PHY 112: ELECTROMAGNETISM I

Electrostatic: This is the branch of electricity which deals with the study of charges at rest.
Generally speaking, if a plastic pen is rubbed on the hair and brought near
small pieces of paper, these pieces will be attracted by the pen. Thus, the pen
is said to be charged, charging the pen by rubbing does not create or make
electricity rather the rubbing merely transfer charges.
A charge is an amount of electricity or simply is the property of matter that is
responsible for electrical phenomena, which exist in a positive or negative
form. In physics charges also known as electric charge or electrostatic charge
and symbolized by Q or q, is a characteristic of matter that express the extent
to which it has more or fewer electrons than proton. In atoms the electron
carries a negative elementary unit charge and the protons carries a positive
charge, the two types of charges are equal and opposite in magnitude. The S.I
unit of a charge is Coulomb denoted by capital letter C. Thus, a Coulomb is
defined as the charge transported by a constant current of one Ampere in one
second.
A fundamental law of electricity governing the behavior of charges state that
“Like or similar charges repel each other while unlike charges attract”
Electric Field
An electric field is the region or a space around a charge in which a force is
experienced by another charge when brought to the region. If a conducting
body is placed in an electric field, electrostatic induction takes place as
positive charges in one direction and negative charges in the opposite direction
within the conducting body, although the body is still electrically neutral.
Electric field may be represented by electric lines of force. An electric line of
force is the path that would be followed by a positive charge if it were free to
move within the electric field. Lines of force start on positive charges and end
at negative charges.
Faraday imagined the electric line of force to have a real existence and
suggested that they are in a state of tension so that they tend to shorten, curved
and repel each other side ways. With this picture he was able to explain the
attraction between unlike charges and repulsion between like charges as
shown below

1
 Fig.1: Electric lines of force indicating attraction between unlike charges

Fig.2: Electric lines of force indicating repulsion between like charges

Coulomb’s Law
This law state that “the electric force of attraction or repulsion between two
charged bodies Q and q is directly proportional to the product of their charges
and inversely proportional to the square of their distance d apart”

Qq
i .e F ∝ 2
d

KQq
⇒ F= 2
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …(1)
d
The force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign and is attractive if the charges have
opposite sign.
1 9 2 2
The proportionality constant K in equation (1) is given by K= =9 ×10 N m /C where
4 π εο
−12 2 2
ε ο=8.85 ×10 C /N m is the permittivity of free space.

The permittivity of a medium is the degree to which the medium resists the flow of charges.
Thus, if a charge is placed in a medium with permittivity ε , we replace ε ο with ε . The ratio of
the permittivity ε of the medium to that of free space ε ο is called the relative permittivity ε r or
dielectric constant.

2
 ε
i .e ε r =
εο

Ex1: Determine the magnitude of of the electrostatic force between two electrons separated
by a distance of 10−10 m apart
Soln
1 9 2 2
Q=q=1.6× 10
−19
C, d=10−10 m, K= =9 ×10 N m /C F=?
4 π εο
2
KQq K q −19 2
= 2 =9 ×10 × ( 1.6 ×10 ) /(10 )
9 −10 2
F= 2
d d
−8
F=2.31 ×10 N
Ex2: Two equally charged pith balls are 3 cm apart in air and repel each other with a force of
−5
4 ×10 N . Compute the charge on each ball.
Soln
1 9 2 2
Q=q=?, d=3 cm=3 ×10−2 m, F=4 ×10−5 N , K= =9 ×10 N m /C
4 π εο

From Coulomb’s law

2
KQq K q
F= 2
= 2
d d
2
Fd 2
⇒ =q
K
−5 −2 2
F d2 4 ×10 ×(3 ×10 )
∴ q=√ ( )=√( )
K 9 ×10 9
−9
q=± 2× 10 C
Electric Field Strength
The strength E of an electric field at any point within the field is defined as the force per unit
F
charge. i.e E ¿ in N/C
q
KQq
But F= 2 (Coulomb’s law )
r
KQq 1
⇒ E= 2
×
r q
KQ
∴ E= 2
r
E is a vector quantity and have the direction as that of electric force.
Ex3: Find the electric field at a distance of 0.1 m from a charge of +2 ×10−9 C in air
Soln

3
 1 9 2 2
r =0.1 m, Q=+ 2× 10−9 C , K= =9 ×10 N m /C E=?
4 π εο

KQ
E= 2
=¿ 9 ×10 9 × 2× 10−9 /(0.1)2
r
¿ 1800 N /C
Ex4: Find the electric field strength at a point P, a distance 50 cm from a −2 μC charge. What
is the magnitude of the force experienced by a proton at that point.
Soln
1 9 2 2
E=?, Q=−2× 10−6 C , r =0.5 m, K= =9 ×10 N m /C
4 π εο

KQ
E= 2
=¿ 9 ×10 9 × 2× 10−9 /( 0.5)2
r
¿−72,000 N /C
The -ve sign indicates E is radially in ward towards the charge.
F
Proton charge +q=1.6 × 10−19 C , since E ¿ ⇒ F=q × E
q
−19
∴ F=1.6 ×10 ×−72,000
−14
¿−1.152× 10 N
The -ve sign indicates the force is attractive
Electric Potential
This is defined as the work done in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a point in
an electric field.
i.e V =W . D /q = F × r /q
KQq
But F= 2 (Coulomb’s law )
r
KQq
⇒ V= 2
×r /q
r
KQ
V= in Volts
r
Relationship between Electric Field Strength and Electric Potential
F F×r
By definition E= and V =
q q
V
⇒ E= in Volts/meter
r
Ex5: Calculate the electric potential at a point 100 cm from a charge of 10−9 C in vacuum
Soln

4
 1 9 2 2
V =? , Q=10−9 C , r =100 cm=1 m, K= =9 ×10 N m /C
4 π εο

KQ 9 −9
V= =9 ×10 ×10 /1
r
V =9Volts

Ex6: An isolated conducting sphere situated in vacuum carries a positive charge of 10−9 C .
Calculate the electric potential at a point 0.1 m from the center of the sphere, find the electric
field intensity at a point 0.06 m.
Soln
KQ 9 −7
V= =9 ×10 ×10 /0.1
r
3
¿ 9 ×10 Volts
Also E=V /d
3 5
¿ 9 ×10 /0.06=1.5 ×10 V /m or
5
¿ 1.5 ×10 N /C
Potential Difference
This is the work done in moving a charge from one point to another within the electric field
of different potential.
W .D
i.e V a −V b=
q
⇒ W . D=q(V a−V b )

Ex7: Point A is at a potential of 240V and another point B is at a potential of 115V.

Determine the work done in moving a charge of 10C from point B to A
Soln
V a =240V , V b =115 V , q=10 C , W . D=?

W . D=q (V b −V a)

= 10(115-240)
= -1250J
Comparison Between Electrostatic and Gravitational Potential Fields
Scientist consider that gravitational force is the weakest in the universe and electric force is
much stronger, like charges repel and unlike charges attract in electric field, so electric force
may be repulsive or attractive. In the gravitational field masses always attract each other and
no repulsive gravitational force has yet been detected.
Below is the summary of some other points.

5
 S/N Electric Field Gravitational Field
1. Both fields obey the inverse square 1 1
F∝ 2 F∝ 2
law r r
2. Field strength unit F F
E= (N /C) g= (N /kg)
q m

3. Force formula KQq GMm

F= 2
F= 2
r r
4. Force direction Attractive/repulsive Attractive only
5. Strength outside isolated sphere-radial ± KQ GM
E= 2 g= 2
field r r
6. Potential outside isolated sphere ± KQ −GM
V= V=
r r
Charge distribution over conductors
It was found experimentally that for static electricity, charges reside on the exterior surface of
a charged conductor. It was also found that the charges on the exterior are not uniformly
distributed over the surface unless the conducting body is a sphere.
For a pear-shaped conductor such as the one shown in fig.3 below, it was found that the
charge density is greatest where the surface is sharply curved

A C
Fig.3 Pear-shaped conductor
In the figure the charge density will be found to be greatest at C and least at B.
Capacitors
These are devices used for storing electrical charges.
A simple example is the parallel plate capacitor, this consists of two parallel conducting
plates each of area A, separated by a distance d.

6
Capacitors of a capacitance is defined as the quantity of charges that can be stored by a
capacitor per unit volt.
Q
i.e C= ∈Coulomb/volt =Farad
V
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
1. Area of the plates: The capacitance of the capacitor is proportional to the area of the
plates. i.e C ∝ A
2. The distance between the plates: The capacitance of the capacitor is inversely
1
proportional to the distance between the plates. i.e C ∝
d
3. The dielectric constant: The capacitance of the capacitor is proportional to the
dielectric between the plates. i.e C ∝ ε r
A
∴ C=ε
d
where ε =ε o ε r
¿ general C=ε o ε r A /d

Ex: A capacitor of contains a charge of 30 ×10−6 C when a potential difference of 300 V is

applied across it. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor.
Soln.

Q=30 × 10 C , V = 300 V C = ?
−6

Q
C= = 30 ×10−6 C /300 V = 1 ×10−7 C /V =0.1 μF
V
Ex: The distance between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor in vacuum each of area
20 cm is 10 mm. If the potential difference applied across the plates is 10,000 V. Compute
2

i) The capacitance of the capacitor

ii) The charge on each plate
iii) The magnitude of the electric field between the plates
Soln.
−12
2 −4 2
A=20 cm =20 ×10 m d=10 mm=10 m ε o=8.85 ×10
−3
F /m ε r=1 V = 10,000 V
A
i) C=ε =ε o ε r A /d = 8.85 ×10−12 ×20 × 10−4 /10−3
d
= 1.77×10−12 F=1.8 pF

Q
ii) C= ⇒ Q=CV
V
= 1.8×10−12 ×10 4
= 1.8×10−8 C

7
 iii) E = V/d = 104 /10−2=106 V /m
ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS
1. PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT
This is when similar terminals of the capacitors are connected together

The potential difference V is the same across the capacitors C 1 C 2 C 3 but the charge is
shared between the capacitors
i.e QT =Q1 +Q2+ Q3
But Q=CV
∴ CT V =C1 V +C 2 V +C 3 V

C T V =(C1 +C 2+C 3 )V
⇒ C T =C1 +C 2+C 3 +… … … .+C n if there are n number of capacitors

Ex: What is the resultant capacitance in the circuit below

Soln.
C T =C 1 +C2

¿ ( 2+ 4 ) F=6 F

SERIES ARRANGEMENT
This is when opposite terminals of the capacitor are connected together

8
The net charge flowing across the capacitors is the same but the potential difference is divided
across the capacitors

i.e V T =V 1 +V 2 +V 3

Q Q
i) From C= ⇒V =
V C
Q Q Q Q
∴ = + +
CT C1 C2 C3

1 1 1
¿ Q( + + )
C1 C 2 C 3

1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = + + + … … …+ for n number of capacitors
CT C 1 C 2 C3 Cn

Ex: What is the resulting capacitance of the circuit below

Soln.

CC T = 4 μF + 2 μF = 6 μF

Ex: Determine the effective capacitance in the circuit below

Soln.

Solving the parallel arrangement first we have

C 12=C1 +C 2

¿ ( 10+2.5 ) μF=12.5 μF

Now the combination of the two capacitors is in series with the third capacitor
1 1 1
= +
Ceff C 12 C 3

1 1
¿ +
12.5 0.3

9
 C T =0.29 μF

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

Charges of opposite sign are stored on the plates of a capacitor. The small work done to place the
charge δq on an uncharged plate is given by

δw=Vδq=(q /c) δq
Thus the total amount of work required to a total charge Q on the plate is therefore

W =∫ q/c δq=
Q 2
1Q
0 2 C
2
1Q
E=
2 C
1 2
But Q=CV ⇒ E= (CV ) /C
2
1 2
∴ E= CV
2
1
Also Q=CV ⇒ E= QV
2

Ex: A d.c of 400V is connected in series and then in parallel with capacitors of capacitance
2 μF , 4 μF and6 μF . Calculate the charge in each capacitor and also the p.d across the first
two capacitors and also the energy stored in them when

i) They are in series

ii) They are in parallel

Soln.

C 1=2 μF , C 2=4 μF , C 3=6 μF , V =400 V

i) In series,
1 1 1 1
= + +
CT C 1 C2 C 3

1 1 1
¿ + +
2 4 6
6+3+2

12

= 11/12

10
 12
C T= μF
11
12 −6
Q T =CT V = ×10 × 400
11

−4
¿ 4.4 ×10 C
QT 4.4 ×10−4
⇒ V 1= = −6
=220 V
C1 2× 10
QT 4.4 ×10−4
V 2= = −6
=110 V
C2 4 ×10
1 2 1 −6 2
E1= C 1 (V 1) = × 2× 10 ×(220) =0.48 J
2 2
1 2 1 −6 2
E2= C 2 (V 2 ) = ×4 ×10 ×(110) =0.024 J
2 2
ii) In parallel
−6
Q1=C 1 V =2× 10 × 400
−4
¿ 8 ×10 C
−6
Q2=C 2 V =4 × 10 × 400
−3
¿ 1.6 ×10 C

−6
Q3=C 3 V =6 ×10 × 400
−3
¿ 2.4 × 10 C
For P.d is V = 400V.
1 1 −4
E1= Q1 V = × 8× 10 × 400
2 2
−1
¿ 1.6 ×10 J
1 1 −3
E2= Q 2 V = × 1.6 ×10 × 400
2 2
−1
¿ 3.2 ×10 J

Ohm’s Law
One of the most basic and important laws of electric circuits is Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,

11
In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance and has units of ohms, with the symbol
Ω.
The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and resistance respectively as follows:

Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant.
In a summary:
Ohm’s Law Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it, provided all physical conditions and temperature, remain constant.
Ohm’s Law Equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage across the conductor, I is the current flowing through the conductor
and R is the resistance provided by the conductor to the flow of current.
Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω and a current of 3.2 A flows through the resistance. Find
the voltage between two points.
Solution:
If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and resistance, then cover V in the
triangle. Now, we are left with I and R or more precisely I × R.
Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:
V=I×R
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
V = 3.2 A × 50 Ω = 160 V
V = 160V
Example 2: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical appliance (a light bulb). An
electric current of 2.0 A flows through it. Consider the conducting wires to be resistance-free. Calculate the
resistance offered by the electrical appliance.
Solution:
When we are asked to determine the value of resistance when the values of voltage and current are given, we
cover R in the triangle. This leaves us with only V and I, more precisely V / I.
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
R=V/I
R=8V/2A=4Ω
R=4Ω

Calculating Electrical Power Using Ohm’s Law

The rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the moving charges to some other form of
energy like mechanical energy, heat energy, energy stored in magnetic fields or electric fields, is known as
electric power. The unit of power is the watt. The electrical power can be calculated using Ohm’s law and by
substituting the values of voltage, current and resistance.

12
Formula to find power
When the values for voltage and current are given,

When the values for voltage and resistance are given,

When the values for current and resistance are given,

Ohm’s Law Applications

The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
 To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.
 Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the electronic components.
 Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter and other DC shunts to divert the current.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:
 Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and transistors as they allow
the current to flow through in one direction only.
 For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance etc the ratio ofvoltage
and current won’t be constant with respect to time making it difficult to use Ohm’s law.

Electric Current:
Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A). It represents the
rate at which electric charge flows past a specific point in a circuit.
Electric current is analogous to the flow of water in a pipe: the more water that flows through a pipe in a given
amount of time, the higher the flow rate; similarly, the more electric charge that flows through a conductor in a
given amount of time, the higher the electric current.

Resistors
Resistors in Series:
When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance (Rtotal) is the sum of the individual resistances. This
can be expressed as:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
Example 1:
Let's consider two resistors, R1 = 10Ω and R2 = 20Ω, connected in series. The total resistance (R total) can be
calculated as:
Rtotal = 10Ω + 20Ω
Rtotal = 30Ω
So, when resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
Resistors in Parallel:
When resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances. This can be expressed as:

13
1 / Rtotal = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
Example 2:
Let's consider three resistors, R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 10Ω, and R3 = 20Ω, connected in parallel. The effective resistance
(Rtotal) can be calculated as:
1 / Rtotal = 1 / 5Ω + 1 / 10Ω + 1 / 20Ω
1 / Rtotal = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.05
1 / Rtotal = 0.35
Rtotal = 1 / 0.35
Rtotal ≈ 2.86Ω
So, when resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance is approximately 2.86Ω.
Additional Information:
- In series circuits, the same current flows through each resistor, while in parallel circuits, the voltage across
each resistor is the same.
- Understanding how resistors behave in series and parallel is crucial for designing and analysing electrical
circuits.
- These principles are widely used in various electronic applications, such as in the design of circuit boards,
power supplies, and electronic devices.
By applying the principles of resistors in series and parallel, engineers and technicians can effectively design
and analyse complex electrical circuits to ensure proper functionality and performance.

14