K.

ABHISHEKAPURAM, PIRATTIYUR WEST, TIRUCHIRAPALLI – 620009

Affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi
Affiliation Number: 1931033

2024 -
2025

AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ENTITLED

ANTIBIOTIC USAGE OF MICROBES

Submitted to the
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
AISSCE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

In
BIOLOGY
(Subject Code: 044)

Submitted by
MUHAMMAD AASIF
(Reg. No. __________________________________)

Under the Guidance of

Ms. B. Reena Esther, M.Sc., M.Phil., M.Ed., PGDBI
 K. ABHISHEKAPURAM, PIRATTIYUR WEST, TIRUCHIRAPALLI – 620009
Affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi
Affiliation Number: 1931033

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Muhammad Aasif (Reg. No. _____________), a student of Class
XII, has successfully completed the project work entitled Antibiotic Usage Of Microbes for
the academic year 2024–2025.

This project work is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Practical
Examination of the All India Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE) under the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my immense gratitude to my biology teacher

Ms. B. Reena Esther, for her invaluable guidance and support in completing this
project. I also extend my sincere thanks to the Head of the Department of Biology,
Ms. M. Delphin Sonia, for her encouragement and permission to undertake this
project.

I am deeply thankful to our Principal, Mr. P. Murugadasan, and Vice

Principal, Ms. R. Gowri, along with the school management for providing us with
the opportunity and resources to successfully carry out this project.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my friends for their

unwavering support and assistance in completing this project.
 Content

S.N Topic Page No.

o
01. Introduction 01
02. History of antibiotics 02
03. Objectives 04
04. Terminologies & Procedure 05
05. Some Important Antibiotics 07
06 Antibiotic Resistance 10
06. Result, Interpretation, Analysis 13

07. Conclusion 14

08. Bibliography 15
 01
INTRODUCTION

Antibiotics are powerful substances used to prevent and treat bacterial infections. While
many antibiotics are synthetic or derived from natural sources, the role of microbes in antibiotic
production is crucial. In fact, many of the most commonly used antibiotics were first discovered in
microorganisms. These natural antibiotics, produced by bacteria and fungi, have revolutionized
medicine by offering effective treatments against a wide range of bacterial diseases.
Microbes produce antibiotics through a process known as secondary metabolism. Unlike
primary metabolism, which supports the growth and development of an organism, secondary
metabolism produces compounds that are not essential for basic cellular functions but help the
organism survive in a competitive environment. The production of antibiotics involves complex
biochemical pathways that often require specific environmental conditions, such as nutrient
availability, oxygen levels, and stress factors like overcrowding or competition with other microbes.
Every microorganism act as friend & foe. Even Microorganisms act Single-celled,
multicellular, eukaryote Prokaryotes, acellular, simple/complex cells. As a foe it Cause many
diseases like Pneumonia, Typhoid, etc. As a friend it has lot of uses like
1) Making household Product
2) Making Industrial Product
3) In Sewage treatment
4) Production of biogas
5) Biocontrol agent
6) Biofertilizers, etc...
Antibiotics Come under industrial Product. Antibiotic the term Waksman in 1942 (anti-
against & bios -life). These are chemical substance secreted by micro-organism and it inhibits growth
& development of other microbes. Antibiotics number Can Broad Spectrum or specific. Broad
spectrum can kill a large number of pathogens that belong to different groups. Specific can only kill
specific type of pathogen

Bleomycin
 02
HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS
The study began by the discovery penicillin (1929) when Alexander Fleming Proved that
the filtrate of broth culture of Penicillium notatum has antibacterial properties in Gram- positive
Bacteria. In 1940 Howard Florey and an Ernest Chain Commercially extracted a relatively stable
penicillium. It was extensively used in treating wounded American soldiers in World War 2.
Fleming, Chain, Florey were awarded with Nobel prize in 1945. Waksman (1944) and Albert
(1943) discovered streptomycin. Burkholder (1947) isolated antibiotics are Chloromycetin. There
are over 7000 antibiotics known.
The history of antibiotics is a fascinating story of discovery, scientific innovation, and the
battle against infectious diseases. Antibiotics have saved countless lives, revolutionizing medicine
and increasing life expectancy worldwide. Below is an outline of the key milestones in the history
of antibiotics.

Ancient and Pre-Modern Uses of Natural Remedies

Before the discovery of antibiotics, humans had long relied on natural substances to treat
infections. Ancient civilizations used molds, plants, and animal products with known antimicrobial
properties, though they had no understanding of the mechanisms behind their effectiveness. For
example:
 Ancient Egyptians used moldy bread to treat wounds.
 Hippocrates, the ancient Greek physician, mentioned the use of moldy substances for
treating wounds and infections.
 Chinese, Egyptian, and Native American cultures also utilized various herbs and natural
remedies with antimicrobial properties.

1. The Discovery of Penicillin (1928)

The modern era of antibiotics began in 1928 with the groundbreaking discovery of
penicillin by Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist. Fleming was studying Staphylococcus
bacteria when he noticed that a mold (later identified as Penicillium notatum) was preventing the
growth of the bacteria in his petri dish. This led to the identification of penicillin, the first
antibiotic, which was found to be effective against many bacterial infections.
However, penicillin could not be widely used for treatment until the 1940s due to
challenges in mass production.

2. Mass Production of Penicillin (1940s)

During World War II, the urgent need for antibiotics to treat soldiers' infections spurred
large-scale production of penicillin. Scientists, including Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and
Norman Heatley, developed methods to grow the mold in large quantities, making penicillin
widely available. This revolutionized medicine and greatly reduced deaths from bacterial
infections, such as pneumonia and sepsis.

3. The Golden Age of Antibiotics (1940s-1960s)

Following the success of penicillin, other antibiotics were discovered, creating a "Golden
Age" of antibiotic development. During this time, a variety of new antibiotics were discovered,
including:
 Streptomycin (1943) – Discovered by Selman Waksman and his team, it was the first
antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.
 Tetracycline (1948) – A broad-spectrum antibiotic that can treat a variety of bacterial
infections.
 03
 Chloramphenicol (1947) – An antibiotic that was first discovered in soil and could treat a
wide range of bacterial diseases.

This period saw rapid advances in antibiotic research, and the discovery of new drugs seemed
almost endless.

4. The Rise of Antibiotic Resistance (1960s-Present)

As the use of antibiotics spread, so did the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics led to the selection of resistant strains. In particular, resistance
began to develop to drugs like penicillin, which led to the creation of new antibiotics.
However, resistance grew rapidly, especially from the 1960s onward, as bacteria mutated
and adapted. Antibiotic-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA), began to emerge in the 1960s, and today, a wide range of bacteria are resistant to
multiple antibiotics.

5. The Decline of New Antibiotic Discovery (1980s-Present)

After the initial excitement of discovering antibiotics, the rate of new antibiotic discovery
slowed dramatically after the 1970s. Pharmaceutical companies found it less profitable to develop
new antibiotics due to the difficulty of researching effective drugs and the risk of resistance
developing quickly.
As a result, fewer new antibiotics have been introduced in recent decades. This has led to
fears of a "post-antibiotic era" in which even common infections could become untreatable.

6. The Search for New Antibiotics (Present Day)

 Antibiotics from untapped sources, including deep-sea organisms and soil microbes that
may produce novel compounds.
 Phage therapy, which uses bacteriophages (viruses that target bacteria) to treat infections.
 Combination therapies, where multiple antibiotics or drugs are used together to overcome
resistance.
 Targeted therapies, focusing on bacterial mechanisms that can be disrupted without
harming human cells.
In addition, scientists are focusing on antibiotic stewardship to reduce unnecessary
antibiotic use and slow the development of resistance.

pic-2 (Fleming) pic-3 (Waksman) Pic-4 (Burkholder)

 04

OBJECTIVE

Here we shall discuss how are antibiotics grown, extracted and stored. We shall also discuss
some of the well-known antibiotics and the organism which produces it and its action against
several disease. We also interpret when antibiotics is taken in low, medium & higher quantity. We
also try to analyze whether the antibiotic is Specific antibiotic or Broad Spectrum.

05
Terminologies & Procedures: -

Now, Let see the steps involved in Production of antibiotics.

1) Step 1: Starter culture: -

Suitable strain cultivated on a sterilizes nutritive medium Produced with optimum pH &
temperature, anti-foaming agent and anti-precursor with aeration.
2) Step 2: Isolation
When sufficient antibiotic has diffused into medium, the micro-Organism is Separated.
3) Step 3: Extraction: -
The antibiotic is extracted from medium by precipitation, absorption or solvent treatment
4) Step 4: Packaging and Refining: -
The antibiotic is purified, concentrated and bio assayed before packing.

Levomycetin: Commercial name of Choro amphenicol

Erymax: Commercial name of Erythromycin
Chloramphenicol ophthalmic: Commercial name of Chloromycetin
Agri-mycin-17: Commercial name of Streptomycin
Baciguent: Commercial name of Bacitracin

06
Aim: -
Let us now try to identify some daily used antibiotics by their physical properties as their
chemical properties are more complex to understand (Mainly melting point)

Apparatus required: -
1. 100 ml glass beaker
2. Thermometer
3. Stand with clamp.
4. Tripod stand
5. Capillary tube
6. Wire gauge
7. Stirrer
8. Small thin-walled test tube
9. Thread
10. Bunsen burner
11. Porous plate
12. Liquid Paraffin
13. A.K. Chlor - label it as A
14. E. E.S. Granules - Label it as B
15. Chloroptic - Label it C
16. Streptomycine - Label it as D
17. Baci-RX - Label it as E

Procedure: -

1. First powder the crystalline substance.

2. Take a capillary tube and seal one end by heating it.
3. Fill the capillary tube with the substance. To fill the tube, make a heap of the
powdered substance on the porous plate. Push one end of the capillary tube into the
heap. Some substance will enter the capillary tube.
4. Now Tap the the sealed end of the capillary tube on the porous plate gently. Fill the
capillary tube upto 2-3 mm.
5. Attach the capillary tube to a thermometer using a Thread
6. Take a liquid Paraffin in a beaker and place it over a piece of wire gauge placed over
tripod.
7. Clamp the thermometer carrying the test tube in an iron stand and immerse them in the
bath of liquid paraffin. The surface tension of the bath liquid is sufficient to hold the
tube.
8. Heat the beaker slowly while constantly stirring the contents using a Stirrer to maintain
a uniform temperature throughout.
9. When the temperature is within 15 degrees Celsius of the melting point of pure
substance, the flame is reduced then the temperature rises slowly.
10. Note the temperature (t) when the substance starts melting.
11. Again, note the temperature when the substances have completely melted.
12. If the average of two-readings gives the correct melting point of the substance!
13. "Repeat it with solution-B, C, D and E
 07
Some Important Antibiotics

Chloramphenicol

Source: bacteria Streptomyces Venezuelae

Action: Typhoid whooping cough
Chemical Formula: C11H12Cl2N2O5
Description: White to greyish white or yellowish white
fine crystallized powder
Inventor: - Mildred C. Rebstock.
Type of Antibiotic: Broad Spectrum.

Chloramphenicol

Erythromycin
Source: Saccharopolyspora erythraea
Action : D Dephtheria
Chemical Formula: C37H67NO13
Description : White, bitter crystalline Substance
Inventor: Dr. Abelardo Aguilar.
Type of antibiotic: Broad spectrum.
 08
Mitomycin
Source: Streptomyces lavendulae
Action: Pneumonia
Spare color: Pink to Lavender.
Inventor: Parke-Davis
Type of Antibiotic: Broad Spectrum

S. Venezuelae & S. lavendulae are similar in their morphology & Antibiotic

production

Streptomycin

Source: S. griseus
Action: Meningitis, Pneumonia, TB
Chemical formula: C21H39N7O12
Description: Odorless, off-white & bitter in taste
Inventor: Selman Waksman
Type of Antibiotic: Broad Spectrum
 09
Bacitracin

Source: Bacillus licheniformis

Action: Syphilis, Lymphonema
Chemical formula: C66H103N17OS
Description: light, Colorless to light yellowish
Inventor: Balbina Johnson
Type of antibiotic: Specific spectrum
 10
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the effects of an antibiotic.
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in a way that reduces the effectiveness of
drugs, chemicals, or other agents designed to cure or prevent infections. The bacteria survive and
continue to multiply, causing more harm.
Although some people are at greater risk than others, no one can completely avoid the
risk of antibiotic-resistant infections. Infections with resistant organisms are difficult to treat,
requiring costly and sometimes toxic alternatives.
Antibiotic resistance has been called one of the world's most pressing public health
problems. Antibiotic resistance can cause illnesses that were once easily treatable with antibiotics
to become dangerous infections, prolonging suffering for children and adults.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spread to family members, schoolmates, and co-
workers, and may threaten your community. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are often more difficult
to kill and more expensive to treat. In some cases, the antibiotic- resistant infections can lead to
serious disability or even death.
Although some people think a person becomes resistant to specific drugs, it is the
bacteria, not the person, that become resistant to the drugs.
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics can promote the development of antibiotic- resistant
bacteria. Every time a person takes antibiotics, sensitive bacteria (bacteria that antibiotics can
still attack) are killed, but resistant bacteria are left to grow and multiply. This is how repeated
use of antibiotics can increase the number of drug- resistant bacteria.

How do antibiotics work?

Antibiotics work to kill bacteria. Bacteria are single-cell organisms. If bacteria make it
past our immune systems and start reproducing inside our bodies, they cause disease. We want to
kill the bacteria to eliminate the disease.
11
12
 13
Result, interpretation, Analysis

With observed melting point, we can say that,

A - Chloroamphenicol – 150.5 – 151.5° C

B- Erythromycin-135-140°C
C- Cloromcetes-150° C
D- Streptomycin -12° C
E- Bacitracin-221-225°c

We can interpret that, if antibiotics are taken in less amount it produce less
effect. If it is taken in higher quantity, it produces many side effects like stomach
ache, diarrhoea or feeling sick.

If antibiotics are taken continuously the pathogen becomes more resistive to

antibiotics.
 14
Conclusion

Antibiotics derived from microbes have been instrumental in revolutionizing medicine

and saving millions of lives. Microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, have
produced a variety of natural compounds with antibacterial properties.
These include well-known antibiotics like penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. The
discovery and development of microbial antibiotics have provided powerful tools for combating
infectious diseases, significantly reducing mortality rates worldwide.
However, the widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria, posing a major global health threat. To address this, ongoing research into novel
antimicrobial agents, as well as the responsible use and stewardship of antibiotics, is crucial. The
future of antibiotics from microbes depends on innovation, careful management, and an
understanding of microbial ecosystems to ensure their continued effectiveness in treating
infections.
Besides causing various diseases microbes can also be used in antibiotic production,
production of diary products and fermented beverages, Sewage treatment. Antibiotics since its
discovery helps in many ways. We can’t even imagine the world without antibiotics. So the
antibiotics must be taken in less amount.
 15

Bibliography

a) Grade 12 Biology NCERT Book

b) Grade 12 Trueman Elementary Biology
c) Class 12 Biology - Zoology Text Book – Tamil Nadu Textbook
Corporation Ltd