Antenna Parametres

(Radiation pattern, Pattern beamwidths, Radiation intensity, Directivity. Gain.

Antenna efficiency and radiation efficiency. Frequency bandwidth. Input
impedance and radiation resistance. Antenna effective area. Relationship
between directivity and antenna effective area. Other antenna equivalent
areas.)

The antenna parameters describe the antenna performance with respect to space
distribution of the radiated energy, power efficiency, matching to the feed
circuitry, etc. Many of these parameters are interrelated. There are several
parameters not described here, in particular, antenna temperature and noise
characteristics. They are discussed later in conjunction with radio-wave
propagation and system performance.

1. Radiation Pattern
Definitions:
The radiation pattern (RP) (or antenna pattern) is the representation of a
radiation property of the antenna as a function of the angular coordinates.

The trace of the angular variation of the received/radiated power at a

constant radius from the antenna is called the power pattern.
The trace of the angular variation of the magnitude of the electric (or
magnetic) field at a constant radius from the antenna is called the amplitude
field pattern.
RPs are measured in the far-field region, where the angular distribution of the
radiated power does not depend on the distance. We measure and plot either the
field intensity, | E( ,  ) |, or the power | E( , ) |2 / =  | H( , ) |2 . Usually,
the pattern describes the normalized field (or power) values with respect to the
maximum value.
Note: The power pattern and the amplitude field pattern are the same when
computed and plotted in dB.
The pattern can be a 3-D plot (both  and  vary), or a 2-D plot. A 2-D plot
is obtained as an intersection of the 3-D RP with a given plane, usually a
  const. plane or a   const. plane that must contain the pattern’s maximum.
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 

elevation plane

  90∘

azimuth plane
  90∘


3-D pattern of a dipole 2-D elevation & azimuth patterns of a dipole

Illustration of azimuth and elevation

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Plotting the pattern: the trace of the pattern is obtained by setting the distance
from the origin in the direction ( , ) to be proportional to the strength of the
field | E( , ) | (in the case of an amplitude field pattern) or proportional to the
power density | E( , ) |2 (in the case of a power pattern).

Elevation Plane:   const

z
  45∘ sin
|r |1/ 2

|r |1

Some concepts related to the pattern terminology

a) Isotropic pattern is the pattern of an antenna having equal radiation in all
directions. This is an ideal concept, which, strictly speaking, is achievable
only approximately in a narrow frequency band. However, it is used to
define other antenna parameters. It is represented simply by a sphere
whose center coincides with the location of the isotropic radiator.
b) Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much more
efficiently in some directions than in others. Usually, this term is applied
to antennas whose directivity is much higher than that of a half-
wavelength dipole.
c) Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has a non-directional
pattern in a given plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane
(e.g. single-wire antenna). The pattern in the figure below is that of a
dipole
– it is omnidirectional.

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 Omnidirectional 3-D pattern

d) Principal patterns are the 2-D patterns of linearly polarized antennas,

measured in the E-plane (a plane parallel to the E vector and containing
the direction of maximum radiation) and in the H-plane (a plane parallel
to the H vector, orthogonal to the E-plane, and containing the direction of
maximum radiation).

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 2-D patterns can be polar or rectangular, depending on the way the angle is
depicted, and linear or logarithmic (in dB), depending on the chosen pattern
scale. The plots below show the same 2-D pattern in 4 different formats.

01
30 0.75 30
0.5
60 0.25 60

90 90

120 120

150 150
180

00
30 -15 30
-30
60 -45 60

90 90

120 120

150 150
180

Polar Pattern (linear scale) Polar Pattern (dB scale, min @-60 dB)

1 0

5
0.8
 -10

normalized field pattern,

-20

-30
normalized field

-40

-50

-60

-70
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
, degrees

Rectangular Pattern (linear scale) Rectangular Pattern (dB)

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 e) Pattern lobe is a portion of the RP with a local radiation-intensity
maximum and limits defined by neighboring nulls. Lobes are classified
as: major, minor, side lobes, back lobes.

2. Pattern Beamwidth
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors,
originating at the pattern’s origin and passing through these points of the major
lobe where the radiation intensity is half its maximum.

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 First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating
at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its base. Often, the
approximation FNBW  2HPBW is used.
The HPBW is the best parameter to describe the antenna resolution
properties. In radar technology as well as in radioastronomy, the antenna
resolution capability is of primary importance.

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3. Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
a)radiated
Solid angle
in this direction by the antenna.
One steradian (sr) is the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere
of radius r, which is subtended by a spherical surface of area r2. In a closed
sphere, there are 4 steradians. A solid angle is defined as
S
   , sr (4.1)
r2
Note: The above definition is analogous to the definition of a 2-D angle in
radians,   /  , where l is the length of the arc segment supported by the
l
angle  in a circle of radius  .

The infinitesimal area ds on a surface of a sphere of radius r in spherical

coordinates is
ds  r 2 sin  d  d  , m2. (4.2)
Therefore,
d  sin  d  d  , sr, (4.3)
and
ds  r 2 d . (4.4)

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b) Radiation intensity U
The radiation intensity is the power radiated within unit solid angle:
U  lim   rad
drad , W/sr. (4.5)
0 d
The expression inverse to that in (4.5) is
rad
 º Ud , W. (4.6)
4
From now on, we will denote the radiated power simply by . There is a direct
relation between the radiation intensity U and the radiation power density P
(that is the time-average Poynting vector magnitude in the far zone). Since
1
d d  U , W/m2 (4.7)
P 2 2
ds r d r
then
U r2 (4.8)
It was already shown that the power density of the far field depends on the
distance from the source as 1/r2, since the far field magnitude depends on r as
1/r. Thus, the radiation intensity U depends only on the direction ( , but not
)
on the distance r.

The power pattern is a trace of the function | U ( ,  ) | usually normalized to its

In the far-field zone, the radial field components vanish, and the remaining E
and H transverse components are in phase and have magnitudes related by
| E |  | H |. (4.9)
This is why the far-field Poynting vector has only a radial component and it is a
real number showing the radiation power-flow density:
Prad 1 1 | E |2
P |H|  2
∼ . (4.10)
1
2 2  r2
Then, for the radiation intensity, we obtain in terms of the electric field
r
U  ,   2 | E |2 . (4.11)
2
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Equation (4.11) leads to a useful relation between the power pattern and the
amplitude field pattern

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4. Directivity

It Directivity
can be alsoofdefined
an antenna
as the (in a given
of thedirection)
radiation is the ratio(RI)of the radiation
ratio intensity of the antenna
intensity in this direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all
in a given direction and the RI of an isotropic radiator fed by the same amount
directions. The radiation intensity averaged over all directions is equal to
of power:
the total power radiated by the antenna
U ( , divided
) Uby(4, ). If a direction is not
D( ,  )   4
specified, then the direction of maximum radiation is implied. , (4.13)
Uav 
and Umax
D  D  4 .
max 0

The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always
 1.

Examples:

1) Directivity of an isotropic source:

U  ,    const.
U0
   4U0
U  , 
 D  ,   4 1

 D0  1.

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2) Directivity of an infinitesimal dipole:2
 2   I l 
U ( ,)   sin2 
 32
2

 U ( ,  )  sin2  U ( ,  )  M U ( ,  )  M sin2 
As per ;
(4.6),
  2 8
M
Ud  M    sin2 
º 4 3
sin  d  d 
00

D( ,)  U (  M sin2  3 2

 3 sin 
4 ,) 4 M   2
 8
 D0  1.5 .

4.1. Beam solid angle  A

 2
The beam solid angle  A of an antenna is the solid angle through which all
  flow
the power of the antenna Awould  U if(its, radiation intensity were constant
(4.19)
and equal to the maximum  d  d  intensity U0 for all angles within  A .
)sinradiation
00

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5. Antenna Gain

The gain G of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity U in a given

direction and the radiation intensity that would be obtained, if the power fed
to the antenna were radiated isotropically.
U (
G( ,  )  4 (4.24)
,)
in
The gain is a dimensionless quantity, which is very similar to the directivity D.
When the antenna has no losses, i.e. when in   , G( , )  D( , ).
then
Thus, the gain of the antenna takes into account the losses in the antenna system.
It is calculated using the input power Πin, which can be measured directly. In
contrast, the directivity is calculated via the radiated power .
There are many factors that can worsen the transfer of energy from the
transmitter to the antenna (or from the antenna to the receiver):
 mismatch losses,
 losses in the transmission line,
 losses in the antenna: dielectric losses, conduction losses, polarization
losses.
The power radiated by the antenna is always less than the power fed to it, i.e.,
  in , unless the antenna has integrated active devices. That is why, usually,
GD.

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6. Antenna Efficiency
The total efficiency of the antenna et is used to estimate the total loss of
energy at the input terminals of the antenna and within the antenna structure. It
includes all mismatch losses and the dielectric/conduction losses (described by
the radiation efficiency e as defined by the IEEE Standards):

7. Beam Efficiency

The beam efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated in a cone of angle 21
and the total radiated power. The angle 21 can be generally any angle, but
usually this is the first-null beam width (the FNBW of the main lobe).

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If the antenna has its main beam directed along the z-axis (  0 ) and if 1 is the
angle where the first null occurs in two principal planes, formula (4.31) defines
the main-beam efficiency and the BE will show what part of the total radiated
power is channeled through the main beam.
Very high beam-efficiency antennas are needed in radars, radiometry and
radio astronomy.

8. Frequency Bandwidth (FBW)

This is characteristics,
Antenna the range of frequencies,
which shouldwithin which
conform to the antenna
certain characteristics
requirements, might
be:(input
inputimpedance,
impedance,pattern) conform
radiation pattern,tobeamwidth,
certain specifications.
polarization, side-lobe level,
gain, beam direction, beamwidth, radiation efficiency. Separate bandwidths
may be introduced: impedance bandwidth, pattern bandwidth, etc.
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the
lower frequencies, where the antenna performance is acceptable:
FBW  fmax / fmin . (4.32)
Broadband antennas with FBW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such
antennas are referred to as frequency independent antennas.
For narrowband antennas, the FBW is expressed as a percentage of the
maximum and minimum frequency difference over the center frequency:
FBW  fmax  fmin
10 %. (4.33)
f0 0
Usually, f0   fmax fmax fmin
fmin  / 2 f0  .
 or

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9. Input Impedance
ZA  R A jX A (4.34)

Here, RA is the antenna resistance and X A is its reactance. Generally, the antenna
resistance has two terms:
RA  Rrad  Rloss , (4.35)
where Rra is the radiation resistance Rlos is the loss resistance.
d and s
The antenna impedance is related to the radiated power   rad , the
dissipated (loss) power loss , and the stored reactive energy as:
rad  loss  2 j(Wm  We )
Z A 0.5I 0I * . (4.36)
Here, I0 is the current phasor at the antenna terminals; Wm is the time-average
(stored) magnetic energy, and We is the time-average electric energy, both stored
in the near-field region. When the stored magnetic and electric energy values are
equal, a condition of resonance occurs and the reactive part of ZA vanishes. For
a thin dipole antenna, this occurs when the antenna length is close to a multiple
of a half wavelength.

10. Radiation resistance

The radiation resistance relates the radiated power to the voltage (or current)
at the antenna terminals. For example, in the Thevenin equivalent of the
antenna, the following holds:
Rrad  2/ | I |2  . (4.37)
,

Radiation efficiency and antenna losses

The radiation efficiency e takes into account the conductor and dielectric
dissipative losses of the antenna. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna and the total power delivered to the antenna terminals (in transmitting
mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters,
e Rrad Rrad  Rloss
. (4.53)

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11. Effective Area (Effective Aperture) Ae

The effective antenna apertureAeisthe PA ratio

/ Wi , of the available power at(4.69)
the
terminals of the antenna (operating in receiving mode) to the power flux
where
density of aeffective
Ae is the plane wave incident
aperture, m2, upon the antenna, where the plane wave is
matched
PA is thetopower
the delivered
antenna polarization. If no direction of incidence is
specified, the direction
from the antenna of the antenna’s maximum radiation is implied,
to a matched
which
load, isW,also this antenna’s direction of best reception.
Wi is the power flux density
(Poynting vector) of the
incident wave, W/m2.

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