒ = rarer = r
sin 90° µ denser µ d than that of the cladding. When a signal in the form of
µ light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle,
⇒ sinC = r it undergoes repeated total internal reflection along the
µd length of the fibre and finally comes out from other end.
µ  Due to total internal reflection at each stage, no absorption
⇒ C = sin −1  r  of light takes places i.e., there is no appreciable loss in the
µd 
intensity of light.
Now, if the angle of incidence (∠i ) in the rarer medium Optical fibres are fabricated in such a way that light
is greater than the critical angle (∠C ), then the ray reflected at one side of the inner surface strikes the other
instead of suffering refraction is totally reflected back in surface at an angle larger than critical angle. Even, if fibre
the same (denser) medium. is bent, light can easily travel along the length.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
For total internal reflection to takes place following set of
conditions must be obeyed.
(i) The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer
medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence (∠i ) must be greater than the
critical angle (∠C ). Core
Light
When the rarer medium is air, µ r = 1and µ d = µ ray Cladding
 1
∴ Critical angle, C = sin − 1   Fig. 9.41 Typical structure of optical fibre
µ
578 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Uses Example 9.32 A small coin is resting at the bottom of a

(i) In transmitting electrical and optical signals. beaker filled with a liquid. A ray of light from the coin
(ii) In visual examination of internal organs like travels upto the surface of the liquid and moves along its
esophagus, stomach and intestine. surface. Find the speed of light in the liquid.
(iii) In decorative lamps. 3 cm
µ 
Note As, we have seen θ C = sin–1  r 
µd 
µ  µ  4 cm
Suppose, we have two sets of media 1 and 2 and  r  <  r 
 µ d 1  µ d  2
then, (θ C)1 < (θ C) 2 Coin
So, a ray of light has more chances to have TIR in case 1.
Sol. As shown in figure, a light ray from the coin will not
Some other examples of total internal reflection emerge out of liquid if, i > C .
(i) The sparkling of diamond is due to total internal Therefore, minimum radius R corresponds to, i = C
reflection inside it. A 3 cm B A′
(ii) Shining of air bubble in water is also due to total R
C
internal reflection. The critical angle of water-air
interface is 48.75°. 4 cm h

(iii) The phenomenon of mirage in deserts and looming C

in cold region is caused by total internal reflection.
S
Example 9.31 An isotropic point source is placed at a depth h
below the water surface. A floating opaque disc is placed on R
In ∆SAB, = tan C
the surface of water, so that the bulb is not visible from the h
surface. What is the minimum radius of the disc? Take ⇒ R = h tan C
refractive index of water = µ.
h
Sol. As shown in figure, light from the source will not emerge ⇒ R=
out of water, if i > θC . µ2 −1

R
Given, R = 3 cm and h = 4 cm
A B
i > θC
C

µ
i= θ

1
h

C
√µ2 − 1
S

Therefore, minimum radius R corresponds to, i = θC 3 1

∴ =
In ∆SAB, 4 2
µ −1
B
25 5
⇒ µ2 = ⇒ µ=
9 3
µ 1 c
But, µ=
v
θC c 3 × 108
S A ⇒ Speed of light in liquid, v = =
√µ2 − 1 µ 5 /3

sin θC =
1 = 1.8 × 108 ms−1
µ
Example 9.33 Light enters at an angle of incidence in a
R
Also, = tan θC transparent rod of refractive index n. Find the range of n, so
h that the light once entered into it will not leave it through its
h lateral face.
∴ R = h tan θC or R =
µ 2 –1
Ray Optics 579

Sol. Let a light ray enters at A and refracted beam is AB. At the to total internal reflection. At what surface does it happen
lateral face, the angle of incidence is θ. For no refraction at and why?
this face, θ > C . Sol. Given,
Normal line
i.e., sin θ > sin C of vision
but θ + r = 90° P
⇒ θ = 90° − r C µ2 D
t2 = 10 cm (4/3)
B
A
t1 = 10 cm µ (3/2) B
θ 1
A r
i O

(i) Total shift, OI = t1(1 − 1 / µ1) + t 2 (1 − 1 / µ 2 )

sin(90° − r ) > sin C
 1   1  10 10
or cos r > sin C ...(i) = 101 −  + 101 − = +
 3 / 2  4 / 3 3 4
sin i
By Snell’s law, µ = Distance of image from P,
sin r
PI = PO − Ol
sin i
⇒ sin r = 10 10
µ = (10 + 10) −  +  = 1417
. cm
3 4
 sin2 i  (ii) The image of coin disappears when the ray suffers TIR
∴ cos r = 1 − sin2 r = 1 − 2 
 n  at either at AB or CD.
The critical angles for glass-water surface
sin2 i
From Eq. (i), 1− > sin C µ1 sin C1 = µ 2 sin 90°
n2 3 4
1 sin2 i 1 sin C1 =
Also, sin C = ⇒ 1− 2 > 2 2 3
n n n 8
or n 2 > sin2 i + 1 sin C1 =
9
The maximum value of sin i is l.
C1 = sin−1 (8 / 9)
n 2 > 2 or n > 2
The critical angles for water-air surface
Example 9.34 A rectangular glass block of thickness 10 cm µ 2 sin C 2 = 1 × sin 90°
and refractive index 1.5 is placed over a small coin. A 4
beaker is filled with water of refractive index 4/3 to a height sin C 2 = 1
of 10 cm and is placed over the small block. 3
3
(i) Find the apparent position of the object when it is viewed at sin C 2 =
normal incidence. 4
(ii) If the eye is slowly and moved away from the normal at a C 2 < C1, TIR occurs earlier at the water-air surface as
certain position, the image of coin is found to disappear due eye is moved away from the normal.

CHECK POINT 9.3

1. A light wave has a frequency of 4 × 1014 Hz and a (a) 4 : 3 (b) 9 : 8
−7 (c) 8 : 9 (d) 3 : 4
wavelength of 5 × 10 m in a medium. The refractive index
of the medium is 4. The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.5 for light whose
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.33 (c) 1.25 (d) 1.75 wavelength in vacuum is 6000 Å. The wavelength of this
light when it passes through glass is
2. µ1 and µ 2 are the refractive indices of two mediums and v1 (a) 4000 Å (b) 6000 Å
and v 2 are the velocities of light in these two mediums (c) 9000 Å (d) 15000 Å
respectively. Then, the relation connecting these quantities is
5. When a ray of light falls on a given plate at an angle of
(a) v1 = v2 (b) µ 2v1 = µ 1 v2
incidence 60°, the reflected and refracted rays are found to
(c) µ 12v1 = µ 22v2 (d) µ 1 v1 = µ 2v2
be normal to each other. The refractive index of the material
3 4 of the plate is
3. Absolute refractive indices of glass and water are and .
2 3 3
(a) (b) 1.5 (c) 1.732 (d) 2
The ratio of velocities of light in glass and water will be 2
580 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

6. The refractive indices of glass and water with respect to air 13. Three immiscible transparent liquids with refractive indices
are 3/2 and 4/3, respectively.The refractive index of glass 3/2, 4/3 and 6/5 are arranged one on top of another. The
with respect to water will be depths of the liquids are 3 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm, respectively.
(a) 8/9 (b) 9/8 The apparent depth of the vessel is
(c) 7/6 (d) None of these (a) 10 cm (b) 9 cm
7. If i µ j represents refractive index when a light ray goes from (c) 8 cm (d) 7 cm

medium i to medium j, then the product 2µ1 × 3µ 2 × 4 µ 3 is 14. A glass slab is immersed in water. What will be the critical
equal to angle for a light ray at glass-water interface?
(a) 3µ 1 (b) 3µ 2
1 [Take, a n g = 1.50, a nw = 1.33 and sin−1(0.887) = 62.5]
(c) (d) 4µ 2
1µ 4 (a) 48. 8° (b) 72. 8°
8. When light is refracted into a medium from vacuum (c) 62.5° (d) 64. 5°
(a) its wavelength and frequency both increase 15. The wavelength of light in two liquids x and y is 3500 Å and
(b) its wavelength increases but frequency remains 7000 Å respectively, then the critical angle of x relative to y
unchanged will be
(a) 60° (b) 45°
(c) its wavelength decreases but frequency remains (c) 30° (d) 15°
unchanged
16. White light is incident on the interface of glass and air as
(d) its wavelength and frequency both decrease shown in the figure. If green light is just totally internally
9. A spot is placed on the bottom of a slab made of transparent reflected, then the emerging ray in air contains
material of refractive index 1.5. The spot is viewed vertically
from the top when it seems to be raised by 2 cm. Then, the
height of the slab is
(a) 10 cm (b) 8 cm (c) 6 cm (d) 4 cm Air Green
10. An air bubble inside a glass slab (µ = 1.5) appears 6 cm Glass
when viewed from one side and 4 cm when viewed from
the opposite side. The thickness of the slab is White
(a) 10 cm (b) 6.67 cm
(c) 15 cm (d) None of these (a) yellow, orange, red
11. An under water swimmer is at a depth of 12 m below the (b) violet, indigo, blue
surface of water. A bird is at a height of 18 m from the (c) all colours
surface of water, directly above his eyes. For the swimmer (d) all colours except green
the bird appears to be at a distance from the surface of 17. The critical angle of a prism is 30°. The velocity of light in
water equal to (Refractive index of water is 4/3) the medium is
(a) 24 m (b) 12 m (c) 18 m (d) 9 m (a) 1.5 × 108 m/s
12. A vessel of depth 2 d cm is half filled with a liquid of (b) 3 × 108 m/s
refractive index µ1 and the upper half with a liquid of (c) 4.5 × 108 m/s
refractive index µ 2. The apparent depth of the vessel when (d) None of the above
seen perpendicularly from above is
 µ µ  1 1  18. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium falls on a
(a) d  1 2  (b) d  +  surface separating the medium from air at an angle of
µ1 + µ 2  µ1 µ 2  incidence of 45°. The ray undergoes total internal reflection.
1 1   1  If n is the refractive index of the medium with respect to
(c) 2d  +  (d) 2d   air, select the possible value of n from the following.
µ
 1 µ 2 µ1 µ 2  (a) 1.2 (b) 4/3
(c) 1.4 (d) 1.5
Ray Optics 581

REFRACTION AT Substituting the values,

4 /3 1 4 /3 − 1 4 1 1
SPHERICAL SURFACES ⇒
v
−
−10
=
30
⇒ +
3v 10 90
=
When two transparent media are separated by a spherical 4 1 1 −8
surface, light incident on the surface from one side get ⇒ = − = ⇒ v = − 15 cm
3v 90 10 90
refracted into the medium on the other side. Spherical The image is formed 15 cm left of spherical surface and is virtual.
surfaces are of two types as shown in figure.
Example 9.36 A glass sphere of radius R = 10 cm is kept
1
µ1 µ2 1 inside water. A point object O is placed at 20 cm from A as
O I 2 O I 2 shown in figure. Find the position and nature of the image
P C C P µ2 when seen from other side of the sphere. Also draw the ray
µ1 diagram. Given, µ g = 3/2 and µ w = 4/3.
u R u v
v R
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.42 Spherical surface (a) convex (b) concave C
O A B
For both surfaces, refraction formula is given by 10 cm
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1 20 cm
− =
v u R Sol. A ray of light starting from O gets refracted twice. The ray
where µ 1 = refractive index of first medium, of light is travelling in a direction from left to right. Hence,
µ 2 = refractive index of second medium, the distances measured in this direction are taken positive.
R = radius of curvature of spherical surfaces, µ µ µ − µ1
Applying, 2 − 1 = 2 , twice with proper signs.
u = object distance v u R
and v = image distance. M
P 1 2
h µv 1 2
Transverse magnification, m = I = 1
hO µ 2u A B
O
µ 2 µ1
Note For a plane surface, R = ∞, − =0
v u
+ve
Cartesian sign convention for spherical
3 /2 4 /3 3 /2 − 4 /3
surfaces We have, − =
AI1 −20 10
(i) The principal axis of the spherical surface is taken
as X-axis and the optical centre as origin. Here, the or AI1 = −30 cm
principal axis is the diameter extended. Now, the first image I1, acts as an object for the second
surface, where
(ii) The direction of the incident light is taken as the
positive direction of X-axis and opposite to it is BI1 = u = − (30 + 20) = − 50 cm
taken as negative. 4 /3 3 /2 4 /3 − 3 /2
∴ − =
(iii) The upward direction is taken as positive and the BI 2 −50 − 10
downward direction as negative. ∴BI 2 = −100 cm, i.e. the final image I 2 is virtual and is
formed at a distance 100 cm (towards left) from B. The ray
Example 9.35 Locate the image of the point object O. The
diagram is as shown.
point C is centre of curvature of the spherical surface.
M N
µ = 1.0 µ = 4/3 P
O
P C I2 I1 O A C B

10 cm 30 cm 20 cm
30 cm
100 cm
Sol. Here, µ1 = 1, µ 2 = 4 /3, u = − 10 cm and R = 30 cm
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1 Following points should be noted while drawing the ray
Using the relation, − = diagram.
v u R
582 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(i) At point P, the ray travels from rarer to a denser Lenses are of two types
medium. Hence, it will bend towards normal PC. At (i) Convex or converging lens In this lens, a
point M, it travels from a denser to a rarer medium, transparent medium is bounded by two surfaces such
hence, moves away from the normal MC. that it is thicker in the middle.
(ii) PM ray when extended backwards meets at I 1 and It is of four types (as shown)
MN ray when extended meets at I 2 .
Example 9.37 A linear object of B
length 4 cm is placed at 30 cm 4cm R1 R2 R R ∞ R R1 R2
from the plane surface of
hemispherical glass of radius A
10 cm. The hemispherical glass
is surrounded by water. Find 30 cm (a) Bi-convex (b) Equi-convex (c) Plano-convex (d) Concavo-convex
or double-convex or convex lens lens
the final position and size of the image. lens lens
Fig. 9.43 Types of convex lens
Sol. For 1st surface,
(ii) Concave or diverging lens In this lens, a
4 3 transparent medium is bounded by two surfaces such
µ1 = , µ 2 = , u = − 20 cm and R = + 10 cm
3 2 that it is thinner in the middle. It is of four types (as
µ 2 µ1 (µ 2 − µ1) shown)
Using, − =
v µ R
(3 /2) (4 /3) (3 /2 − 4 /3)
⇒ − = ⇒ v = − 30 cm
v (−20) 10
R1 R2 R R ∞ R R1 R2
A′ B ′ µ1v A′ B ′ (4 /3) (−30)
Using, = ⇒ =
AB µ 2u (4 cm ) (3 /2) (−20)
⇒ A′ B ′ = 5.3 cm (a) Bi-concave (b) Equi-concave (c) Plano-concave (d) Convexo-concave
A′ B ′ behaves as the object for plane surface, or double-concave or concave lens lens
lens lens
3 4
µ1 = , µ 2 = and R = ∞, u ′ = − 40 Fig. 9.44 Types of concave lens
2 3
µ 2 µ1 (4 /3) (3 /2) Some definitions related to lenses
⇒ = ⇒ =
v ′ u′ v′ (−40) (i) Optical centre The optical centre is a point within
Solving it, we will get, v ′ = − 35.5 cm or outside the lens, at which incident rays refract
A′′ B ′′ (µ v ′ ) without deviation in its path.
Now, using, = 1
A′ B ′ (µ 2u ′ ) P P
A′′ B ′′ (3 / 2) (−35.5) Q
= ⇒ A′′ B ′′ • 5.3 cm Q
(5.3) (4 / 3) (−40)
O R O R
The final images in all the above cases are shown in figure.
Optical Optical
B′′ B′ centre centre
1st surface S
B S
5.3 cm 5.3 cm 4 cm 2nd surface Fig. 9.45 Optical centre
A′′ A′ A
u (ii) Centre of curvature The centres of the two
v
imaginary spheres of which the lens is a part are called
u′
v′
centres of curvature of the lens. A lens has two centres
of curvature with respect to its two curved surfaces.
Lenses (iii) Radii of curvature The radii of the two imaginary
spheres of which the lens is a part are called radii of
Lens is a transparent medium (material) bounded by two
curvature of the lens. A lens has two radii of curvature.
surfaces atleast one of which should be spherical.
These may or may not be equal.
Refractive index of the medium (material) should also be
different from the surroundings.
Ray Optics 583

(iv) Principal axis The straight line passing through (iv) We are mainly concerned with the second focus f 2 .
the optical centre and centre of curvature of lens is Thus, wherever we write the focal length f, it means
called principal axis of lens. the second principal focal length. Thus, f = f 2 and
(v) Principal focus Lens has two principal focus hence, f is positive for a convex lens and negative for
(a) First principal focus It is a point on the principal
a concave lens.
axis of lens, the rays starting from which (convex Law for formation of images by lens
lens) or appear to converge at which (concave lens)
become parallel to principal axis after refraction.
The position and nature of the image by lens, in any case can
be obtained either from a ray diagram or by calculation.
Ray diagram
To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to
O the axis of a lens, two of the following three rays are
F1 O F1
drawn from the top of the object.
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction
f1
f1 passes through the principal focus or appears to
diverge from it.
Fig. 9.46 First principal focus

(b) Second principal focus It is the point on the

principal axis at which the rays coming parallel to
F2 F2
the principal axis converge (convex lens) or appear to
diverge (concave lens) after refraction from the lens.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.48 Path of incident ray parallel to principal axis for
(a) convex lens (b) concave lens
(ii) A ray through the optical centre O passes undeviated
O F2 because the middle of the lens acts like a thin
F2 O parallel-sided slab.

f2
f2
Fig. 9.47 Second principal focus O

Both the focuses of convex lens are real, while Fig. 9.49 Path of incident ray passing through centre for convex lens
that of concave lens are virtual. (iii) A ray passing through, the first focus F1 becomes
(vi) Focal length The distance between focus and parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
optical centre of lens is called focal length of lens.
(vii) Aperture The effective diameter of circular
boundary of the lens is called aperture.
Note Intensity ∝ (aperture) 2 F1 F1

Sign convention for lenses (a) (b)

(i) Sign convention for lenses are same as for spherical Fig. 9.50 Path of incident ray passing through the focus for
surfaces. (a) convex lens (b) concave lens
(ii) From the Figs. 9.46 and 9.47, we can see that f1 is
negative for a convex lens and positive for a Image formation by lens
concave lens. But f 2 is positive for convex lens and Convex lens
negative for concave lens.
The image formed by convex lens depends on the position of
(iii) | f1| =| f 2 |, if the media on the two sides of a thin object. Formation of image by this lens for
lens have same refractive index. different positions of object is shown in the table.
584 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Formation of image by convex lens

S.No. Position of object Ray diagram Position of image Nature and size of image

F2 2F2 At the principal focus (F2 ) or Real, inverted and extremely

(i) At infinity in the focal plane diminished
2F2 F1

F2 B′ 2F2 Real, inverted and diminished

(ii) Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2
B 2F F1
1
A′

O
Real, inverted and of same
F2 2F2 size as the object
(iii) At 2F1 At 2F2
2F1 F1

Real, inverted and highly

F2 I magnified
(iv) Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2
2F1 O F1 2F2

Real, inverted and extremely

(v) At F1 2F2 F1 At infinity magnified
F2 2F2

Between F1 and optical centre On the same side as the Virtual, erect and magnified
(vi)
F object
Ray Optics 585

Concave lens
The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and diminished. The image formation by this lens for
different positions of object is shown in the table given below.
Image formation by concave lens
S.No. Position of object Ray diagram Position of image Nature and size of image
(i) At infinity At the focus Virtual, erect and point sized

F2 O
2F F1

(ii) Anywhere on the principal

axis
A
A´
O F1 2F1
2F2 B F2 B´ Between optical centre Virtual, erect and diminished
and F2

µ
Lens maker’s formula
and lens formula R R

Lens maker’s formula

If R 1 and R 2 are the radii of curvature of first and second
refracting surfaces of a thin lens of focal length f and Fig. 9.51 Equi-biconvex lens
refractive index µ (with respect to surrounding medium), (ii) For equi-biconcave lens, R 1 = − R and R 2 = + R
the relation between f , µ, R 1 and R 2 is known as lens
maker’s formula and is given by, R
f =−
 1 2(µ − 1)
1 1
= (µ − 1)  −  µ
f  R1 R 2 
Lens formula R R
The expression which shows the relation between u, v and
f is called lens formula and given by,
1 1 1 Fig. 9.52 Equi-biconcave lens
− =
v u f (iii) For plano-convex lens R 1 = R and R 2 = ∞
where, u is distance of object from the lens, v is distance of R
∴ f =
image from the lens and f is focal length of the lens. µ −1

Focal length of different lens

Focal lengths of different lenses are given below
R ∞
(i) For equi-biconvex lens, R 1 = + R and R 2 = − R
R
f =
2(µ − 1) Fig. 9.53 Plano-convex lens
586 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(iv) For plano-concave lens,

R 1 = ∞, R 2 = R
Focal length of lens if media are
−R
different
⇒ f = Consider a double convex lens of refractive index µ 2 . It is
(µ − 1)
surrounded by media of refractive indices µ 1 and µ 3 as
shown in figure.
(i) If rays are incident from left, then for refraction
∞ R at surface 1.

Fig. 9.54 Plano-concave lens

Note
(i) Newton’s formula
In case of thin convex lens, if an object is placed at a distance x1,
from first focus and its image is formed at distance x2 , from the
second focus, then x1x2 = f 2.
Fig. 9.55 Bi-convex lens with different surrounding media
(ii) If some portion of a lens is covered with black paper, then full image
will be formed but the brightness will be reduced. µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1
− = ...(i)
v u R1
Lens immersed in a liquid For refraction at surface (2),
If a lens (made of glass) of refractive index µ g is immersed µ3 µ2 µ3 − µ2
in a liquid of refractive µ l , then its focal length fl is given by − = ...(ii)
v′ v R2
1  1 1 On adding Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
= (l µ g − 1)  −  …(i)
fl  R1 R 2  µ 3 µ1 µ 2 − µ1 µ 3 − µ 2
− = +
If f a is the focal length of lens in air, then v′ u R1 R2
1  1 1 If u = ∞, v ′ = f
= ( a µ g − 1)  −  …(ii)
fa  R1 R 2  R1 R2

On dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we get

fl ( a µ g − 1) ( a µ g − 1) F
= =
fa (l µ g − 1)  a µ g 
 − 1
 a µl  f
Fig. 9.56 Ray diagram when incident ray comes from left
There are three cases based on this
(i) If µ g > µ l , i.e. lens is immersed in a liquid whose µ 3 µ 2 − µ1 µ 3 − µ 2
∴ = +
refractive index is less than that of material of lens. f R1 R2
Then, fl and f a are of same sign and fl > f a that is (ii) If rays are incident from right, replace µ 3 by µ 1 and
the nature of lens remains unchanged, but its focal R 2 by R 1.
length increases and hence power of lens decreases.
R1 R2
(ii) If µ g = µ l , i.e. lens is immersed in a liquid whose
refractive index is same as that of material of lens.
Then, fl = ∞. It means lens behaves as a plane glass
plate and becomes invisible in the medium.
(iii) If µ g < µ l , i.e. lens is immersed in a liquid whose
f´
refractive index is greater than that of the material
Fig. 9.57 Ray diagram when incident ray comes from right
of lens.
Then, fl and f a have opposite signs and the nature of µ1 µ 2 − µ 3 µ1 − µ 2
∴ = +
lens changes, i.e. a convex lens diverges the light rays f′ R2 R1
and concave lens converges the light rays.
Ray Optics 587

Example 9.38 Find focal lengths of lenses made of glass (iv)

(µ = 3/2) and place in air. 15 cm 15 cm

(i) 10 cm 20 cm (ii) 30 cm
Given, R1 = − 15 cm, R 2 = 15 cm
From Lens maker’s formula, we have
1 3   1 1   1   −2 
=  − 1  −  =  
f  2   −15 15  2  15 
∴ Focal length, f = − 15 cm
(iii) 20 cm 60 cm (iv) 15 cm 15 cm
Example 9.39 Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured
from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of the
same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature
required, if the focal length is to be 20 cm?
Sol. (i)
Sol. Using the relation,
R1 R2
1 1 1 
= (µ − 1)  −  , we get
f R1 R 2
1  1 
= (1.55 − 1)  −    = 0. 55  +  = 0.55 ×
1 1 1 2
Given, R1 = 10 cm, R 2 = − 20 cm 20  R  − R   
 R R 
 R
On applying Lens maker’s formula, we have or R = 1.10 × 20 = 22 cm
1 Example 9.40 Find the refractive index of the material of a
= (µ − 1) (1/R1 − 1/R 2 )
f plano-convex lens, if the radius of curvature of the convex
3   1 1   1  3  surface is 20 cm and focal length of the lens is 60 cm.
=  − 1  −  =   
 2  10 (−20)  2  20 Sol.

∴ Focal length of lens, f = 40 /3 cm R1 R2

(ii)
R1 R2

Given, R1 = ∞, R 2 = − 20 cm, f = 60 cm, µ = ?

From Lens maker’s formula, we have
1 1 1
Given, R1 = ∞, R 2 = − 30 cm = (µ − 1)  − 
f  R1 R 2 
From Lens maker's formula, we have
1 1 1  µ −1
1 3   1 1  1 ⇒ = (µ − 1)  −  =
=  − 1  −  = 60  ∞ −20 20
f  2   ∞ −30 60
1 4
∴ Focal length, f = 60 cm ∴ Refractive index, µ = 1 + =
3 3
(iii)
Example 9.41 A beam of light converges to a point P. Now a
20 cm 60 cm lens is placed on the path of the convergent beam 12 cm
apart from P. At what point does the beam converge if the
lens is (i) a convex lens of focal length 20 cm, (ii) a concave
lens of focal length 16 cm?
Sol. (i) For convex lens, f = 20 cm
Given, R1 = 20 cm, R 2 = 60 cm
From lens Maker’s formula, we have P
1 3   1 1   1  2 
=  − 1  −  =    
f  2   20 60  2  60
∴ Focal length, f = 60 cm 12 cm
588 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Using the formula, Example 9.43 If the focal length of the lens is 20 cm, find
1 1 1 the distance of the image from the lens in the following
= − , we get figure.
f v u
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
v u f 12 20
60
∴ v= = 7.5 cm
8
i.e. the image is formed on the right of the lens and is real.
(ii) For concave lens, f = − 16 cm 12 cm

P
Sol. According to figure, the point on the right side of the lens at
which rays converge will behave as virtual object for the lens.
∴ u = + 12 cm, f = 20 cm
12 cm
1 1 1
By lens formula, = −
1 1 1 f v u
∴ Using the relation,= − ,
f v u 1 1 1 1 1 1 3+5 8
∴ = − or = + = =
1 1 1 1 1 20 v 12 v 20 12 60 60
we get = + = +
v f u −16 12 60
or v= = 7.5 cm
∴ v = + 48 cm 8
The image is formed at 48 cm to the right of the lens So, image will be formed on same side of the virtual object at
where the beam would converge and is real. a distance of 7.5 cm from the lens.
Example 9.44 Focal length of a convex lens in air is 10 cm.
Example 9.42 The distance between two point sources of Find its focal length in water. Given that µ g = 3/2 and
light is 24 cm. Find out where would you place a converging µ w = 4/3.
lens of focal length 9 cm, so that the images of both the
1 1 1
sources are formed at the same point. Sol. Using the relations, = (µ g − 1)  −  …(i)
f = 9 cm fair  R1 R 2 
1 µg  1 1
S1 S2 and = − 1  −  …(ii)
fwater µ w   R1 R 2 
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get
x 24−x fwater (µ g − 1)
=
1 1 1 fair (µ g /µ w − 1)
Sol. Using the relation, − =
v u f Substituting the values, we have
1 1 1 (3 / 2 − 1)
For S 1, − = fwater = fair = 4 fair = 4 × 10 = 40 cm
v1 − x 9 3 / 2 
 − 1
1 1 1 4 / 3 
⇒ = − …(i)
v1 9 x Note Students can remember the result, fwater = 4 fair , if µ g = 3 / 2 and
1 1 1 µ w = 4 / 3.
For S 2, – =
v 2 − (24 − x ) 9
1 1 1 Magnification produced by a lens
∴ = − …(ii)
v 2 9 24 − x The ratio of the size of the image to the size of object is
called magnification.
Since, sign convention for S 1 and S 2 is just opposite. Hence,
1 1 Transverse magnification
v1 = − v 2 or =−
v1 v2 The lateral, transverse or linear magnification (m)
1 1 1 1 produced by a lens is defined by,
∴ – = − Height of image I v f f −u
9 x 24 − x 9 m= = = = =
Solving this equation we get, x = 6 cm. Therefore, the lens Height of object O u f + u f
should be kept at a distance of 6 cm from either of the object. Note Use sign convention while solving the problems.
Ray Optics 589

Longitudinal magnification (m L ) u = − y then v = − 2 y

When an object is placed along the principal axis then and f =10 cm
Image length 1 1 1
Substituting in, − =
mL = v u f
Object length
1 1 1 1 1
If length of the object is small, we have, + = or =
2 2 2 −2 y y 10 2 y 10
dv  v   f  f − u
mL = =  =  =  ∴ y = 5 cm
du  u  u + f   f  This means object lies between F and P.
where, du = object length, dv = image length
Areal magnification (M s ) Displacement method to determine the
A  f 
2 focal length of a convex lens
ms = I = m 2 =   The focal length of convex lens can be determined by
AO f + u displacement method. Consider an object and a screen
(where, AI = Area of image and AO = area of object) placed at a distance D ( > 4f ) apart. Let a lens of focal
Example 9.45 An object of size 3.0 cm is placed at 14 cm length f be placed between the object and the screen.
from concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Describe the image For two different positions of lens, two images (I 1 and I 2 )
produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved of an object are formed at the screen. Let the distance
further away from the lens? between the two positions of the lens is x, then the focal
Sol.
1 1 1
Using the relation,= − , we get D2 − x2 x
f v u length of the lens is given by f = =
4D m1 − m 2
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
v f u −21 (−14) Object
∴ v = −8.4 cm O
∴ The image is virtual, erect and located at 8.4 cm from the I2
lens on the same side as the object.
I v
Also, we know that m = = x I1
O u Screen
v −8.4
∴ I = ×O = × 3 = 1.8 cm Fig. 9.58 Two convex lenses separated by distance x
u −14
i.e. the image is of diminished size. I1 I
where m1 = , m 2 = 2 , m1m 2 = 1
If the object is moved away from the lens, the virtual image O O
moves towards the focus of the lens (but never beyond focus). Also, size of object O = I 1I 2
Example 9.46 Find the distance of an object from a convex lens, if
image is two times magnified. Focal length of the lens is 10 cm. Example 9.47 An object is placed at a distance of 80 cm from
Sol. Convex lens forms both type of images real as well as virtual. a screen. Where should a convex lens of focal length 15 cm
Since, nature of the image is not mentioned in the question, be placed so as to obtain a real image of the object?
we will have to consider both the cases. Sol. Given, D = 80 cm and f = 15 cm
When image is real Means v is positive and u is negative D > 4f , there will be two positions of lens for which real
with |v | = 2 |u |. Thus, if image can be obtain.
u = − x then, v = 2x and f =10 cm Position (1) Position (2)
1 1 1
Substituting in, − =
v u f
1 1 1
we have, + =
2x x 10 Screen
3 1
or = x a
2x 10
D
∴ x =15 cm
This means object lies between F and 2 F. For lens in position (1), u = − x, v = D − x = 80 − x, f = 15 cm
1 1 1
When image is virtual Means v and u both are negative. So As, − =
let, v u f
590 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

1 1 1 Following table gives the sign of P and f for different type of

⇒ − =
80 − x − x 15 lenses
80 1 Focal Power
= ⇒ x 2 − 80x + 1200 = 0 Nature of Converging
(80 − x )x 15 length P = 1 Ray diagram
lens L /Diverging
(f) f
x 2 − 60x − 20x + 1200 = 0
Convex + ve + ve Converging
⇒ x (x − 60) − 20(x − 60) = 0
lens
⇒ (x − 20)(x − 60) = 0
⇒ x = 20 or 60 cm
Example 9.48 The image of a small electric bulb fixed on the Concave − ve −ve Diverging
wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall 4m lens
away by means of a large convex lens. Find the maximum
possible focal length of the lens required for this purpose.
Sol. Let a large convex lens is placed between two walls at a
distance x from wall on which an electric bulb is fixed.
Example 9.49 For a given lens, the magnification was found
x 4−x to be twice as large as when the object was 0.15 m distance
from it as when the distance was 0.2 m. Find power of the
lens.
Sol. Let the positions of objects are as shown 1 and 2 on left
side and positions of images as shown 1 and 2 on right side in
two different situations.
Wall Convex Wall
lens
Object
1 1 1
Using lens formula, = − 2 1
f v u 2 C 1 F
F C
Putting, u = x and v = 4 − x
Image
1 1 1
∴ = −
f 4 − x −x v1 v
1 x+4−x
It is given, =2 2
or = u1 u2
f (4 − x )(x )
Here, u 1 = − 15 cm and u2 = − 20 cm
1 4
or = u1 15 3
f (4 − x )(x ) ∴ v1 = 2v 2 × = 2v 2 × = v2
u2 20 2
(4 − x )x
or f= ...(i) 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 Now, = − ⇒ = −
f v u f v1 u1
v 4−x
Now, magnification, m = = 1 1 1
u x and = −
4−x f v 2 u2
or 1=
x 1 1 1 1
So, − = −
or x = 4 − x or 2x = 4 or x = 2 m v1 u1 v 2 u2
From Eq. (i), we get 2 1 1 1
(4 − 2)(2) 2 × 2 ⇒ + = + ⇒ v 2 = 20 cm
f= = = 1m 3v 2 15 v 2 20
4 4
v1 v 20
=2 2 =2× =2
u1 u2 20
Power of a lens ⇒ v1 = 2u1 = 2 × 15 = 30 cm
It is the ability of the lens to deviate the path of rays
1 1 1 1 1 3
passing through it. If the lens converges the rays parallel ∴ = − = + =
to principal axis, its power is said positive and if it f v1 u1 15 30 30
diverges the rays, its power is negative. It is given as ⇒ f = 10 cm = 0.10 m
1 1 1
P ( in dioptre) = ∴ Power of the lens, P = = = + 10D
f (in metre ) f 0.1
Ray Optics 591

Example 9.50 A spherical convex surface separates object

and image space of refractive index 1.0 and 4/3. If radius of Combination of two or more thin
curvature of the surface is 10 cm, find its power.
lenses in contact
Sol. Let us see where does the parallel rays converge (or
Combinations of lenses in contact are used in many optical
diverge) on the principal axis. Let us call it the focus and the
corresponding length the focal length f. instruments to improve their performance.
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1 (i) When two lenses are in contact Combination will
We have, − = behave as a lens, which has lesser focal length.
v u R
4 /3 1.0 4 /3 − 1.0
– = f1 f2
f ∞ + 10
or focal length, f = 40 cm = 0.4 m

40 cm O I

u v

F Fig. 9.59 Combination of two convex lenses with zero separation

µ1 µ2 In this situation, combined focal length (F) is given as

1 1 1
Since, the rays are converging, its power should be positive. = +
Hence,
F f1 f 2
+1 1 Similarly, for more than two lenses in contact, the
P (in dioptre) = =
f (in metre) 0. 4 equivalent focal length is given by the formula,
or P = 2.5 D 1
n
1 1 1
Example 9.51 A thin glass (refractive index 1.5) lens has F
= ∑f = +
f1 f 2
+ ...
i =1 i
optical power of − 5 D in air. Calculate its optical power in a
liquid medium with refractive index 1.6. Note Here f1 , f2 etc., are to be substituted with appropriate sign.

Sol. From Lens maker’s formula we have, Similarly,

1 1 1 (a) Power of combination,
= (µ − 1) − 
fa  R1 R 2  n

It is given that, µ = 1.5

P = P1 + P1 + ... = ∑ Pi
i =1
1 1 1
∴ = (1.5 − 1) −  (b) Magnification of combination,
fa  R1 R 2 
n
1 µ g − µ m   1 1 M = m1 × m 2 × ... = Π m i
and =   −  …(i) i =1
fm  µ m   R1 R 2 
(ii) Lenses separated by a distance
1 1.5   1 1
⇒ = − 1  −  ...(ii) If two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f 2 are separated by a
fm 1.6   R1 R 2 
distance x, then its equivalent focal length
fm (1.5 − 1)
Thus, = = −8
fa 1.5 
 − 1
1.6  x
⇒ fm = − 8 × fa
−1  1 1 
=−8× = 1.6 m Q fa = = − m
5  P 5 
Fig. 9.60 Combination of two convex lenses with x separation
∴ Power of the lens,
µ 1.6
Pm = = =1D 1 1 1 x
fm 1.6 = + −
F f1 f 2 f1f 2
592 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(a) Power of combination, 1 1 1

we have, − =
v f f
P = P1 + P2 − xP1P2
f
∴ v=
(b) Total magnification remains unchanged i.e., 2
m = m1 × m 2 v 2 (f /2) 1
Magnification, m 2 = = = {since, v 2 = v and u2 = f }
u2 f 2
Note Combination of two convex lenses behaves as
Therefore, final image is formed at a distance f /2 from the
(i) convex lens, if ( f1 + f2) > d
(ii) glass plate, if ( f1 + f2) = d
second lens with total lateral magnification,
(iii) concave lens, if ( f1 + f2) < d  1 1
m = m 1 × m 2 = (− 1) ×   = −
 2 2
Example 9.52 A converging lens of focal length 5.0 cm is
placed in contact with a diverging lens of focal length Example 9.55 Two convex lenses, each of focal length 15 cm,
10.0 cm. Find the combined focal length of the system. are placed at a separation of 20 cm with their principal axes
Sol. Here, f1 = + 5.0 cm and f 2 = – 10.0 cm coinciding.
(i) Show that a light beam coming parallel to the principal axis
Therefore, the combined focal length F is given by diverges as it comes out of the lens system.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = – =+ (ii) Find the location of the virtual image formed by the lens system
F f1 f 2 5.0 10.0 10.0 of an object placed far away.
∴ F = +10.0 cm (iii) Find the focal length of equivalent lens.
i.e., the combination behaves as a converging lens of focal Sol. (i) The beam will diverge after coming out of the two
length 10.0 cm. convex lenses system because, the image formed by the
first lens lies on its focus (F1) as shown in the figure.
Example 9.53 Two thin equiconvex lenses each of focal length f1=15 cm f2=15 cm
0.2 m are placed coaxially with their optic centres 0.5m
apart. Then find the focal length of the combination.
F1
Sol. Given, focal length of each lens, f1 = f2 = 0.2 m
Separation between the lenses, d = 0.5 m
∴ Focal length of the combination, 15 cm
20 cm
1 1 1 d 1 1 0.5
= + − = + − = −2.5 (ii) For the first convex lens,
F f1 f2 f1 f2 0.2 0.2 (0.2)(0.2)
u=∞
1
⇒ F =− = −0.4 m 1 1 1 1 1 1
2.5 ∴ − = ⇒ − =
v 1 u1 f1 v 1 ∞ 15
Example 9.54 Two thin converging lenses are placed on a ⇒ v1 = 15 cm
common axis, so that the centre of one of them coincides For the second convex lens,
with the focus of the other. An object is placed at a distance
twice the focal length from the left-hand lens. Where will its u2 = − (20 − 15) = − 5 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1
image be? What is the lateral magnification? (The focal of ∴ − = ⇒ − =
each lens is f.) v 2 u2 f2 v2 − 5 15
Sol. 1 1 1
f f ⇒ = −
v 2 15 5
I1
⇒ v 2 = − 7.5 cm
Virtual image is formed by the lens system at distance
O of 7.5 cm left from the second lens.
(iii) Focal length of two equivalent lenses,
1 1 1 d
2f f f = + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
The image formed by first lens will be at a distance 2f with 1 1 20 2
lateral magnification, m 1 = − 1. For the second lens, this image = + − =−
15 15 225 45
will behave as a virtual object. Using the lens formula,
F = − 22.5 cm
1 1 1
− = Note The sign of the focal length is negative, thus the lens system
v u f
diverges a parallel beam incident on it.
Ray Optics 593

Example 9.56 Two plano-concave lenses of glass of refractive the two parts are joined as shown in figure, the focal
index 1.5 have radii of curvature of 20 and 30 cm. They length of combination is again f .
are placed in contact with curved surface towards each other f 2f 2f f f
and the space between them is filled with a liquid of
refractive index 2/3. Find the focal length of the system.
Sol. R1 R2
1 2 3

µ=2/3 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 9.61 Convex lens cut along its optical axis
3 3
µ= µ=
2 2 (ii) If a symmetrical convex lens of focal length f is cut
into two parts along the principal axis, then focal
Lens 1 length of each part remains unchanged to f . If these
20 cm two parts are joined with curved ends on one side,
then focal length of the combination is f /2. But on
joining two parts in opposite sense the net focal
length becomes ∞ (or net power = 0), i.e. it behaves
like a plane glass.
f ∞
f f
2
1 3   1 1 1
=  − 1  −  = −
f1  2   ∞ 20 40
Lens 2
f
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 cm 30 cm
Fig. 9.62 Convex lens cut along its principal axis

Combination of lenses and mirrors

1 2   1 1 (i) When several lenses or mirrors are combined
=  − 1  + 
f2  3   20 30 coaxially, image by first serves as an object for
second and so on. The net magnification is given by
 1  5  1
m = m1 × m 2 × m 3 × ...
= −    = −
 3  60 36 We should keep in mind that direction of incident
Lens 3 rays is reversed after every reflection.
(ii) In some cases, object and image are formed at same
place after interacting the (lens + mirror)
30 cm combination. For this, after refraction from lens, rays
must retrace their path i.e., must be incident
normally on the mirror after refraction from the lens.
In other word, we can say that image by lens should
1 3   1 1  −1 be formed at centre of curvature (C ) of mirror as
=  − 1  −  =
f3  2   − 30 ∞  60 shown in figure.
L M
1 1 1 1 −1 1 1
∴ = + + = − −
F f1 f2 f3 40 36 60
−9 − 10 − 6 − 25 O,I
= =
360 360
(a)
F = −14.4 cm
L
M
Cutting of lens
(i) If a symmetrical convex lens of focal length f is cut O,I C
into two parts along its optical axis, then focal length
of each part (a plano-convex lens) is 2f . However, if (b)
594 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Example 9.58 A converging lens and a diverging mirror are

placed at a separation of 20 cm. The focal length of the lens
is 30 cm and that of the mirror is 50 cm. Where should a
point source be placed between the lens and the mirror, so
O,I C that the light, after getting reflected by the mirror and then
getting transmitted by the lens, comes out parallel to the
principal axis?
L
(c) Sol. f ´= 50 cm
f = 30 cm
Fig. 9.63 Combination of lens and mirror

Example 9.57 A converging lens of focal length 20 cm and a

O
converging mirror of focal length 10 cm are placed 60 cm
I2 I1
apart with common principal axis. A point source is placed
in between the lens and the mirror at a distance of 50 cm
from the lens. Find the locations of the two images formed.
50d
Sol. Consider the situation, d d + 50
20 cm
f = 20 cm f = −10 cm
Image by mirror u = − d, f ′ = 50 cm, v = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + =
v u f′ v −d 50
O
1 1 1 d + 50
⇒ = + =
v 50 d 50 d
50d
50 cm v=
60 cm d + 50
Directed by lens: Image of O is formed at I1.
Since, it is given that final beam is parallel to principal axis,
f = 20 cm
for this, image by mirror should be formed at focus of the lens.
50d 50d
⇒ 20 + = 30 ⇒ = 10
d + 50 d + 50
I O ⇒ 5d = d + 50 ⇒ 4 d = 50
25
⇒ d= cm = 12.5 cm
2
50 cm
u = 50 cm, f = − 20 cm, v = ? Silvering of a lens
1 1 1 1 1 1 (i) Let a plano-convex lens has a curved surface of radius
− = ⇒ − =−
v u f v 50 20 of curvature R and refractive index µ. If its plane
1 1 1 −3 surface is silvered, it behaves as a concave mirror of
=− + = R
v 20 50 100 focal length f . Its focal length is f =
100 − 100 2(µ − 1)
⇒ v= cm = cm
−3 3 (ii) If the curved surface of plano-convex lens is silvered,
By mirror and lens By mirror, image is formed at infinity then it behaves as a concave mirror of focal length,
because object is at focus of mirror. R
f =
By lens, image is formed at focus of lens. 2µ
(iii) If one surface of a symmertical double convex lens is
silvered, then the lens behaves as a concave mirror
R
of focal length, f =
2(2µ − 1)
I2 O
(iv) If the plane surface of a plano-concave lens is
silvered, then the lens behaves as a convex mirror of
R
20 cm
50 cm focal length, f =
10 cm 2(µ − 1)
Ray Optics 595

(v) If the spherical surface of a plano-concave lens is Example 9.60 A concave mirror of radius 40 cm lies on a
silvered, then the lens behaves as a convex mirror of horizontal table and water is filled in it upto a height of 5 cm.
A small dust particle floats on the water surface at a point P
R
focal length, f = vertically above the point of contact of the mirror with the
2µ table. Locate the image of the dust particle as seen from a
(vi) If one surface of a double concave lens is silvered, point directly above it. (Take, µ w = 2/3)
then the lens behaves as a convex mirror of
R
focal length, f =
2(2µ − 1)
Example 9.59 A biconvex thin lens is prepared from glass
(µ = 1.5), the two bounding surfaces having equal radii of P
30 cm each. One of the surfaces is silvered from outside to
make it reflecting. Where should an object be placed before
this lens, so that the image is formed on the object itself?
Sol. Sol.
R R
P
O
µ
5 cm
µ=3
2 20 cm
P′
I′ 3
x I

1 1 1
We have, = (µ − 1) −  The dust particle is in water.
f R1 R 2 
Image by concave mirror
1 3   1 1   1  2  u = −5 cm, f = −20 cm, v = ?
=  − 1  −  =  
f  2   30 − 30  2  30 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + =
⇒ f = 30 cm v u f v −5 − 20
The image by lens should be formed at centre of curvature of 1 1 1 3
mirror. ⇒ = − =
v 5 20 20
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ − = ⇒ x = 15 cm 20
v u f −30 − x 30 ⇒ v= cm
3
Alternatively The image of P is formed at I.
Image by refraction After reflection, direction of incident
rays is reversed. I serves as an object
+ + 2  20 35
µ1 = , u = −  5 +  = − cm
3  3 3
µ 2 = 1, v = ?
1 1
= +
1 1 2
+ = +
1
=
2
+
1
=
4 µ 2 µ1 1 2 /3
− =0 ⇒ =
F fl fm fl fl fm 30 30 /2 30 v u v (−35 /3)
30 35
F = cm ⇒ v=− = − 17.5 cm
4 2
Since, object and image coincide, Final image is formed at I′. PI′ = 17.5 cm
Hence, u = x = 2 F = 15 cm
P′

I′

I
x
596 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

CHECK POINT 9.4

1. A convex lens has a focal length of 20 cm. It is used to form 9. The real image which is exactly equal to the size of an
an image of an object placed 15 cm from lens. The image is object is to be obtained on a screen with the help of a
(a) virtual, inverted and enlarged convex lens of focal length 15 cm. For this, what must be
(b) real, inverted and diminished the distance between the object and screen?
(c) real, inverted and enlarged (a) 15 cm (b) 30 cm
(d) virtual, erect and enlarged (c) 45 cm (d) 60 cm
2. In the figure, an air lens of radii of curvature 10 cm 10. A plano-convex lens of curvature of 30 cm and refractive
(R 1 = R 2 =10 cm) is cut in a cylinder of glass (µ = 2/ 3). The index 1.5 produces a real image of an object kept 90 cm
focal length and the nature of the lens is from it. What is the magnification?
(a) 4 (b) 0.5
(c) 1.5 (d) 2
11. The minimum distance between an object and its real
Air Glass image formed by a convex lens is
(a) 1.5 f (b) 2 f
(c) 2.5 f (d) 4 f
12. A convex lens of refractive index 3/2 has a power of
2.5 D. If it is placed in a liquid of refractive index 2, the new
(a) 15 cm, concave power of the lens is
(b) 15 cm, convex (a) 2.5 D (b) – 2.5 D (c) 1.25 D (d) – 1.25 D
(c) ∞, neither concave nor convex
(d) 0, concave 13. Two thin lenses, one of focal length +60 cm and the other
of focal length −20 cm are put in contact. The combined
3. An air bubble is contained inside water. It behaves as a focal length is
(a) +15cm (b) −15cm
(c) +30 cm (d) −30 cm
14. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is in contact with a
concave lens of focal length 25 cm. The power of
combination is
(a) −1. 5 D (b) − 6. 5 D
(a) concave lens (c) + 6. 5 D (d) +1. 5 D
(b) convex lens
15. Two similar plano-convex lenses are combined together in
(c) Neither convex nor concave three different ways as shown in the adjoining figure. The
(d) Cannot say ratio of the focal lengths in three cases will be
4. A plano-convex lens is made of glass of refractive index 1.5.
The radius of curvature of its convex surface is R. Its focal
length is
(a) R/2 (b) R (c) 2 R (d) 1.5 R
5. At what distance from a convex lens of focal length 30 cm
an object should be placed, so that the size of image be (a) 2 : 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 1 : 1
(1/4)th of the object ? (c) 1 : 2 : 2 (d) 2 : 1 : 1
(a) 30 cm (b) 60 cm
(c) 15 cm (d) 150 cm 16. A biconvex lens has a focal length f. It is cut into two parts
along a line perpendicular to principal axis. The focal length
6. Distance of an object from a concave lens of focal length of each part will be
20 cm is 40 cm. Then linear magnification of the image is (a) f/2 (b) f (c) (3/ 2) f (d) 2 f
(a) 1 (b) < 1 (c) > 1 (d) zero
17. A converging lens is used to form an image on a screen.
7. In order to obtain a real image of magnification 2 using When the upper half of the lens is covered by an opaque
converging lens of focal length 20 cm, where should an screen, then
object be placed? (a) half the image will disappear
(a) 50 cm (b) 30 cm (b) complete image will disappear
(c) –50 cm (d) –30 cm (c) intensity of image will increase
8. An object is placed at 10 cm from a lens and real image is (d) intensity of image will decrease
formed with magnification of 0.5, then the lens is
18. In a plano-convex lens the radius of curvature of the convex
(a) concave with focal length of (10/3) cm lens is 10 cm. If the plane side is polished, then the focal
(b) convex with focal length of (10/3) cm length will be (Refractive index =1.5)
(c) concave with focal length of 10 cm (a) 20.5 cm (b) 10 cm
(d) convex with focal length of 10 cm (c) 15.5 cm (d) 5 cm
Ray Optics 597

PRISM δ

It is a portion of a transparent medium generally made of

crown or flint glass and bounded by three planes
intersecting by three parallel straight lines AD, CF and BE δm

as shown in figure.
A i1
i1 = i2
Prism angle r1 = r2
B D C A D
Fig. 9.66 i1-δ curve
or
i.e. i 2 = i1 = i K (iv)
E F B C E F and r1 = r 2 = r K (v)
Fig. 9.64 Prism From Eqs. (ii) and (v), we get
ABED and ACFD are two refracting faces as shown in the A
figure. ∠A is called angle of prism or refracting angle. r =
2
A + δm
Refraction of light through a prism Further at, δ = δ m = (i + i ) – A or i =
2
The figure below shows the passage of light through a sin i
From Snell’s law, µ =
triangular prism ABC . sin r
A
 A + δm 
sin  
A K  2 
or µ= …(vi)
N T δ A
i1 = i Q e = i2 sin
r1 r2 2
R
S
P O Expression given as Eq. (vi) is also called prism formula.
B C
 A + δm  A + δm
Fig. 9.65 Cross-sectional view of a prism For small angled prism, sin   −
~ and
 2  2
The angles of incidence and refraction at first face AB are i sin A /2 −
~ A /2
and r1, respectively.
(A + δ m )
The angle of refraction at the second face AC is r 2 and the From Eq. (vi), µ = ⇒ δ m = (µ − 1) A
angle of emergence is e. A
The angle between the emergent ray RS and incident ray ⇒ δ m = (µ − 1)A ...(vii)
PQ is called angle of deviation (δ). Thus, Eq. (iii) is derived here.
Here, angle of deviation is given by,
Condition of no emergence
δ = (i 1 + i 2 ) − A …(i) For no emergence of light, total internal reflections must
take place at the second surface. For that, r 2 > C
where, A is angle of prism and ∠A = ∠r1 + ∠r 2 , K (ii)
So, A > r1 + C (Q A = r1 + r 2 )
or δ = (i + e ) − A, where e is angle of emergence which is
equal to i 2 . Maximum value of r1 = C
If angle of incidence and refraction are small, then So, A ≥ 2C for any angle of incidence.
δ = (µ − 1) A …(iii) If light ray is incident normally on first surface
This expression shows that for a given angle A all rays i.e. i = 0, it means ∠r = 0 °
entering a small angled prism at small angles of incidence So in this case, condition of no emergence from second
suffer the same deviation. surface is A > C
Minimum deviation ∴ sin A > sin C
The angle of emergence of the ray from the second face 1
sinA > ⇒ µ > cosecA
equals the angle of incidence of the ray on the first face µ
then deviation produced is minimum.
598 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Example 9.61 A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60° Example 9.64 One face of a prism with a refractive angle of
on the face of a prism having refracting angle 30°. The ray 30° is coated with silver. A ray incident on another face at
emerging out of the prism makes an angle 30° with the an angle of 45° is refracted and reflected from the silver
incident ray. Show that the emergent ray is perpendicular to coated face and retraces its path. What is the refractive
the face through which, it emerges. index of the prism?
Sol. Given, i1 = 60°, A = 30° and δ = 30°. Sol.
90°
From the relation, δ = (i1 + i2 ) − A
45°
we have, i 2 = 0
This means that the emergent ray is perpendicular to the face
through which it emerges.

Example 9.62 The refracting angle of a glass prism is 30°. A

ray is incident onto one of the faces perpendicular to it. Find Given, A = 30°, i1 = 45° and r2 = 0
the angle δ between the incident ray and the ray that leaves Since, r1 + r2 = A
the prism. The refractive index of glass is µ =1.5. ∴ r1 = A = 30°
Sol. Given, A = 30°, µ = 1.5 and i1 = 0° Now, refractive index of the prism,
Since, i1 = 0°, therefore, r1 is also equal to 0°. sin i1 sin 45° 1/ 2
µ= = = = 2
Further, since, r1 + r2 = A sin r1 sin 30° 1/2
∴ r2 = A = 30°
sin i2 Example 9.65 A prism is made of glass of unknown
Using, µ=
sin r2 refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on a
sin i2 face of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation is
we have, 1.5 = measured to be 40°. What is the refractive index of the
sin 30° material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is
1 60°. If the prism is placed in water (refractive index 1.33),
or sin i2 = 1.5 sin 30° = 1.5 × = 0.75
2 predict the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel
∴ i2 = sin−1 (0.75) = 48.6° beam of light.
Now, the deviation, δ = (i1 + i2 ) − A = (0° + 48.6° ) − 30°  A + δm   60° + 40° 
sin   sin  
 2   2 
or δ = 18.6° Sol. Using the relation, µ = =
 A  60° 
sin   sin  
Example 9.63 The angle of minimum deviation for a glass  2  2 
prism with µ = 3 equals the refracting angle of the prism.
sin 50° 0.7660
What is the angle of the prism? = = = 1.532 ≈ 1.53
sin 30° 0.50
Sol. Given, A = δm
Let δ m
′ be the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel
 A + δm  beam of light when the prism is placed in water of refractive
sin  
 2  index, a µ w = 1.33 and a µ g = 1.532
Using, µ=
 A aµ g 1.532
sin   ∴ wµ g = = = 1.152
 2 aµ w 1.33
 A + A  A + δ ′m 
sin   sin  
 2   2 
we have, 3= µ =
 A w g
 A
sin   sin  
 2  2

2 sin
A
cos
A  60° + δ ′m 
sin A sin  
or 3= = 2 2  2 
 A  A or 1.152 =
sin   sin   60°
 2  2 sin
2
A 3  δ ′m  1
∴ cos = or sin 30° +  = 1.152 × = 0.5759 = sin 35.17°
2 2  2 2
⇒
A
= 30° or A = 60° δ ′m δ′
or 30° + = 35.17° or m = 35.17° − 30 = 5.17°
2 2 2
⇒ δ m = A = 60° Angle of minimum deviation, δ ′m = 2 × 5.17° = 10.34° = 10°20′
Ray Optics 599

Example 9.66 At what angle should a ray of light be dispersion to the average deviation when a white beam of
incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60°, so light is passed through it. It is denoted by ω.
that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face?
The refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.524.
Sol. Let C = critical angle for the material of the prism.
1 1 δr δy δv
∴ sin C = = = 0.6562
µ 1.524
Red
or C = sin−1 (0.6562) = 41°
Yellow
We know that for a prism, A = r1 + r2
Here, r2 = C = 41° , A = 60° Violet
Fig. 9.68 Deviation of rays of different colours in a prism
∴ 60° = r1 + 41° or r1 = 60° − 41° = 19°
For the face AB, r1 = 19° , µ = 1.524
As we know, δ = (µ − 1) A
A This equation is valid, when A and i are small. Suppose, a
60º beam of white light is passed through such a prism, the
deviation of red, yellow and violet light are given by,
δ r = (µ r – 1)A,
Q R
i r1 r2 δ y = (µ y – 1)A,
90º and δ v = (µ v – 1) A
P The angular dispersion is, δ v − δ r = (µ v − µ r ) A and the
B C average deviation is δ y = (µ y − 1) A.
Thus, the dispersive power of the medium is,
∴ According to Snell’s law,
sin i δv − δr µv − µr
µ= ω= = …(i)
sin r1 δy µy −1
or sin i = µ sin r1 = 1.524 sin 19° Note
= 1.524 × 0.3256 = 0.4962 (i) Deviation corresponding to yellow coloured light is average or
µ + µr
i = sin−1 (0.4962) = 29.75° mean deviation, µ y = v
2
∴ Angle of incidence, i = 29.75° ≈ 30° (ii) A single prism produces both deviation and dispersion
simultaneously.

Dispersion of light by a prism Example 9.67 The refractive indices of flint glass for red
If a beam of white light (contains all colours), is sent and violet light are 1.613 and 1.632, respectively. Find the
through the prism, it is then separated into a spectrum of angular dispersion produced by the thin prism of flint glass
its constituents colours. The spreading of white light into having refracting angle 4°.
its colour components is called dispersion. Sol. Angular dispersion,
θ = (µ v − µ r )A = (1.632 − 1.613) × 4° = 0.076°
Example 9.68 Evaluate the dispersive power of flint glass.
The refractive indices of flint glass for red, yellow and violet
light are 1.613, 1.620 and 1.632, respectively.
R
O Sol. Dispersive power is given by
ght
hit
e li
Y
µ − µ r 1.632 − 1.613
W B
G ω= v = = 0.031
I µy −1 1.620 − 1
V

Fig. 9.67 Dispersion of white light

Combination of prisms
If δ r , δ y and δ v are the deviations for red, yellow and Figure shows two prisms of refracting angles A and A′ and
violet components, then average deviation is measured by dispersive powers ω and ω′, respectively. They are placed
δ y as yellow light falls in between red and violet. in contact in such a way that the two refracting angles are
So, δ v − δ r is called angular dispersion. The dispersive reversed with respect to each other. A ray of light passes
power of a material is defined as the ratio of angular
600 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

through the combination as shown. The deviation 1.641 + 1.659 

= − 1 × 4° = (1.65 − 1) × 4° = 2.6°
produced by the two prisms are,  2 
δ 1 = (µ − 1) A Dispersive power,
and δ 2 = (µ ′ − 1) A′ µ − µ r 1.659 − 1.641
ω= b = = 0.028
µy −1 1.650 − 1
A ω′
δ1 Example 9.70 We have to combine a crown glass prism of
angle 4° with a flint glass prism in such a way that the mean
δ2
ray passes undeviated, find (i) the angle of the flint glass
ω A′ prism needed and (ii) the angular dispersion produced by the
combination when white light goes through it. Refractive
Fig. 9.69 Combination of two prisms indices for red, yellow and violet light are 1.514, 1.517 and
1.523 respectively for crown glass and 1.613, 1.620 and
As the two deviations are opposite to each other, the net 1.632, respectively for flint glass.
deviation is, Sol. It is given that, for
δ = δ 1 − δ 2 = (µ − 1)A − (µ ′ − 1) A′ …(ii) Crown glass: µ r = 1.514, µ y = 1.517, µ v = 1.523, A = 4°
Using this equation, the average deviation produced by the Flint glass: µ ′r = 1.613, µ y ′ = 1.620, µ v ′ = 1.632, A′ = ?
combination, if white light is passed is, (i) For no deviation (µ y − 1)A = (µ y ′ − 1)A′
δ y = (µ y − 1)A − (µ ′y − 1) A′ …(iii) ⇒ (1.517 − 1) × 4 = (1.620 − 1)A′
and the net angular dispersion is, ⇒ A′ = 3.34°
(ii) Also, angular dispersion,
δ v − δ r = (µ v − µ r )A − (µ ′v − µ ′ r )A′
θ 0 = θ1 − θ 2
But, as µ v – µ γ = ω (µ y – 1) from Eq. (i), we have
= |(µ v − µ r )A − (µ v ′ − µ r ′ )A′ |
δ v − δ r = (µ y − 1) ωA − (µ ′ y − 1) ω ′ A′ …(iv) = |(1.523 − 1.514) × 4 − (1.632 − 1.613) × 3.34|
Dispersion without average deviation = 0.027°
From Eq. (iii), δ γ = 0, if Example 9.71 It is given that the dispersive powers of crown
A µ′ y − 1 and flint glasses are 0.06 and 0.10 respectively. Also the
= …(v) refractive indices for yellow light for these glasses are 1.517
A′ µ y − 1
and 1.621, respectively. We have to form an achromatic
This is the required condition of dispersion without combination of prism of crown and flint glasses which can
average deviation. Using this in Eq. (iv), the net angular produce a deviation of 1° in the yellow ray. Evaluate the
dispersion produced is : refracting angles of the two prisms needed.
δ v − δ r = (µ y − 1)A (ω − ω ′ ) Sol. Crown glass, ω = 0.06, µ y = 1.517

Average deviation without dispersion Flint glass, ω ′ = 0.10, µ y ′ = 1.621

From Eq. (iv), δ v − δ r = 0, if For no dispersion,
A (µ ′ y − 1) ω ′ µ ′ v − µ ′ r (µ v − µ r ) A = (µ v ′ − µ r ′ )A′
= = …(vi) ⇒ ω (µ y − 1)A = ω ′ (µ y ′ − 1)A′
A′ (µ y − 1) ω µv − µr
 µ − µr µ ′ − µr ′
This is the required condition of average deviation without Qω = v , ω′ = v 
dispersion. Using the above condition in Eq. (iii), the net  µy −1 µy ′ −1 
 ω ⇒ 0.06(1.517 − 1)A = 0.10(1.621 − 1)A′ ⇒ A = 2A′
average deviation is, δ γ = (µ y − 1)A 1 − 
 ω′  Deviation, δ 0 = |(µ y − 1)A − ( uy ′ − 1)A′ |
Example 9.69 White light is passed through a prism of angle 1 = | (1.517 − 1)A − (1.621 − 1) A′ |
4°. If the refractive indices for red and blue colours are = |0.517A − 0.621A′ |
1.641 are 1.659 respectively, then calculate the angle of
= |0.517 × 2 A′ − 0.621A′ |
deviation between them, also calculate the dispersive power.
Sol. Angle of deviation, ⇒ 1 = 0.413 A′
µ + µ b  ⇒ A′ = 2.42°
δ = (µ y − 1) A =  r − 1 4°
 2  or Angle of prism, A = 2 A′ = 4.84°
Ray Optics 601

CHECK POINT 9.5

1. A ray of light is incident on an equilateral glass prism 4. A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism in
placed on a horizontal table. For minimum deviation which such a manner that the angle of incidence is equal to the
of the following is true? angle of emergence and each of these angles is equal to 3/4
of the angle of the prism. The angle of deviation is
R (a) 45° (b) 39° (c) 20° (d) 30°
Q 5. In a thin prism of glass (refractive index 1.5), which of the
S
following relations between the angle of minimum
P deviations δ m and angle of prism r will be correct?
(a) δ m = r (b) δ m = 1. 5 r
(c) δ m = 2r (d) δ m = r / 2
(a) PQ is horizontal
(b) QR is horizontal 6. The angle of minimum deviation for a prism of refractive
(c) RS is horizontal index 1.5 is equal to the angle of the prism. The angle of
(d) Either PQ or RS is horizontal
prism is (Given, cos 41° = 0.75 )
(a) 21° (b) 42° (c) 60° (d) 82°
2. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60° on one face of a
prism of angle 30°. The ray emerging out of the prism 7. Dispersive power depends upon
makes an angle of 30° with the incident ray. The emergent (a) the angle of prism
ray is (b) material of prism
(a) normal to the face through which it emerges (c) deviation produced by prism
(b) inclined at 30° to the face through which it emerges (d) height of the prism
(c) inclined at 60° to the face through which it emerges
8. A thin prism P1 with angle 6° and made from glass of
(d) None of the above
refractive index 1.54 is combined with another thin prism
3. When light rays are incident on a prism at an angle of 45°, P2 of refractive index 1.72 to produce dispersion without
the minimum deviation is obtained. If refractive index of deviation. The angle of prism P2 will be
the material of prism is 2, then the angle of prism will be (a) 5°24′ (b) 4°30′
(a) 30° (b) 75° (c) 90° (d) 60° (c) 6° (d) 8°

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS Range of vision

The minimum distance for the clear vision of an object
Instruments (e.g., microscope, telescope etc.) which are used to is called least distance of distinct vision (D). For
assist the eye in viewing an object are called optical normal eye, this distance is generally taken to be 25
instruments. We shall discuss these instruments in detail in cm. The range of vision of eye is from 25 cm (near
coming sections followed by some basics of the eye. point) to ∞ (far point).
The eye
It is the organ which gives us the sense of sight.
Persistence of vision
It is 1/10 s i.e., if time interval, between two
Few important points related to the eye are as follows consecutive light pulses is lesser than 0.1s, eye cannot
(i) The eye behaves as convex lens of refractive index 1.437. distinguish them separately.
(ii) Real and inverted image of an object are obtained at Visual angle
retina, however brain sense it erect.
(iii) Yellow spot is the most sensitive part of the eye, the The size of an object as sensed by us is related to the
image formed at yellow spot is brighter. size of the image formed on the retina.
(iv) Blind spot is not sensitive for light.
(v) Eye lens is fixed between ciliary muscles. The shape h
(curvature) of the eye can be changed by ciliary muscles. θ
θ
Image
Power of accommodation Fig. 9.70 Visual angle
It is the maximum variation in power of eye lens for focussing
The size of the image formed on the retina is roughly
near or far objects clearly at retina. For a young adult with proportional to the angle subtended by the object on
normal visions the power of accommodation is about 4 D. The the eye.
eye loses its power of accommodation at old age.
602 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

This angle is known as the visual angle (θ ). Optical Example 9.72 A 20 D lens is used as a magnifier. Where
instruments are used to increase this angle artificially in should the object be placed to obtain maximum angular
order to improve the clarity. magnification? (Given, D = 25 cm ).
Note While testing your eye through reading chart, if doctor finds it to 1 100
Sol. Focal length of the lens, f = m= cm = 5 cm
6/12 it implies that you can read a letter from 6m which the normal 20 20
eye can read from 12m. Thus, 6/6 means normal eye sight. Maximum angular magnification is obtained when final image
is formed at D. Hence, by using lens formula,
Magnifying power (M) 1
−
1
=
1
⇒ uo = 4.17 cm
It is the factor by which the image on the retina can be −25 −uo 5
enlarged by using the microscope or telescope.
Magnifying power of a microscope,
Compound microscope
Visual angle formed by final image Simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification.
M= So, for larger magnification, one can use compound
Visual angle formed by the object
microscope. It consists of two converging lenses arranged
(when kept at distance D ) coaxially. The one facing the object is called objective and
Magnifying power of a telescope, the one close to eye is called eye-piece. The objective has
Visual angle formed by final image a smaller aperture and smaller focal length than those of
M=
Visual angle subtended by the object the eye-piece.
(directly when seen from naked eye ) The separation between the objective and the eye-piece
(called the length of the microscope L) can be varied by
Microscope appropriate screws fixed on the panel of microscope.
It is an optical instrument used to see very small object.
vo ue Eye-piece
Simple microscope uo fo

It consists of a single convex lens (converging lens) of h F

small focal length. The image formed by this microscope is h' θ
erect, virtual, enlarged and on same side of object.
Objective
B′

L
B Image
h θ
A′ A Fig. 9.72 Image formation in a compound microscope
u0
D The object is placed beyond first focus of objective, so that
Fig. 9.71 Image formation in a simple microscope an inverted and real image (intermediate image) is formed
(i) When final image is formed at infinity. by the objective. This intermediate image acts as an object
for the eye-piece and lies between first focus and pole of
D
Magnifying power, M ∞ = eye piece. The final magnified virtual image is formed by
f the eye-piece.
This is also called magnifying power for normal ∴ Magnifying power of the compound microscope,
adjustment.
(ii) When final image is formed at D (near point). vo  D 
M=  
D uo  ue 
Magnifying power, MD = 1 +
f
Note or M = M o × M e , where M o is the magnifying power of
(i) MD > M∞ , i.e. when final image is formed at 25 cm, angular objective and M e is the magnifying power of eye-piece.
magnification is increased but eye is most strained. On the other
hand, when final image is at infinity, angular magnification is slightly (i) When the final image is formed at infinity,
less but eye is relaxed. So, the choice is yours, whether you want to v D
see bigger size with strained eye or smaller size with relaxed eye. Magnifying power, M ∞ = o
(ii) M can be increased by decreasing f, but due to several other u o fe
aberrations the image becomes too defective at large magnification
 (L − f − f ) 
with a simple microscope. Roughly speaking a magnification power
and L ∞ = v o + f e Q M ∞ = ∞ o e 
upto 4 is trouble free.  fo fe 
Ray Optics 603

(ii) When the final image (by eye-piece) is formed at D. We have three unknowns v o , uo and fe, solving these three
equations, we get
v  D
Magnifying power, MD = o 1 +  fe = 2 cm
uo  fe 

and LD = v o + |ue | = v o +
Dfe Telescopes
D + fe A microscope is used to view the objects placed closed to
In general, object is placed very near to the principal focus it. To look at distant objects such as a star, a planet or a
of objective and f 0 is also very small, then distant tree etc., we use telescopes. There are three types
of refracting telescopes in use
L  D
MD = − 1+  (i) Astronomical telescope,
f o  fe  (ii) Terrestrial telescope and
Example 9.73 The separation between the objective and the
(iii) Galilean telescope.
eye-piece of a compound microscope can be adjusted
between 9.8 cm to 11.8 cm. If the focal lengths of the Astronomical telescope
objective and the eye-piece are 1.0 cm and 6 cm It is used to see the heavenly bodies. It consists of two
respectively, find the range of the magnifying power, if the converging lenses placed coaxially. The one facing the
image is always needed at 24 cm from the eye. distant object is called the objective and has a large
Sol. For eye-piece, it is given that aperture and large focal length. The other is called the
fe = 6 cm , v e = − 24 cm eye-piece, as the eye is placed closed to it.
1 1 1 Objective lens
∴ − = or ue = 4.8 cm fo fe
−24 −ue 6 Parall
from oel rays Eye lens
When, L = 9.8 cm , then v o = (9.8 − 4.8) cm = 5.0 cm infinit bject at
y
1 1 1 α B Fo, Fe
∴ – = α β
5.0 −uo 1.0 C1 I C2 Eye
e
or uo = 1.25 cm ag
l im ity
v D  5.0   25.0 na in
or Magnifying power, |M | = o = Fi inf
   = 20.83 at
uo ue 1.25  4.8 
Fig. 9.73 Image formation in an astronomical telescope
When, L =11.8 cm, then v o = (11.8 − 4.8) cm = 7.0 cm
1 1 1 The intermediate image formed by objective is real,
∴ – = or uo =1.17 cm inverted and small and final image formed by eye-piece is
7.0 −uo 1.0
real, inverted and highly magnified.
v o D  7.0   25.0
|M | = ⋅ =   = 31.16 Magnifying power
uo fe 1.17  4.8 
(i) When object is at infinity
Therefore, range of magnifying power is from 20.83 to 31.16.
β fo fo
Example 9.74 A compound microscope has a magnifying Magnifying power, M= = or M =
α ue ue
power of 100 when the image is formed at infinity. The
objective has a focal length of 0.5 cm and the tube length is where, α = angle subtended by object on objective and
6.5 cm. Find the focal length of the eye-piece. β = angle subtended by final image at eye-piece.
Sol. When the final image is at infinity, f
ue = fe = tube length − v o ∴ M ∞ = o and L ∞ = f o + fe (Q ue = fe )
fe
∴ fe = 6.5 – v o …(i)
Since,
v D
|M ∞ | = o ⋅
(ii) When the final image is at D
uo fe fo  fe 
v 25 vo Magnifying power, MD = 1 + 
∴ 100 = o ⋅ or =4 …(ii) fe  D
uo fe uo fe
For the objective, Dfe
1 1 1 1 1 1 and LD = f o +
− = = ⇒ + =2 …(iii) D + fe
v o −uo fo 0.5 v o uo
604 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Terrestrial telescope the objective. Real image formed by the objective is

called intermediate image. This intermediate image acts
It consists of three converging lenses, objective, eye-piece as virtual object for eye-piece. Final image is erect and
lens and erecting lens. It is used to see far off objects on the magnified as shown in figure. The intermediate image is
earth and it’s final image is virtual, erect and smaller. formed at second focus of objective.
fo 2f 2f fo
Q" Final imageQ"
Q ue
Q
Q"
P' β α P" β E P'
P α P" P" P O α β
Q'

L0 L Q'

Fig. 9.74 Image formation in a terrestrial telescope

Fig. 9.75 Image formation in a Galilean telescope
Magnifying power
Magnifying power
(i) When image is formed at infinity
fo
f Magnifying power, M ∞ =
M ∞ = o and L ∞ = f o + 4f + fe fe
fe
and L ∞ = f o − fe = | f o | − ue
(ii) When image is formed at D
When the final image is formed at a distance D
f  f 
MD = o 1 + e  f  f 
fe  D Thus, magnifying power, MD = o 1 − e 
fe  D
Dfe f D
and LD = f o + 4f + and LD = f o − e
D + fe D − fe
Note
Galilean telescope (i) In all above formulae of M, we are considering only the magnitude
of M.
In this telescope, a convergent lens is used as the objective (ii) For telescopes, formulae have been derived when the object is at
and a divergent lens as the eye-piece. The objective lens infinity. For the object at some finite distance different formulae
forms a real and inverted image but the divergent lens will have to be derived.
comes in between the objective and real image formed by
Summary of formulae for optical instruments
Name of Optical M∞ MD L∞ LD
M L
Instruments
D D D
Simple microscope — 1+ — —
uo f f
vo D vo D vo  D vo +
Dfe
Compound microscope vo + u e 1+  v o + fe
uo ue u o fe uo  fe  D + fe

fo fo fo  f  fo +
Dfe
Astronomical telescope fo + u e 1+ e  fo + fe
ue fe fe  D D + fe

fo / u e fo fo  f  fo + 4 f +
Dfe
Terrestrial telescope fo + 4 f + u e 1+ e  fo + 4 f + fe
fe fe  D D + fe
fo fo fo  f  fo −
feD
Galilean telescope fo − u e 1− e  fo − fe
ue fe fe  D  D − fe
Ray Optics 605

Reflecting telescope Example 9.77 The eye-piece of an astronomical telescope has

This type of telescope is based upon the same principle a focal length of 10 cm. The telescope is focused for normal
except that the formation of images takes place by vision of distant objects when the tube length is 1.0 m. Find
the focal length of the objective and the magnifying power of
reflection instead of by refraction. It consists of concave the telescope.
mirror of large aperture and large focal length (objective).
A plane mirror is placed between the concave mirror and Sol. Given, fe = 10 cm, L∞ = 1.0 m = 100 cm
its focus. A small convex lens works as eye-piece. Since, L∞ = fo + fe
∴ fo = 90.0 cm
Eye-piece
M1 = Parabolic mirror fo 90.0
Further, magnification, M ∞ = = = 9.0
fe 10.0

Rays arrive Example 9.78 An astronomical telescope is to be designed to

parallel from have a magnifying power of 50 in normal adjustment. If the
very distant length of the tube is 102 cm, find the powers of the objective
object and the eye-piece.
Sol. Given, M ∞ = 50
M2 = Plane mirror fo
∴ = 50 …(i)
Fig. 9.76 Reflecting telescope fe

If f o is focal length of the concave spherical mirror and fe Further, L∞ = 102 cm

the focal length of the eye-piece, then magnifying power ∴ fo + fe = 102 cm …(ii)
f Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
of the reflecting telescope is given by m = o fo = 100 cm and fe = 2 cm
fe
1
Example 9.75 A small telescope has an objective lens of ∴ Power of object, Po = =1D
1.0
focal length 140 cm and an eye-piece of focal length 5.0 cm.
1
What is the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing and power of eye-piece, Pe = = 50 D
distance objects when 0.02
(i) the telescope is in normal adjustment (i.e., when the final image Example 9.79 A telescope has an objective of focal length
is at infinity) ? 50 cm and an eye-piece of focal length 5 cm. The least
(ii) the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. The telescope is focused
25 cm? for distinct vision on a scale 2 m away from the objective.
Sol. (i) When the telescope is in normal adjustment, the Calculate (i) magnification produced and (ii) separation
magnifying power is given by between objective and eyepiece.
f 140 Sol. Given, fo = 50 cm and fe = 5 cm
M= o =+ = 28
| fe| 5 1 1 1
For objective, − =
(ii) When the final image is formed at the least distance of v o −200 50
distinct vision, then M is given by 200 v (200 /3) 1
f  f  140  5.0 ∴ vo = cm ⇒ m o = o = =−
M = o 1 + e  = 1 +  = 33.6 3 uo − 200 3
| fe|  D 5  25 
1 1 1
For eye-piece, − =
Example 9.76 A small telescope has an objective lens of −25 ue 5
focal length 144 cm and an eye-piece of focal length 6.0 cm. 25 v −25
What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the ∴ ue = – cm and m e = e = =6
6 ue − ( 25 / 6)
separation between the objective and the eye-piece?
(i) Magnification, m = m o × m e = − 2
Sol. M = magnifying power of telescope
(ii) Separation between objective and eye-piece,
L = separation between the objective and the eyepiece 200 25 425
In normal adjustment (i.e., when the final image is formed at ∞), L = v o + | ue | = + = = 70.83 cm
3 6 6
f 144
M= o =− = −24 Note Here, object is placed at finite distance from the objective.
fe 6 Hence, formulae derived for angular magnification M cannot be
⇒ |M | = 24 applied directly as they have been derived for the object to be
at infinity. Here, it will be difficult to find angular
∴ L = fo + fe = 144 + 6 = 150 cm
magnification. So, only linear magnification can be obtained.
606 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Example 9.80 A Galilean telescope is 27 cm long when

focused to form an image at infinity. If the objective has a
Telescope
focal length of 30 cm, what is the focal length of the The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the
eyepiece? reciprocal of the angular separation between two distant
objects which are just resolved by a telescope.
Sol. Given, fo = + 30 cm
1 a
Length of telescope is given, 27 cm. It is given by, R = =
∆θ 1.22 λ
Therefore, ue = + 3 cm
Here, a is the diameter of the objective. For increasing the
For the final image at infinity, the intermediate image should
resolving power of telescope, telescopes with larger
lie at first focus of eyepiece of the Galilean telescope.
objective aperture are used.
∴ fe = – 3 cm
Example 9.81 Calculate the resolving power of a microscope
Objective Eye piece
with cone angle of light falling on the objective equal to 60°.
Take, λ = 600nm and µ for air = 1.
F1 Sol. Here, 2θ = 60° ⇒ θ = 30° , λ = 600 nm = 6 × 10−7m, µ = 1
1 2µ sin θ
RP = =
d λ
2 × 1 × sin 30° 10
27 cm
3 cm RP = −9
= × 106 = 1.67 × 106
600 × 10 6
30 cm
Example 9.82 Assume that light of wavelength 6000 Å is
coming from a star. What is the resolution of a telescope
Resolving power of a microscope whose objective has diameter of 100 inch?
and a telescope Sol. Diameter of objective of telescope,
D = 100 inch = 100 × 2.54 cm = 254 cm
Microscope λ = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10−8 cm = 6 × 10−5 cm
The resolving power of a microscope is defined as the Limit of resolution of telescope,
reciprocal of the distance between two objects which can 1.22 λ 1.22 × 6 × 10−5
dθ = = = 2.9 × 10−7 rad
be just resolved when seen through the microscope. It D 254
depends on the wavelength λ of the light, the refractive Example 9.83 The diameter of the pupil of human eye is
index µ of the medium between the object and the about 2 mm. Human eye is most sensitive to the wavelength
objective and the angle θ subtended by a radius of the 555 nm. Find the limit of resolution of human eye.
objective on one of the objects.
Sol. Here, D = 2 mm = 2 × 10−3 m, λ = 555 nm = 555 × 10−9 m
Resolving power is reciprocal of resolution limit.
1.22λ 1.22 × 555 × 10−9
1 2µ sin θ Limit of resolution, dθ = =
Resolving power, RP = = D 2 × 10−3
∆d λ
= 3.39 × 10−4 rad
Resolving power (R P ) of microscope increases
180 °
(i) on introducing a medium of higher refractive index dθ = 3.39 × 10−4 ×  = 0.0194°
 π 
(µ ) between object and objective lens or
= 0.0194 × 60 min = 1.2 min
(ii) by decreasing the wavelength of used light.
Ray Optics 607

CHECK POINT 9.6

1. The focal length of a normal eye lens is about (c) there will be no effect on the image formed by the
(a) 1 mm (b) 2 cm telescope
(c) 25 cm (d) 1 m (d) image will be slightly greater than the earlier one
2. An object is placed at a distance u from a simple microscope 10. The aperture of a telescope is made large, because to
of focal length f. The angular magnification obtained (a) increase the intensity of image
depends (b) decrease the intensity of image
(a) on f but not on u (b) on u but not on f (c) have greater magnification
(c) on f as well as u (d) neither on f nor on u (d) have lesser resolution
3. Magnifying power of a simple microscope is (when final 11. In an astronomical telescope, the focal length of the
image is formed at D = 25 cm from eye) objective lens is 100 cm and of eyepiece is 2 cm. The
D D f D
(a) (b) 1 + (c) 1 + (d) 1 − magnifying power of the telescope for the normal eye is
f f D f (a) − 50 (b) − 10
1
4. In a compound microscope, the intermediate image is (c) 100 (d)
50
(a) virtual, erect and magnified
(b) real, erect and magnified 12. The focal lengths of the objective and eye lenses of a
(c) real, inverted and magnified telescope are respectively, 200 cm and 5 cm. The maximum
(d) virtual, erect and reduced magnifying power of the telescope will be
(a) – 40 (b) – 48
5. A compound microscope has two lenses. The magnifying (c) – 60 (d) –100
power of one is 5 and the combined magnifying power is
100. The magnifying power of the other lens is 13. The number of lenses in a terrestrial telescope is
(a) 10 (b) 20 (a) two (b) three
(c) 50 (d) 25 (c) four (d) six

6. The length of the compound microscope is 14 cm. The 14. Magnifying power of a Galilean telescope is given by
magnifying power for relaxed eye is 25. If the focal length fo 1 − fe  fo 1 + fe 
(a)   (b)  
of eye lens is 5 cm, then the object distance for objective fe  D fe  D
lens will be fo  2f  fo  2f 
(c) 1 + e  (d) 1 − e 
(a) 1.8 cm (b) 1.5 cm fe  D  fe  D 
(c) 2.1 cm (d) 2.4 cm
15. In Galilean telescope, the final image formed is
7. If the focal length of objective and eye lens are 1.2 cm and
(a) real, erect and enlarged
3 cm respectively and the object is put 1.25 cm away from
(b) virtual, erect and enlarged
the objective lens and the final image is formed at infinity.
(c) real, inverted and enlarged
The magnifying power of the microscope is (d) virtual, inverted and enlarged
(a) 150 (b) 200
(c) 250 (d) 400 16. Reflecting telescope consists of
(a) convex mirror of large aperture
8. The focal length of objective and eye lens of a microscope (b) concave mirror of large aperture
are 4 cm and 8 cm, respectively. If the least distance of (c) concave lens of small aperture
distinct vision is 24 cm and object distance is 4.5 cm from (d) None of the above
the objective lens, then the magnifying power of the
microscope will be 17. Resolving power of a microscope is given by
(a) 18 (b) 32 2µ sinθ µ sinθ
(a) (b)
(c) 64 (d) 20 λ2 λ
2µ sinθ 2µ cosθ
9. If the telescope is reversed, i.e. seen from the objective side, (c) (d)
λ λ
then
(a) object will appear very small 18. The resolving power of telescope whose lens has a diameter
of 1.22 m for a wavelength of 5000 Å is
(b) object will appear very large
(a) 2 × 105 (b) 2 × 106 (c) 2 × 102 (d) 2 × 104
608 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Eye lens
DEFECTS OF VISION FP Retina
The common defects of vision are as follows
I
Myopia or short-sightedness O

(near sightedness) (b) Corrected-eye

In this defect, distant objects are not clearly visible and Fig. 9.78 Hypermetropia defect in eye
eye can see only nearby object. The image of distant object
is formed before the retina. In this defect, focal length or radii of curvature of lens
increases or power of lens decreases or distance between
Eye lens Image is formed eye lens and retina decreases.
infront of retina
This defect can be remedied by using a convex lens placed
Retina
between object and eye (as shown in figure,) so that this
lens forms the image of near object at near point (NP) of
the person.
(a) Defected-eye
Corrected lens Eye lens Using lens formula, we get
FP
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ − − =
Retina v u f (NP) − (distance of object) f
1
(b) Corrected-eye Power of the lens, P =
f
Fig. 9.77 Myopia defect in eye
Astigmatism
In this defect focal length or radii of curvature of lens In this defect, eye cannot see objects in two orthogonal
reduced or power of lens increases or distance between (perpendicular) directions clearly simultaneously or eye
eye lens and retina increases. can not focus objects both in horizontal and vertical lens
The defect can be remedied by using a concave lens, clearly.
placed between object and eye (as shown in figure), so that This defect is remedied by using cylindrical lens. This
this lens forms the image of distant object at the far point defect arises due to imperfect shape (not perfectly
(FP) of the person. Using lens formula, we get spherical) of cornea or the eye lens or of both.
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ − = Presbyopia
v u f − (FP) − (distance of object) f
In this, both near and far objects are not clearly visible.
If object is at infinity then, power of the lens,
This defect arises due to weakness of ciliary muscles and
1 1 hardening of eye lens.
P = =
f − (FP) This is remedied either by using two separate lenses or by
using single spectacle having bifocal lenses.
Farsightedness or longsightedness Example 9.84 A person who can see things most clearly at a
distance of 10 cm, requires spectacles to enable to see clearly
(hypermetropia or hyperopia) things at a distance of 30 cm. What should be the focal
In this defect, the near objects are not clearly visible and length of the spectacles?
eye can see only distant object. The image of near object is Sol. Since, the person is not able to see distant objects beyond
formed behind the retina. 10 cm. So , he should use concave lens in his spectacles.
Concave lens will form the image of object distant 30 cm, at
Eye lens
Retina 10 cm, it means u = − 30 cm, v = − 10 cm.
Image is formed Using lens formula,
behind the retina
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
= − = − =− or =
f v u −10 −30 30 f 15
So, f = − 15 cm
(a) Defected-eye
Minus sign signifies that lens used is concave.
Ray Optics 609

Example 9.85 The power of a lens used by a short sighted Using Eq. (i), we get
person, is −2D. Find the maximum distance of an object 1 1
− + =
1
which he can see without spectacles. u 25 50
1 or u = 50 cm
Sol. Power (P ) =
Focal length (m) ∴ His near point shifts to 50 cm.
Given, P = − 2 D
∴ Focal length = −
1
= 0.5 m ⇒ F = − 50 cm
Defects of images
2 Actual image formed by an optical system is usually
Hence, maximum distance of an object, at which he can see imperfect. The defects of images are called aberrations.
without spectacles is 50 cm. The defect may be due to light or optical system. If the
defect is due to light, it is called chromatic aberration,
Example 9.86 If a person can see clearly at a distance of 100
cm, then find the power of lens used to see object at and if due to optical system, monochromatic aberration.
40 cm.
Sol. By lens formula,
Chromatic aberration
1 1 1 The image of an object formed by a lens is usually
= − coloured and blurred. This defect of image is called
f v u
chromatic aberration. This defect arises due to the fact
Given, v = − 100 cm and u = − 40 cm that focal length of a lens is different for different colours.
1 1 1 1 1 1 For a lens,
∴ = − ⇒ =− +
f − 100 −40 f 100 40 1  1 1
1 −1 + 2.5 1.5 = (µ − 1)  − 
⇒ = = f  R1 R 2 
f 100 100
100 1.5 White
Hence, power of lens is P = = 100 × = 1.5 D
f (cm) 100
Red
Example 9.87 A myopic person has been using a spectacles of FV FR
power 1.0 D for distant vision. During old age he also needs
to use separate reading glass of power + 2.0 D. Explain Violet
what may have happened?
Fig. 9.79 Chromatic aberration
Sol. Here, P = − 1 D
1 1
∴ f=
= m = − 100 cm As, µ is maximum for violet while minimum for red, violet
P −1
is focused nearest to the lens while red farthest from it.
For normal vision, far point is at infinity
∴ u=−∞
The difference between f R and f V is a measure of
1 1 1
longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA). Thus,
Using lens formula, − + = ...(i) LCA = f R – f V = ωf Y
u v f
1 1 1 µ − µR
we get, − + =− where, ω= V
−∞ v 100 µY − 1
1 1 µV + µ R
or =− Here, µY =
v 100 2
∴ v = − 100 cm
Condition of achromatism
Thus virtual image of the object at infinity is produced at
100 cm distance using spectacles. To get achromatism, we use a pair of two lenses in
To view objects at distance 25 cm to 100 cm, the person contact. For two thin lenses in contact, we have
using ability of accommodation of eye which is partially lost 1 1 1
in old age for which he needs another spectacles having
= +
F f1 f 2
power,
P = + 2D On differentiating, we get
1 1 −dF df df
∴ f = = = 0.5 m = 50 cm and v = 25 cm ∴ 2
= − 21 − 22
P 2 F f1 f2
610 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

The combination will be free from chromatic aberration, if The inability of the lens to form a point image of an axial
dF = 0 point object is called spherical aberration. Spherical
aberration can never be eliminated but can be minimised
df1 df 2
∴ + 2 =0 by the following methods :
f12 f2 (i) By using stops By using stops either paraxial or
ω1f1 ω 2 f2 marginal rays are cut-off.
∴ + =0
f12 f 22
ω1 ω 2
∴ + =0 FP
f1 f2
This is the condition of achromatism. From the condition of
(a)
achromatism, following conclusions can be drawn
(i) As ω1 and ω 2 are positive quantities, f1 and f 2 should
have opposite signs, i.e., if one lens is convex, the FM
other must be concave.
(ii) If ω1 = ω 2 , means both the lenses are of same
material. Then, (b)
1 1 1 Fig. 9.81 Minimising spherical aberration using stops
+ =0 or = 0 or F = ∞
f1 f2 F (ii) Using two thin lenses separated by a distance
Thus, the combination behaves as a plane glass plate. Two thin lenses separated by a distance, d = f 2 − f1,
So, we can conclude that both the lenses should be has the minimum spherical aberration.
of different materials or ω1 ≠ ω 2 (iii) Using parabolic mirrors If spherical mirror is
replaced by parabolic mirror, spherical aberration is
(iii) Dispersive power of crown glass (ωC ) is less than
minimised.
that of flint glass (ωF ).
(iv) If we want the combination to behave as a
convergent lens, then convex lens should have lesser
F
focal length or its dispersive power should be more. FP
FM P P
Thus, convex lens should be made of flint glass and
concave lens of crown.
(a) Spherical mirror (b) Parabolic mirror
Thus, combination is converging, if convex is made
Fig. 9.82 Minimising spherical aberration using mirrors
of flint glass and concave of crown. Similarly, for the
combination to behave as diverging lens, convex is (iv) Using lens of large focal length It has been found
made of crown glass and concave of flint glass. that spherical aberration varies inversely as the cube
of the focal length. So, if f is large, spherical
Monochromatic aberration aberration will be reduced.
This is the defect in image due to optical system. (v) Using plano-convex lens In case of plano-convex
Monochromatic aberration is of many types such as, lens spherical aberration is minimised, if its curved
spherical, coma, distortion, curvature and astigmatism. surface faces the incident or emergent ray whichever
Here, we shall limit ourselves to spherical aberration only. is more parallel.
Spherical aberration arises due to spherical nature of lens Fo
(or mirror).
I
O

(a) Telescope
O IP Fo
IM

Fig. 9.80 Spherical aberration O I

The paraxial rays (close to optic axis) get focused at I P and

(b) Microscope
marginal rays (away from the optic axis) are focused at I M .
Thus, image of a point object O is not a point. Fig. 9.83 Minimising spherical aberration using plano-convex lens
Ray Optics 611

This is why in telescope, the curved surface faces It is found that red light emerges at an angle of 50° related
the object while in microscope curved surface is to the incoming sunlight and violet light emerges at an
towards the image. angle of 53°.
(vi) Using crossed lens For a single lens with object at
infinity, spherical aberration is found to be
Raindrops
minimum, when R 1 and R 2 have the following ratio,
R1 2µ 2 − µ − 4 Sunlight
=
R2 µ (2 µ + 1)
d
Re
A lens which satisfies this condition is called a Violet
crossed lens. 53°
50°
Observer
Some natural phenomena Fig. 9.85 Formation of secondary rainbow
associated with sunlight
The spectrum of colours that we see around us all the time Scattering of light
is possible only due to sunlight. The rainbow, blue colour If the molecules of a medium after absorption of incoming
of the sky, white clouds, the red view at sunrise and radiations (light) emit them in all directions, this
sunset, etc., are some of the natural phenomena. phenomenon is called scattering. If the wavelength of
radiation remains unchanged in this process, then the
The Rainbow scattering is called elastic otherwise, inelastic.
It is the combined effect of dispersion, refraction and Rayleigh has shown, theoretically that in case of elastic
internal reflection of sunlight by spherical water droplets scattering of light by molecules, the intensity of scattered
of rain. An observer can see the rainbow only when his light depends on both nature of molecules and wavelength
back is towards the sun. of light. According to him,
Primary Rainbow 1
Intensity of scattered light ∝ 4
It is a result of three steps process shown in the figure. λ
(i) Refraction with dispersion Raman effect is based on inelastic scattering. For this CV
(ii) Internal reflection Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930.
(iii) Refraction Scattering helps us in understanding the following
In primary rainbow, red colour is on the top and violet on (i) Why sky is blue When white light from the sun
the bottom as shown in the figure. enters the earth’s atmosphere, scattering takes place.
Sunli 1
ght As scattering is proportional to 4 , blue is scattered
λ
most. When we look at the sky we receive scattered
1
Violet light which is rich in blue and hence, the sky
Raindrops appears blue.
2 (ii) Why sun appears red in the morning and evening
40° Red When sun is at the horizon, due to oblique incidence
42° light reaches earth after traversing maximum path in
Observer
the atmosphere and so suffers maximum scattering.
1
Fig. 9.84 Formation of primary rainbow Now, as scattering ∝ 4 , shorter wavelengths are
λ
Secondary Rainbow scattered most leaving the longer one. As red light
It is a result of four step process as shown in the figure. has longest wavelength in the visible region, it is
(i) Refraction with dispersion scattered least. This is why sun appears red in the
morning and evening. The same reason is why red
(ii) Internal reflection
light is used for danger signals.
(iii) External reflection (iv) Refraction
612 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

CHECK POINT 9.7

1. If a person is suffering from myopia, then it can be removed 5. The focal length of a converging lens is measured for violet,
by green and red colours as f v , f g and f r , respectively. We can
(a) convex lens (b) concave lens then infer that
(c) cylindrical lens (d) toric lens (a) fv = fr (b) fv < fr
2. A short sighted person can see distinctly only those objects (c) fv > fr (d) f g > fr
which lie between 10 cm and 100 cm from him. The power 6. A combination is made of two lenses of focal lengths f1 and
of the spectacle lens required to see a distant object is f 2 and dispersive powers ω1 and ω 2, respectively. The
(a) + 0.5 D (b) −1.0 D combination will be achromatic, if
(c) −10 D (d) + 4.0 D
(a) ω1 = 2ω2 and f1 = 2 f2
3. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct for
(b) 2ω1 = ω2 and f1 = 2 f2
hypermetropia?
(a) Near objects are not clearly visible. (c) ω1 = 2ω2 and f1 = – 2 f2
(b) Distant objects are not clearly visible. (d) 2ω1 = ω2 and 2 f1 = f2
(c) Concave lens is used for remedy of hypermetropia. 7. Rainbow is caused due to
(d) None of the above (a) Refraction (b) reflection (c) dispersion (d) All of these
4. Astigmatism (for a human eye) can be removed by using 8. Phenomenon/Phenomena associated with scattering is/are
(a) concave lens (a) blue colour of the sky
(b) convex lens (b) appearence of reddish sun during sunset and sunrise
(c) cylindrical lens (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) prismatic lens (d) None of the above