Fundamental Parameters and

Figure-of-Merit of Antennas
(To describe the performance of an antenna)

 Radiation pattern  Polarization

 Beam width  Co polarization and Cross polarization level
 Field region  Input impedance
 Radiation power density  Efficiency
 Directivity and Gain  Antenna effective length and Area
 Bandwidth,  Antenna temperature

Ref:
Balanis – Antenna Theory Text Book
https://www.antenna-theory.com/
 Coordinate system for Antenna Analysis
Spherical coordinate system (r, θ,φ )
 Antenna Pattern or Radiation Pattern
• A mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the
antenna as a function of space coordinates.
• Determined in the far-field region and is
Radiation Pattern

represented as a function of the directional

coordinates.
• Radiation properties: Power flux density,
Radiation intensity, field strength, directivity,
phase or polarization
• Pattern Types: (i) Amplitude (E/H) (ii) Power
• Normalized Pattern: Pattern will be normalized
with respect to their maximum value.
 2D/3D Radiation Pattern
• Spherical (3D)
• Polar (2D)
– Horizontal or Azimuth Plane Pattern
(φ =vary; θ =Fixed)
– Vertical or Elevation Plane Pattern (θ=vary; φ =Fixed)
Radiation Pattern

Spherical 3D

Polar 2D
Polar 2D

φ varying
2D - Polar and Cartesian
 Amplitude Field Radiation Pattern
• A graph of the received E/H field at a constant radius.
• Plotted in linear scale, as a function of the angular
space
Radiation Pattern

Power Pattern
• A graph of the spatial variation of the power
density (proportional to E2 / H2) along a constant
radius.
• Plotted in linear or dB scale
 Amplitude Pattern Power Pattern

power pattern (in linear

scale) typically represents a
plot of the square of the
magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function
Radiation Pattern

of the angular space.

field pattern (in linear scale)

typically represents a plot of
power pattern (in
the magnitude of the electric
dB) represents the
or magnetic field as a
magnitude of the
function of the angular
electric or magnetic
space.
field, in decibels, as
a function of the
angular space.
Radiation Pattern
Radiation Pattern Lobes

Polar Plot Rectangular Plot

• Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes

• Subclassified into: Major or main, Minor, Side, and Back lobes.
Radiation Pattern

• Major lobe or Main beam: The radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation (in above image it is at 𝜃=0 deg).
• Minor lobe: Any lobe except a major lobe.
• Side lobe: A radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe. It is the
radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized. (Usually a side
lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in the direction of
the main beam. Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.
• Back lobe: A radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately 180◦
with respect to the beam of an antenna.
 Beamwidth
• Angular separation between two identical points
on opposite side of the pattern maximum
• Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW )
Radiation Pattern

– Angle between the two directions in which the

radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.
• First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW )
– Angular separation between the first nulls of the
pattern
 Calculating HPBW
• How to find HPBW?
To find the points where the pattern achieves its
half-power, relative to the maximum value of the
Radiation Pattern

pattern, set the value of the

 Field pattern (in a linear scale) at 0.707 [1/√2]value
of its maximum
 power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of
its maximum
 power pattern (in dB) at −3 dB value of its maximum
Radiation Pattern
HPBW

Fig: Two-dimensional normalized field pattern (linear scale), power pattern (linear scale), and
power pattern (in dB) of a 10-element linear array

• All three patterns yield the same angular separation

between the two half-power points, 38.64◦, on their
respective patterns, referred to as HPBW
Radiation Pattern
Example

(b) FNBW
 Field Regions
The space surrounding an antenna is
usually subdivided into three regions.
• Reactive near field:
Region immediately surrounding the
antenna wherein the reactive field
predominates (Non propagating stored
energy).
• Radiating near-field Fresnel:
Shape of the radiation pattern may vary
appreciably with distance.
• Far Field (Fraunhofer):
Radiation pattern does not change shape
with distance. Field components are
essentially transverse and the angular
distribution is independent of the radial
distance where the measurements are
made. Fields still die off as 1/R.
 Radian and Steradian
Radian Steradian or square radians
plane angle solid angle
2π rad in a full circle 4π sr in a closed sphere

Infinitesimal area of a sphere of radius (r)= dS  r 2 sin  d d (m 2 )

dS
Element of solid angle= d= 2  sin  d d (sr)
r

solid angle     d   s in  d d
 
Example
For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle ΩA (in square radians or
steradians) of a spherical cap on the surface of the sphere over the
north-pole region defined by spherical angles of 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 30◦, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤
360◦.

solid angle     d   s in  d d
 
 Power Density & Radiation Intensity (U)
1
Time average Poynting vector (Radiated Power Density)=Pdensity = Re[ EXH *] (Watts/m 2 )
2
 
Total Average Radiated Power crossing closed surface=Ptotal =Prad = P density .d S = Pdensity aˆr .r 2 sin  d d aˆr
s s

Total Average Radiated Power crossing closed surface=Ptotal =Prad = Pdensity .dS  (Watts)
s
Radiation intensity in a given

Ptotal =Prad = Pdensity .r 2 sin  d d =  U sin  d d
direction is defined as “the
s s

U (W/sr) dΩ (sr) power radiated from an

where, d   sin  d d  elemental solide angle (Sr) antenna per unit solid angle. It
U  Radiation intensity (W/sr)=Pdensity .r 2
is a farfield parameter.
U=Prad/dΩ=Pdensity.r2
For an isotropic source U will be independent of the angles  and 
180 360 180 360
Ptotal =Prad =  U0d   U0  d   U 0 4 ; where   d    s in  d d 4
s s  0  0  0  0
Prad
U 0 =Radiation intensity of an isotropic source 
4
Ptotal =Pdensity 4 r 2

Radiation intensity in a given direction= The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.
Example
The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by
A0sinθ/r2 ar(W/m2). Determine the total radiated power.

 
Ptotal = P density .d S = Pdensity aˆr .r 2 sin  d d aˆr
s s
A0 sin  2
Ptotal      ˆ   2
2
.r sin d d a r A 0 (Watts)
s
r

Fig: 3D normalized plot of the A0sinθ/r2 ar at a distance of r = 1 m

Example
 Directivity
• The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity
averaged over all directions.
• Directivity is a “figure of merit” describing how well the radiator directs energy in a certain
direction.

RI in a given direction from the antenna

Directivity  D 
RI averaged over all directions

Prad=Ptotal

• If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.

The directivity of an isotropic

source is unity since its power is
radiated equally well in all
directions.
D=1
Example
The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is
given by A0sinθ/r2 ar(W/m2). Find the maximum directivity of the
antenna. Assume maximum radiation is along 90 deg.

Radiation Intensity= U = Pdensity.r2=A0sinθ

Ptotal =Prad =  P density .d S =  Pdensity aˆr .r 2 sin  d d aˆr = 2 A 0 (Watts)

s s
Example
The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by A0sin2θ/r2
ar(W/m2). Find the maximum directivity of the antenna. Find the maximum directivity
of the antenna. Assume maximum radiation is along 90 deg.

Radiation Intensity= U = Pdensity.r2=A0sin2θ

 Directivity Comparison
• Let’s compare the directivity of two cases. U =A0 sin 𝜃 and U = A0 sin2𝜃.
• U = A0 sin2𝜃 have more directional characteristics (is narrower) in the elevation plane.
• Directivity is a “figure of merit” describing how well the radiator directs energy in a
certain direction.
 Directivity Comparison
• Let’s compare the directivity of dipole and isotropic radiatior.
• Directivity of a half-wavelength dipole (l = λ∕2) = D= 1.67 sin3 𝜃
• Directivity of isotropic source (D = 1).
• For 57.44◦ < 𝜃 < 122.56◦, the dipole radiator has greater directivity (greater intensity
concentration) in those directions than that of an isotropic source.
• Outside this range of angles, the isotropic radiator has higher directivity (more intense
radiation).
• The maximum directivity of the dipole (relative to the isotropic radiator) occurs when 𝜃 =
𝜋∕2, and it is 1.67 (or 2.23 dB) more intense than that of the isotropic radiator (with the
same radiated power).
 Approx. Directivity formula for Symmetrical Pattern with no side lobe
• For antennas with one narrow major lobe and very negligible minor lobes, the beam solid angle
is approximately equal to the product of the half-power beamwidths in two perpendicular
planes.

The beam solid angle ΩA is defined as the solid angle through which all the power of the
antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant (and equal to the maximum value of U)
for all angles within ΩA.
Example

Method 1:
• The half-power point of the pattern occurs at 𝜃 = 32.765◦.
• Thus the beamwidth in the 𝜃 direction is 65.53◦ or Θ1r = 1.1437 rads
• Since the pattern is independent of the 𝜙 coordinate, the beamwidth in the other plane is
also equal to Θ2r = 1.1437 rads
• ΩA ≈ 1.308 steradians
Method 2:
 Antenna Efficiency
• The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the input
terminals and within the structure of the antenna.
• Such losses may be due, to
1. reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna
2. I2R losses (conduction and dielectric)

ecd=1 for lossless antenna

ec and ed are very difficult to compute, but they can be determined

experimentally. Even by measurements they cannot be separated, and it is usually
more convenient to write ecd
 Gain
• The ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation
intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted (input) by
the antenna were radiated isotropically.
• Gain does not include losses arising from impedance mismatches
(reflection losses) and polarization mismatches (losses).

For lossless antenna, the radiation efficiency ecd = 1.

 Realized Gain (Gre)
• Takes into account the reflection/mismatch losses (due to the
connection of the antenna element to the transmission line).

Realized Gain

Gain

If the antenna is matched to the transmission line, that is, the

antenna input impedance Zin is equal to the characteristic impedance
Z0 of the line (|Γ| = 0), then the two gains are equal (Gre = G).
 A lossless resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna, with input impedance of 73
Example
ohms, is connected to a transmission line whose characteristic impedance is 50
ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given approximately by U = B0
sin3 𝜃 find the maximum (i) Gain and (ii) Realized Gain of this antenna.
Maximum gain:

Prad =  Pdensity .r 2 sin  d d =  U sin  d d

s s

Since the antenna was stated to be lossless, then the radiation efficiency ecd = 1.
Maximum realized gain:
 Input Impedance
• Input impedance is defined as “the impedance
Transmitting Mode
presented by an antenna at its terminals (a-b in
the picture) or the ratio of the voltage to current
at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the
appropriate components of the electric to
magnetic fields at a point.”
• ZA = RA + jXA; RA = Rr + RL
ZA = antenna impedance at terminals a–b (ohms)
RA = antenna resistance at terminals a–b (ohms)
XA = antenna reactance at terminals a–b (ohms)
Rr = radiation resistance of the antenna
RL = loss resistance of the antenna
• Zg = Rg + jXg
Rg = resistance of generator impedance (ohms)
Xg = reactance of generator impedance (ohms)
 Find power delivered to Rr for radiation
and the amount dissipated in RL as heat (I2RL∕2),
Current developed within the loop:

where, Vg is the peak generator voltage.

The power supplied by the generator (PS):

PS=Pg+Pr+PL

Power delivered to the antenna for radiation (Pr):

1 2
Pr  I g Rr (sub. |Ig| here)
2

Power delivered to the antenna which dissipated as heat (PL):

1 2
PL  I g RL
2

Power dissipated as heat on the internal resistance of the generator (Pg):

1 2
Pg  I g Rg
2
Maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when we have conjugate matching
Rr + RL = Rg ; XA = −Xg

Rr + RL = Rg
XA = −Xg

….(1)

….(1)

• The power supplied by the generator during conjugate matching is

• Of the power that is provided by the generator, half is dissipated as heat in the internal
resistance (Rg) of the generator and the other half is delivered to the antenna.
• This only happens when we have conjugate matching. Of the power that is delivered to the
antenna, part is radiated through the mechanism provided by the radiation resistance and
the other is dissipated as heat which influences part of the overall efficiency of the antenna.

Ps  Pg  PA  Pg  ( Rr  RL )
Power generated by Gen.=Power dissipated by Gen. +(Power radiated as EM+ Power dissipated as heat)
Antenna and its equivalent circuits in the Antenna and its equivalent circuits in the
transmitting mode. receiving mode.

The incident wave impinges upon the antenna,

and it induces a voltage VT which is analogous
to Vg of the transmitting mode.
 Antenna and its equivalent circuits in the Antenna and its equivalent circuits in the
transmitting mode. receiving mode.
under conjugate matching
under conjugate matching Rr + RL = RT and XA = −XT
Rr + RL = Rg and XA = −Xg

Pr=scattered
(or reradiated)
power

PT=Pr+PL

power supplied by the generator Power induced (collected or captured) is

On PC, half is delivered to the load RT and the other

half is scattered or reradiated through Rr and dissipated
as heat through RL.
Example
A λ∕2 dipole, with a total loss resistance of 1 ohm, is connected to a generator whose internal
impedance is 50 + j25 ohms. Assuming that the peak voltage of the generator is 2 V and the
impedance of the dipole, excluding the loss resistance, is 73 + j42.5 ohms, find the power (a)
supplied by the source (real) (b) radiated by the antenna (c) dissipated by the antenna

Pg=5.01 mW

Pr=7.3 mW

PL=0.1 mW

Ps  Pg  ( Pr  PL )  12.4 mW
Example

Zin  Zo 2 / Z L  input impedance of QWL

P dissipated by antenna =Pgen suppled-

Pgen heat diss-
Pant rad
 Polarization Loss Factor (PLF).
• In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the
same as the polarization of the incoming (incident) wave. This is
commonly stated as “polarization mismatch.”
• A horizontally polarized antenna will not communicate with a
vertically polarized antenna. Due to the reciprocity theorem,
antennas transmit and receive in exactly the same manner. Hence, a
vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically
polarized fields.
• For two linearly polarized antennas that are rotated from each
other by an angle ψ , the power loss due to this polarization
mismatch will be described by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF):

• If the antenna is polarization matched, its PLF will be unity and the
antenna will extract maximum power from the incoming wave.
Example:

Calculate the PLF.

 Effective Length
• The ratio of the magnitude of the open-circuit voltage developed at
the terminals of the antenna to the magnitude of the electric-field
strength in the direction of the antenna polarization.
 Antenna aperture or effective area
• Power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave
impinges on it.
• The ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident on the
antenna from that direction.

Pdelivered
Ae 
Pavg . incident
Ae  Effective aperture area (m 2 )
Pdelivered  Power delivered to antenna (W)
Pavg . incident  Avg. power density of incident wave (W/m 2 )
Example
An antenna receives a maximum power of 2 uW from a radio
station. Calculate its maximum effective area if the antenna is
located in the far field of the station where, |E|=50 mV/m.
Pdelivered
Ae 
Pavg . incident

Power delivered to the load  antenna  =Pdelivered  2uW

Power density of the incident wave  P avg
2
1 1 1 E
P avg  Re( EX H *)   | H  | aˆ r 
2
aˆ r
2 2 2 
2 3 2
1 E 1 50*10
Pavg  =  3.3 uW/m 2
2  2 120
P
 A e =Effective aperture area= delivered  0.6m 2
Pavg . incident
 Friis Transmission Equation
• The Friis Transmission Equation relates the power received to the power transmitted
between two antennas separated by a distance R > 2D2∕λ

Fig: Geometrical orientation of transmitting and receiving antennas for Friis transmission equation
• For reflection and polarization mismatched antennas

• For reflection and polarization-matched antennas aligned for maximum directional radiation and reception,

  
Pr (dB)  10 log( Pt )  10 log(Gt )  10 log(Gr )  20 log 
 4 R 