Electrostatics: ISC

Grade 12
PHYSICS
Welcome to the fascinating world of electrostatics! We'll explore
how stationary electric charges interact and create fields around
them.
From the shock you feel after walking on carpet to lightning in the
sky, electrostatics explains it all.

Made with love By Salman Thakur

Properties of Electric
Charge
Quantization Conservation
Electric charge exists in Total electric charge in an
discrete units. The smallest isolated system remains
unit is the elementary constant. Charges cannot
charge: 1.6 × 10-19 be created or destroyed.
Coulombs.

Additivity
Net charge is the algebraic sum of all individual charges in a system.
Types of Charges
Positive Charge Negative Charge Neutral

Protons carry positive charge. Electrons carry negative charge. Equal numbers of protons and
Objects with more protons than Objects with more electrons than electrons. No net charge, but can
electrons are positively charged. protons are negatively charged. be polarized.
Conductors and
Insulators
Conductors
Materials with free electrons that move easily.

Examples: metals, graphite, electrolytes.

Insulators
Materials with bound electrons that cannot move freely.

Examples: plastic, rubber, glass, wood.

Semiconductors
Materials with properties between conductors and insulators.

Examples: silicon, germanium.

 Charging Methods
Conduction
Direct contact between charged and
neutral objects.

Example: Touching a charged rod to a

metal sphere. Induction
Friction
Charge separation without contact.
Transfer of electrons by rubbing two objects.
Example: Bringing a charged rod near a
Example: Rubbing a balloon on hair. neutral conductor.
The Electroscope

Applications
Working Principle
Detecting presence and type of
Structure
When charged, leaves repel each charge. Testing materials for
Metal rod with gold leaf inside glass other. The separation indicates conductivity.
case. Top has metal plate or sphere. charge intensity.
Coulomb's Law:
Concept
Force between Vector nature
point charges
Force has both magnitude
and direction. It acts
Electric charges exert along the line joining the
forces on each other. This charges.
force can be attraction or
repulsion.

Inverse-square law
Force is inversely proportional to the square of separation
distance between charges.
Coulomb's Law: Mathematical
Expression

Formula
F = k (q₁q₂/r²)

Where F is force, q₁ and q₂ are charges, r is distance, and k is Coulomb's constant.

SI Units
Force: Newton (N)

Charge: Coulomb (C)

Distance: Meter (m)

Coulomb's Constant
k = 8.99 × 10⁹ Nm²/C²

Also written as k = 1/(4πε₀)

Coulomb's Law: Example
Problem

2 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹
Electrons Charge (C)
At 1 nanometer separation Per electron

2.3 × 10⁻²⁸
Force (N)
Repulsive force between electrons

Step-by-step solution: F = (9×10⁹)(1.6×10⁻¹⁹)²/(10⁻⁹)² = 2.3×10⁻²⁸ N

Principle of Superposition
Vector Addition
Net electric force is the vector sum of individual forces.

Multiple Charges
Calculate force from each charge separately.

Mathematical Form
F₁₂ᵗᵒᵗᵃˡ = Σ F₁ᵢ for all charges i ≠ 1
Electric Field: Definition
Electric Field Concept

Region around charged objects where electric force is

experienced.

Defined as force per unit charge: E = F/q

Measured in Newtons per Coulomb (N/C) or Volts per

meter (V/m).

The test charge method reveals the electric field. A

small positive charge experiences force in the field's
direction.
Electric Field Lines: Representation

Field lines show direction and strength of electric fields. They never cross. Greater density indicates stronger field.

Lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges.

Electric Field Due to Point Charge

Direction
Formula
1 Away from positive charge, toward
E = k|q|/r²
negative charge

Shape 4 Strength
Radial field in all directions Decreases with square of distance
Electric Field Due to
System of Charges

1 Step 1
Calculate field vector from each charge using E = k|q|/r²

Step 2
Determine direction of each field vector

Step 3
Add all field vectors using vector addition
Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

Linear Charge Surface Charge Volume Charge

Distribution Distribution Distribution
Charge distributed along a line. Charge spread over a surface. Charge distributed throughout
Charge density: λ (C/m). Charge density: σ (C/m²). volume. Charge density: ρ
(C/m³).
Example: Charged wire or rod. Example: Charged conducting plate. Example: Charged sphere.
Parallel Plate Capacitor: Field and
Diagram
Uniform Electric Field Fringe Effects

Field inside: E = σ/ε₀ Field lines bend near edges

Direction: Perpendicular to plates Negligible when plate area >> separation distance

Strength: Constant throughout (except near edges) Important in high-precision applications

Electric Dipole

Definition Real-world Example Dipole Moment

System of two equal and opposite Vector quantity p = q×2a. Direction
charges separated by a distance. Water molecules have dipole from negative to positive charge.
moment due to electron distribution.
Electric Field of a Dipole
Axial Field
1 E = 2kp/r³ along dipole axis

Equatorial Field
2 E = kp/r³ perpendicular to dipole axis

3D Field Pattern
Forms distinctive butterfly pattern in space
Torque on a Dipole in Uniform Field

Expression Alignment
τ = p×E = pE sinθ Dipole rotates to align with field

Application Equilibrium
Electric motors, compass needles 3 Stable when parallel to field
Gauss's Law: Introduction
Statement Electric Flux

Total electric flux through a closed surface is Number of field lines passing through a surface.
proportional to the enclosed charge.
Mathematically: Φₑ = ∫E⋅dA
It relates the electric field at all points on a closed
Units: Nm²/C
surface to the charge inside.
Electric Flux: Definition
Flux Formula
1 Φₑ = E⋅A cosθ

Vector Interpretation
Dot product of field and area vectors

Geometric Meaning
Field component perpendicular to surface
Gauss's Law:
Mathematical
Formulation
1 Integral Form 2 Gaussian Surface

∮E⋅dA = qₑₙₖₗ/ε₀ Imaginary closed surface

used for calculation
Closed surface integral
equals enclosed charge Shape chosen to exploit
divided by ε₀ symmetry

3 Symmetry Considerations
Field must have constant magnitude on surface

Direction must be perpendicular to surface

Application: Field Due to Infinite Line
Charge
Choose Gaussian Surface
Cylindrical surface with radius r centered on the line charge.

Apply Symmetry
Field is radial, constant magnitude at fixed distance. Only side surface contributes.

Calculate Flux
Φₑ = E(2πrL) where L is length of cylinder.

Apply Gauss's Law

E(2πrL) = λL/ε₀ where λ is charge per unit length.

Solve for Field

E = λ/(2πε₀r)
Field Due to Infinite Plane Sheet

Gaussian Surface Field Result

Rectangular box with faces parallel to charged sheet. E = σ/(2ε₀)

Sheet passes through middle of box. Uniform field perpendicular to sheet.

Independent of distance from sheet.

Field Inside and Outside a Spherical Shell
Field of a Uniformly
Charged Solid Sphere

1 Inside (r < R)
E = (ρr)/(3ε₀)

Field increases linearly with distance from center.

At Boundary (r = R)
E = ρR/(3ε₀) = Q/(4πε₀R²)

Field is continuous at the boundary.

Outside (r > R)
E = Q/(4πε₀r²)

Field identical to point charge with total charge Q.

Numerical: Gauss's Law Applications

1 Problem: Cylindrical Conductor 2 Step 1: Identify Symmetry

Cylindrical symmetry → E points radially outward and
Find electric field at r = 5 cm from a charged wire with depends only on r.
linear charge density λ = 2 × 10⁻⁶ C/m.

3 Step 2: Apply Gauss's Law 4 Step 3: Solve

∮E⋅dA = E(2πrL) = λL/ε₀ E = λ/(2πε₀r) = (2×10⁻⁶)/(2π×8.85×10⁻¹²×0.05) = 7.2×10⁵ N/C
Electric Potential: Concept
Definition
1 Electric potential energy per unit charge

Path Independence
Conservative nature of electric force

Potential Difference
Work done per unit charge moving between points
Potential Due to Point Charge

Equipotential Surfaces
Formula 1 2
V = kq/r
Spherical shells centered on charge

Distance Dependence
Reference
Zero potential at infinite distance 3 Inversely proportional to distance
Potential Difference and Electric Field
Relation
Mathematical Relation

E = -∇V = -dV/dx in one dimension

Electric field is negative gradient of potential.

Field points in direction of decreasing potential.

The steeper the potential slope, the stronger the electric field.
Equipotential Surfaces

Point Charge Parallel Plates Electric Dipole

Concentric spheres centered on charge. Parallel planes perpendicular to field Complex 3D shapes with saddle points.
lines.
Potential Due to Dipole

Axial Potential Equatorial Potential

V = kp/(r²) along dipole axis. V = 0 on equatorial plane.

Positive in direction of Potential cancels due to

dipole moment, negative in equal distance from equal
opposite direction. and opposite charges.

General Expression
V = kp·cosθ/r² for any point.

Where θ is angle between dipole moment and position vector.

Combination of Potentials: Superposition
Principle

Potential due to multiple charges is the scalar sum of individual potentials.

V = V₁ + V₂ + ... + Vₙ = kq₁/r₁ + kq₂/r₂ + ... + kqₙ/rₙ

Introduction to
Capacitors

Energy Applications Charge

Storage Separation
Capacitors store Used in filters,
electrical energy in timing circuits, Create potential
electric field. memory devices, difference by
and power supplies. separating positive
and negative
charges.
Capacitance and
Formulae
Capacitor Type Formula Variables

Parallel Plate C = ε₀A/d A = area, d =

separation

Spherical C = 4πε₀ab/(b-a) a, b = inner, outer

radii

Cylindrical C = 2πε₀L/ln(b/a) L = length, a, b = radii

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Series Combination Parallel Combination

1/Cₑq = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + 1/C₃ + ... Cₑq = C₁ + C₂ + C₃ + ...

Equivalent capacitance is less than smallest individual Equivalent capacitance is sum of individual capacitances.
capacitance.
Same potential difference across each, different charges.
Same charge on each capacitor, different potential
differences.
Dielectrics and Polarization

Dielectric Materials Polarization Process Dielectric Constant

Insulators that can be polarized by Charges shift slightly creating Ratio of permittivity to vacuum
electric field. induced dipoles. permittivity (K = ε/ε₀).
Effect of Dielectrics in
Capacitors

K 1/K
Capacitance Increase Electric Field Reduction

C' = KC, where K is dielectric constant E' = E/K inside dielectric

K
Breakdown Voltage
Increase
V'ᵦᵣ = KVᵦᵣ, higher tolerance
Applications in Technology and Daily
Life

Camera Flash Air Purification Photocopiers

Capacitors store energy. Rapid Electrostatic precipitators use Electrostatic attraction positions
discharge produces bright light. charge to trap pollutants. toner particles on paper.
Summary and Practice
Electric Charges
1 Foundation of electrostatics

Electric Fields
2 Describe force interactions

Gauss's Law
3 Relates field to enclosed charge

Electric Potential
4 Energy perspective of fields

Capacitors
5 Store energy in electric fields