Antenna Fundamentals

Mittal Chaudhary
 RADIATION PATTERN
• A mathematical function or a graphical representation of
the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of
space coordinates.
• Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation
intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.
• A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a
constant radius is called the amplitude field pattern.
• On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the
power density along a constant radius is called an
amplitude power pattern.
 Radiation Pattern Lobes

A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined

as “the radiation lobe containing the
direction of maximum radiation”.
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction
other than the intended lobe.
A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes
an angle of approximately 180◦ with respect to
the beam of an antenna.
 Isotropic, Directional, and Omni directional Patterns

An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical

lossless antenna having equal radiation in all
directions.”
A directional antenna is one “having the property of
adiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more
effectively in some directions than in others.”

This term is usually applied to an antenna whose

maximum directivity is significantly greater than that
of a half-wave dipole.

Omnidirectional is defined as one “having an

essentially nondirectional pattern in a given plane and
a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane.”
Omni directional 3 D pattern Omni directional 2 D pattern
The E-plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric-field vector
and the direction of maximum radiation.”
The H-plane as “the plane containing the magnetic-field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation.”
 Field Regions
Reactive near-field region is defined as
“that portion of the near-field region
immediately
surrounding the antenna wherein the
reactive field predominates.”
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is
defined as “that region of the field of an
antenna between the reactive near-field
region and the far-field region wherein
radiation fields predominate and wherein
the angular field distribution is dependent
upon the distance from the antenna.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as
“that region of the field of an antenna
where the angular field distribution is
 Radian and Steradian

• The measure of a plane angle is a radian.

• One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle
of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is the radius r .
• Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C =2πr, there are 2π rads (2πr /r )
in a full circle.
• The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.
• One steradian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a
sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of
a square with each side of length r .
• Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A=4πr2, there are 4π sr (4πr 2/r 2) in a
closed sphere.

dA = r2 sinθ dθ dφ (m2)

Therefore the element of solid angle dΩ

of a sphere can be written

dΩ = dA/r2 = sinθ dθ dφ (sr)

 RADIATION POWER DENSITY

The quantity used to describe the power associated with an

electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as
W = E ×H

W = instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m2)

E = instantaneous electric-field intensity (V/m)
H = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (A/m)

Poynting vector is a power density, the total power crossing a closed

surface can be obtained by integrating the normal component of the
Poynting vector over the entire surface.

P = instantaneous total power (W)

ˆn = unit vector normal to the surface
da = infinitesimal area of the closed surface (m2)
 The time-average Poynting vector (average power density) can be
written

The 1/2factor appears above in equation is because the E and H fields

represent peak values, and it should be omitted for RMS values.

The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be

written
 RADIATION INTENSITY

Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power

radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.”

The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained by

simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.

U = r2Wrad

U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)

Wrad = radiation density (W/m2)
 Beamwidth
• Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle
between two vectors from the pattern’s origin to
the points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum
• Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties
» Important in radar technology, radioastronomy, etc.

• First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle

between two vectors, originating at the pattern’s
origin and tangent to the main beam at its base.
» Often FNBW ≈ 2*HPBW

Property of R Struzak 14
Example

Source: NK Nikolova

Property of R Struzak 15
The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure-of-merit and often
is used as a trade-off between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the
beamwidth decreases, the side lobe increases and vice versa.

In addition, the beamwidth of the antenna is also used to describe the

resolution capabilities of the antenna to distinguish between two adjacent
radiating sources or radar targets.
 DIRECTIVITY

Therefore directivity of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the

radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average
radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.”

For an isotropic source is very obvious that the directivity is

unity since U, Umax, and U0 are all equal to each other.
The directivity can be smaller than unity; in fact it can be equal to
zero. The values of directivity will be equal to or greater than zero
and equal to or less than the maximum directivity (0≤D ≤D0).

For antennas with orthogonal polarization components, we

define the partial directivity of an antenna for a given
polarization in a given direction as “that part of the radiation
intensity corresponding to a given polarization divided by the
total radiation intensity averaged over all directions.” With this
definition for the partial directivity, then in a given direction “the
total directivity is the sum of the partial directivities for any two
orthogonal polarizations.”

while the partial directivities Dθ and Dφ are expressed as

The beam solid angle ΩA is defined as the solid angle through which
all the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is
constant (and equal to the maximum value of U) for all angles within
ΩA.

For antennas with one narrow major

lobe and very negligible minor lobes,
the beam solid angle is approximately
equal to the product of the half-power
beamwidths in two perpendicular
planes
For a rotationally symmetric pattern,
the half-power beamwidths in any two
perpendicular planes are same .
 The beam solid angle ΩA has been approximated
by

θ1r = half-power beamwidth in one plane (rad)

θ2r = half-power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other (rad)
 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the
input terminals and within the structure of the antenna. Such losses may be
due to (1) reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission
line and the antenna and (2) I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric).

e0 = total efficiency
er = reflection (mismatch) efficiency
ec = conduction efficiency
ed = dielectric efficiency = voltage
reflection coefficient at the input terminals
of the antenna
 GAIN

Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the

intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically.
The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is
equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4π.”

When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in the
direction of
maximum radiation.
BEAM EFFICIENCY