CH-4-Measuring Vertical Distance or

Levelling
By
Haile Akelok
(MSc in Geomatics, BSc in Surveying Engineering)
haileakelok12@gmail.com
 Measuring Vertical Distance:
Common Leveling
Introduction to
mistakes, Precision of
Leveling
Differential Leveling,
Leveling
Instruments
Chapter
contents
Terms used in
Differential Leveling and leveling
Theory of spirit leveling,
Basic definitions
•Differential Leveling
•Profile leveling, Principle of
•Cross section leveling Direct Leveling,
 Introduction
• Leveling is the process of measuring vertical distances above or below
a given reference surface & a point on near or above the earth’s surface.

• It can also be defined as the process of determining elevation

differences between various points on, near or below the surface of
the earth.

• The aim of levelling is to determine the relative heights of different

objects on or below the surface of the earth and to determine the
undulation of the ground surface.
 Introduction
• Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations
of points or differences in elevation are determined.

• The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a reference level know as
datum. The most commonly datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L)

• Mean sea level (MSL) The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages
of tide over a 19-year period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum
of 1929

• Datum any level surface to which elevations are referenced.

 Introduction
• Leveling results are used to

→ Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography

→ Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations

→ Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials
→ Investigate drainage characteristics of an area
→ Develop maps showing general ground configurations
→ Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
 Introduction
Terms used in leveling
The following terms are commonly used in leveling.
– Station
– Datum
– Height of the instrument. (H.I).
– Back sight (B.S.)
– Fore sight (F.S.).
– Turning point. (T.P.)
– Intermediate sight. (I.S.).
– Balancing of sight.
Datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referred (for example, mean sea level).
 Introduction
1. Station:-The station is the point where the staff is held for taking reading
(observation) from a leveling instrument.
2. Height of the instrument. (H.I).:- It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect
to the datum.
3. Back sight (B.S.):-The back sight is usually the first reading taken after setting up the
instrument on a bench Mark (B.M) for the first setting of the instrument and on a
turning point (T.P.).
.
4. Fore sight (F.S.):- It is the reading taken on the staff either held at the last point
whose elevation is required or held at the turning point just before shifting the
instrument.
 Introduction

5.Turning point (T.P.). A turning point is the point selected on the route before
shifting the instrument
14. Intermediate sight (I.S):- It is the reading taken on a staff held at a point whose
elevation is required, but is not a change point or the last point..
 Introduction
6 .Balancing of sight:- The distance of the point where a back sight is taken and the distance
of the point where a fore sight is taken, as measured from the instrument station, should be
approximately equal.

7. Zenith angle: An angle between two lines in vertical plane where one of the lines is
directed towards zenith is called zenith angle

8.Vertical angles: It is type of angle that measured in a vertical plane

9. A vertical line- is the line parallel to the direction of gravity

10. A level surface- is a surface of constant elevation that is perpendicular to a plumb line at
every point
 Introduction
11. The elevation of a particular point- is the vertical distance above or below a

reference level surf ace (normally, sea level or datum).

12. A level line- is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are of equal

elevation.
13. horizontal line- is a straight line tangent to a level line at one point.
Introduction
 Introduction
• Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the
surface that is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero
• This level surface is also known as a reference datum since points using this
datum have heights relative to this surface.
• Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a
point or object.
• If the elevation of point A is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the reference
datum. The elevation of a point is also called its height above the datum.
• Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and
astronomical observations.
 Introduction
Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked
point whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed.
There are four types of Benchmarks:
a. GTS Benchmarks: established by the survey departments
at large intervals all over the country.
b. Permanent Benchmarks: :- fixed points or marks and
established with reference to the GTS
c. Arbitrary Benchmarks :-adopted in small survey
operations when only undulation of the ground surface is
required to be determined.
d. Temporary Benchmarks :- established temporarily at the
end of a day’s work,
 Leveling Instruments
• Level is an instrument which is used for observing staff reading on leveling staff

kept over different points.

Levels are categorized in to four groups.
– Dumpy levels and Tilting levels
– Automatic levels and Digital levels
• Although each differs somewhat in design, all have two common components:
(1) A telescope to create A line of sight and enable A reading to be taken on A
graduated rod

(2) A system to orient the line of sight in A horizontal plane.

1. Dumpy levels
• The line of sight is perpendicular the vertical axis.
• Once the instrument is leveled the line of sight becomes horizontal and
the vertical axis becomes truly vertical provided the instrument in adjacent.
• The telescope is restricted against movement in its horizontal plane and
telescope is fixed to its support.
• A bubble tube is provided on the top of the telescope.
2. Tilting levels :- It has the telescope that can be tilted about a horizontal axis. It Consist
a telescope which enabled for the horizontal rotation as well as rotation about 4 degree in
its vertical plane.
• This design enables the operator to quickly and accurately centers the bubble and
brings the line of sight in to a horizontal plane.
• In tilting levels the line of sight is or should be parallel to the axis of the telescope.
• It is only horizontal when the bubble of the spirit level is central. Centering of
bubble can be easily done in this type of level. But, for every setup bubble is to be
centered with the help of tilting screw.
• The main advantage of tilting level is it is useful when the few observations are to be
taken with one setup of level.
3. Automatic level:- Is the most commonly used instrument in leveling. One of the most
significant improvements in leveling instrumentation has been automatic level or self-
leveling levels.
• The telescope is fixed to its supports.
• Circular spirit can be attached to the side of the telescope for approximate
leveling.
• It has an internal compensatory that automatically makes horizontal the line of
sight and maintains the position through the application of the force of gravity.
• As soon as the instrument is leveled by a means of a circular bubble, the movable
component of the compensatory swings free to a position that makes the line of
sight horizontal.
• For more accurate leveling, compensator is attached inside the telescope.
DIGITAL LEVELS

• The newest type of automatic level, the electronic digital

level is an accurate instrument used for accurate leveling.

• Operation of digital levels is based on the digital

processing of video indications of a coded staff.

• It is classified in the automatic category because it uses a

pendulum compensator to level itself, after an operator
accomplishes rough leveling with a circular bubble.
 Tripods

• A tripod is a three- legged stand used to support a level or other surveying

instrument during field measurements.
• There are two models of tripods.
(1) The extension leg tripod
(2) The fixed leg tripod
Level rods (leveling staff)

• They are used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and

a survey point and a height different between two points.

• Is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4 or 5 meters

• Graduated wooden or aluminum rod, used with a levelling instrument to

determine the difference in height between points or heights of points

above a vertical datum.

 Reading the Staff
• Color Alternates every meter each graduation is 100mm, each
“E” is 50mm meter height & 1/10m is located in lower 50mm
each Part of the E is 10mm millimeters are interpolated staff is
read to the millimeter

• Stadia Reduction The middle line is the line of Collimation, the

short lines are called stadia lines usually stadia multiplier is 10

• Collimation is an imaginary line that passes through the level

instrument at the cross hairs .
Inverted Staff Readings
• In all of the previous topics on leveling, the points observed all lay below the line
of sight.
• Frequently on building sites, the reduced levels of points above the height of the
instrument are required e.g. the soffit level of a bridge or under pass, the
underside of a canopy, the level of roofs, eves, etc. of buildings.
• The reduced levels of points A, B, C, and D on the frame of a multi-story
building require checking. The staff is simply held upside down on the
points A and C and booked with a negative sign in front of the reading, e.g.
–1.520. Such staff readings are called Inverted Staff Readings.
 Preparing levels for work
• Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet
firmly into the ground.
• The tripod head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the instrument
on it.
• Levelling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws until the circular
bubble is in the centre.
• Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear
then point the telescope towards the object (staff) and
• focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.
 Testing levels

1. The axis of the circular bubble should be parallel to the instrument’s

vertical axis

2. The horizontal cross hair should be perpendicular to the instruments

vertical axis

3. The telescope's line of sight should be true level for instruments with

compensators
 Principle of Direct Leveling
• Direct or spirit leveling, by measuring vertical distances directly.
• Direct leveling is the most precise method of determining elevations and is the
one commonly used.
• Direct leveling is also employed for determining elevations for cross sections,
grades, and contours.
General principle of leveling

• The principle of leveling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to

which vertical distances of the points above or below this line of sight
• The instruments are set up and correctly levelling in order to make the line of
sight through the telescope horizontal.
• If the telescope is turned through 360 degree a horizontal plane of sight is
swept out vertical measurements from this plane, using graduated leveling
staff enable the relative portion of the ground points to be ascertained.
• The telescope of a level provides a horizontal line (line of collimation or a line
of sight).

• The heights of points are determined by measuring downwards from this line,
by sighting on to a graduated staff held on each point in turn
• Direct measurement have two principle these are

• Simple leveling

• Differential leveling

1. Principle of Simple leveling :- It is the simplest operation in leveling when it is

required to find the difference in elevation between two points both of which are
visible from a single position of the level.

When difference of level between two points is determined by setting the levelling
instrument midway between the points, the process is called simple levelling.
• Suppose A and B are two points whose difference of level is to be determined.
• The level is setup at O, exactly midway between A and B. After proper temporary
adjustment, the staff readings on A and B are taken.
RLA + BS = HPC . . . And Elevation of point
=HI-IS/FS

• Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to

be 820.00 ft. The BS at BM Rock is 8.42ft.
• So HI = (820 + 8.42)ft. Now the FS on
“X” is 1.2ft.
• So the RL at “X” = HI – FS = 828.42ft
Note that the RL of the instrument station will
never come in the calculation.
 In Simple Levelling the points should be remembered that

1. When the point is lower, the staff reading is greater, while when it is higher, the
staff reading is smaller.

2. The bubble must traverse, i.e. keep its mid position while readings are being taken. If
relevelling of the instrument is required for the second reading, the two horizontal
planes will not coincide; the difference between them is, however, negligible.

3. If the true difference of level between two points is required, the level must be set up
exactly midway between them.
2. Principle of Differential Leveling:- The process of determining the elevation of a new
point from the known elevation of an existing point.
The method is adopted to find the difference in elevation between points if:
(i) the points are at a great difference apart,
(ii)the difference of elevation between the points is large
(iii)There are obstacles between the points

The resulting data from leveling is a significant piece of engineering design, used for mapping and
construction projects.
 The points should be remembered that:
1. Each of the successive points C, D e.t.c is called a Change Point (C.P.) and is
read twice, once before and the second time after the instrument is shifted.
2. The level must remain stationary while the staff is being carried forward.
3. The staff at the change point must not be moved but kept on the same spot
while the level is carried forward. It should be turned round to face the
telescope when a second reading is to be taken.
4. A change point must be taken on a stable and definite object. The distance of
the change point from the level should not exceed 100m.
5. The level must be set up on firm ground.
6. The bubble must be brought to the center of its run each time staff a reading
is taken.
 Differential Leveling and Theory of spirit leveling,
• Differential leveling is a surveying technique that uses a precisely leveled telescope and
graduated rods to measure vertical distances and transfer elevations from a known
point to other points.

• It's also known as spirit leveling or optical leveling

• Reduced level of a point is the height or depth of the point above or below the
assumed datum.

• It is the elevation of the point.

 Methods of Levelling
• For booking & reducing the level of points, there are two methods convert the
Backsight, Foresight and Intermediate Sight readings into Reduced Levels:

There are two methods for levelling operations

1. Height of Collimation Method

2. Rise and Fall Method

 1. Height of Collimation Method
It consist of finding the elevation of the plane of collimation ( H.I.) for every set up of the
instrument, and then obtaining the reduced level of point with reference to the respective
plane of collimation.
1. Elevation of plane of collimation for the first set of the level determined by adding back
sight( BS) to R.L. of B.M.
𝑯𝑰 = 𝑹𝑳 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝑴 + 𝑩𝑺
1. The R./elevation of intermediate point and first change point are then obtained by
starching the staff reading taken on respective point (IS & FS) from the elation of the
plane collimation. [H.I.]
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑆 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐼𝑆/𝐹𝑆
3. When the instrument is shifted to the second position a new plane collimation is set
up.

• The elevation of this plane is obtained by adding B.S. taken on the C.P. From the
second position of the level to the R.L. C.P.

• HI2 =

• The R.L. of successive point and second C.P. are found by subtract these staff
reading from the elevation of second plane of collimation
Hight of columniation method
Let RL be reduced level/elevation and R = Staff reading. • RL = HI- staff reading taken without back
Then, sight-reading

• RLC = TBM RLD = RLC + (RC – RD) HI= RL + BS (back sight)

• RLE = RLC + (RC – RE) RLF = RLE + (RE – Arithmetical check

RF) Sum of B.S. – sum of F.S. = last R.L. – First

• RLG = RLE + (RE – RG) R.L

FS (BS) IS FS
IS
BS
2.0 2.5 3.0
1.50 2.5 0.50
E B
C
TBM D A F G
C (TBM) D (IS)
F (IS)
E (FS, BS)
G (FS)
A
 Staff BS IS FS HPC(HI) RL Distance
position

Note: The arithmetic check to be applied to this system of booking are

(BS) - (FS) = Last RL – First RL

(All except the first) = (each HPC) * (No. IS and FSs deducted from it) - (FS +
IS)
• The following staff reading were taken in succession with a level. The
instrument was shifted after 3rd, 6th and 8th reading.

• By the plane of collimation method, calculate the R.L and all the
points. R.L of Bench Mark is 500 meters.

• Readings are: 0.365, 1.450, 2.335, 0.855, 2.225, 2.905, 1.275, 0.725,
1.975, 2.305, 2.610, 3.335
Station Backsight (BS) Intermediate sight(IS) Foresight (FS) HI Elevation Remark

1 0.365 500 Bench Marck

2 1.450
3 2.335
4 0.855
5 2.225
6 2.905
7 1.275
8 , 0.725
9 1.975
10 2.305
11 2.610
12 3.335
Total
 2. Rise and fill method
• It consists of determining the difference of elevation between consecutive points by
comparing each point after the first that immediately preceding it.
• The difference between there staff reading indicates a rise or fall according to the staff
reading at the point.
• The R.L is then found adding the rise to, or subtracting the fall from the reduced level of
preceding point.
𝑹𝑳/𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
= 𝑹𝑳 (𝑩𝑴) + 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝑳 (𝑩𝑴) − 𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍

Where rise/fall = first reading –second reading

The difference indicate
• A RISE if the back sight or first reading is more than the fore sight or second reading&
• A FALL if back sight is less than the fore sight.
The two consecutive may have readings as B.S. & F.S., B.S. & I.S., I.S. & I.S., or I.S. & F.S.

Staff Position BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark

Arithmetic check
Sum of B.S. – sum of F. S. = sum of rise – sum of fall = last R. L. – first R.L.
Illustrate exampl1:-Following table shows a page of a level book of reading taken using
automatic level for bench mark transfer or deferential level for the use of drainage
construction of OBU. Then calculate the reduced or elevation of each station with the
first reading elevation is 100 and Arthimatic check
For the reduction of levels, let us first determine the rise & fall as follow

• B.S 0.685 – F.S. 2.095 = - 2.220 or fall 2.220

• B.S 1.800 – I.S. 1.225 = +0.575 or rise 0.575,

• I.S. 1.225 – I.S 2.83 = - 1.605 or fall 1.605

• I.S. 2.830 – F.S. 0.455 = + 2.375 or rise 2.375

• B.S 2.550 – I.S 2.745 = - 0.195 or fall 0.195

• I.S 2.745 – F.S. 1.555 = + 1.190 or rise 1.190

• B.S. 2.590 – F.S. 2.625 = - 0.035 or fall 0.035

 Now the R.L’s of station are calculated as follow:
• RL1 or R.L. (B.M) =100
The rise & fall methods of reducing the
• RL2= 100-fall (2.220) = 97.780 levels, provides two arithmetic checks as
• RL3= 97.780 + rise (0.575) = 98.355; follow
• Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall =
• RL4= 98.355 –fall (1.605) = 96.750 Last R.L – First R.L.
• 7.265 – 7.540 = 4.140 – 4.055 =
• RL5= 96.750 + rise (2.375) = 99.125; 100.085 – 100.00 or 0.085 = 0.085
• RL6= 99.125 – fall (0.195) = 98.930 = 0.085

• RL7= 98.930 + rise (1.190) =100.120;

• RL8= 100.120 –fall (0.035) =100.085

Then, the result are book as follows
• Example 2 :- Following staff readings were taken on an uneven ground
with a 4 m leveling staff. Calculate reduced levels of the points by rise and
fall method and apply usual checks. The instrument was shifted after 3rd, 6
th and 9th readings. The first reading was taken on a benchmark of 100 m.
1.20,2.65,3.50,2.40,1.95,0.90,1.80,3.70,2.50,0.85,1.70.
The comparison of line of collimation method and Rise – fall method

Height of collimation Rise fall method

1. It is more rapid & saves 1. It is laborious to compute the rise & fall
considerable time and labor. then RL
2. this method is use for reduction of level 2. It is well adopted for determining d/c
for construction work, Such as longitudinal in elevation of two points were
or cross-sectional leveling operation. precision is required.
3. There is no check for reduction of RLs 3. There is complete check on reduction of
of intermediate site RLs of IS.
4. There are only two arithmetic check. 4. There arithmetic check.
5. Errors if any in IS are got detected 5. Errors in IS are detected.
 Fly leveling
• When differential levelling is done in order to connect a benchmark to the starting point
of the alignment of any project, it is called fly levelling.
• Fly levelling is also done to connect the BM to any intermediate point of the alignment
for checking the accuracy of work.
• In such levelling, only the back sight and foresight readings are taken at every step-up of
the level and no distances are measured along the direction of levelling.
• The fly levelling done at the end of the day’s work to connect the finishing point with the
starting point on that particular day is known as check levelling. It is undertaken in order
to check the accuracy of the day’s work.
• A differential leveling loop is the
one in which leveling starts at a
benchmark up to the required point
then closing back at the same
benchmark.
• Different turning points and
instrument setups must be used
when moving back from the required
point to the benchmark.
 Profile leveling

• The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a
fixed line (proposed route) is called profile leveling.

• The need of profile leveling arises during the location and construction of highways,
railroads, canal, and sewers.
• The operation of taking levels along the center line of any alignment (road,
railway etc.) at regular intervals is known as longitudinal levelling.
• Reduced levels at various points at regular interval along the line are calculated, after
getting the RL of various points the profile is drawn. Normally vertical scale is much
larger than horizontal scale for the clear view of the profile.
In this operation, readings are taken at regular
intervals at every set-up of the instrument.
• The operation is taken in order to
determine the undulations of the ground
surface along the profile line
 Cross Section leveling

• Cross sections are lines of levels or short profiles made perpendicular to the center line
of a project. They provide the information necessary for estimating quantities of earth
work for highways, railways & etc.

• The operation of taking levels transverse to the direction of longitudinal levelling, is

known as cross-sectional levelling.
• The cross sections are taken at regular intervals along the alignment.
• Cross sectional levelling is done in order to know the nature of the ground
across the center line of any alignment.
We have here two type of distance

1. Distance along the centerline of the project from the project starting point

2. Distance perpendicular to the project centerline. Its zero at the centerline and it is
distinguished on both right and left of the centerline in the direction of leveling
 Reciprocal leveling
• When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back
sight and foresight distances
• It is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible.
• Under such a measurement errors due to curvature and refraction become significant.
• To obtain the best results we should have to use the procedure termed as reciprocal
leveling.
• The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from
BM1.
• At a set up near BMl , a back sight is taken on BM1 and fore sight on A.
• The difference in elevation is computed as (BS -FS).
• Next the level is set up near point A.
• Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant during the time
between the two set ups, the correct differences in elevation is computed
as the mean of the two measured differences.
• Balancing BS and FS distances may not be possible all times, for example,
when crossing rivers, lakes, or canyons. In such cases do the following:
1. At setup 1, take a BS1 at A, then a FS1 at B.
2. At setup 2, take a BS2 at A, then a FS2 at B.
3. Elev. Difference between A and B =
 Three-Wire Leveling

• It is a leveling method in which level rod readings at upper, lower, and middle
hairs are taken, then the average of the three readings is used.

• Advantages over regular method are:

1. Providing checks against rod reading blunders.
2. Producing greater accuracy because average of 3 readings is available.
3. Providing for BS and FS distance measurements by Stadia method.
 Indirect leveling
Indirect leveling is done by measuring vertical angles and horizontal
or slope distances.

• Barometric leveling

• Trigonometric leveling
 Barometry levelling
• Since the pressure of the earth's atmosphere varies inversely with the
elevation, the barometer may be employed for making observations of
difference in elevation.
• Barometric leveling is employed principally on exploratory or reconnaissance
surveys where differences in elevation are large, as in hilly or mountainous
country Usually, barometric observations are taken at a fixed station during the
same period that observations are made on a second barometer, which is
carried from point to point in the field.
• This procedure makes it possible to correct the readings of the portable
barometer for atmospheric disturbances.
 Trigonometric leveling
• Trigonometric leveling is a process of determining the differences of elevations of
stations from observed vertical angles and known distances, which are assumed to be
either horizontal or geodetic lengths at mean sea level.

• The difference in elevation can then be calculated.

• The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring

1. Inclined or horizontal distance between them

2. Zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other
 Source of levelling Error
Natural Errors
1. Earth curvature: Increases rod readings. Can be eliminated by balancing
distances of BS and FS readings.
2. Refraction: Decreases rod readings. Can be eliminated by balancing distances of
BS and FS readings.
3. Temperature: Heat waves near ground surface make the rod appear to wave
and prevent accurate sighting. Can be eliminated by raising the line of sight by
high tripod setup along with choosing short sights.
4. Settlement of the instrument: If the tripod legs are not pushed firmly into the
ground, the HI when taking a BS and a FS may not be the same.
 Instrumental Errors
1. Line of sight not horizontal, even after leveling the instrument
which indicates manufacturing defect. May be eliminated by
calibrating the instrument or by running a two-peg test.

2. Horizontal hair not exactly horizontal: Can be eliminated by

reading the rod near the center of the horizontal cross hair.

3. Incorrect length of level rod, and graduation errors: Can be

eliminated by comparing with standardized tape.
 Human Errors
1. Bubble not centered: Check the bubble before and after each
reading.
2. Parallax: Improper focusing of objective and/or eyepiece
lenses.
3. Faulty rod reading and recording: Check before and after
recording.
4. Level rod not vertical: It increases rod readings. Can be
eliminated by carefully leveling the rod circular bubble, and by
waving the rod.
 Common Leveling mistakes
I. Misreading the rod- unless the instrument man is very careful, he or she may
occasionally read the rod incorrectly; as, for instance, 3.72m instead of 4.72m.
• This mistake most frequently occurs when the line of sight to the rod is partially
obstructed by leaves, grass and so on.
II. Moving Turning points- A careless rod man causes a serious leveling mistake if he
or she moves the turning points.
• The rod man holds the rod at one point while the instrument man takes the
foresight reading, and then while the level is being moved to a new position, the
Rodman may put the level rod down while he or she does something else.
III. Field Note mistakes- To prevent the recording of incorrect values, the
instrument man should call out the reading as he or she reads& records them.

IV. Mistakes with extended rod- When readings are taken on the extended
portion of the level rod, it is absolutely necessary to have the two parts
adjusted properly.
 Types of Errors in Leveling
1. Systematic errors:- Such as earth curvature, refraction, incorrect
length.

2. Random errors:- Due to temperature, wind, and settlement of

instrument.

3. Mistakes:- Such as misreading or mis recording measurements,

not properly leveling the instrument, and not holding the rod
vertical.
 Precision of Differential Leveling
Misclosure
• The amount by which the measured Elevation (Hmeas) derived from the
computations differs from the known Elevation (Hknown) of the starting
and finishing benchmarks
𝑀𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑐 = 𝐻𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 − 𝐻𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
• Also known as Closure error: discrepancy between the known elevation of
a benchmark (BM) and its measured elevation at the end of the survey
route
Small misclosures in closed level loops are expected because of the
accumulation of errors

• If the misclosure is small, it can be adjusted

• If the misclosure is large, the loop (or part of it) must be repeated

• Misclosures can also result from errors in published BM levels and

from BM instability
 Differential levelling precision

Acceptable closure error is computed as a function of the length of

the leveling route or as a function of the number of instrument
setups. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Order Surveys
o First-order surveys – Closure error -3mm (K)0.5 to 5mm (K)0.5
o Second-order surveys – Closure error -6mm (K)0.5 to 8mm (K)0.5
o Third-order surveys – Closure error - 12mm (K)0.5
 Differential Leveling Precision
• The amount of misclosure we are prepared to accept depends on the accuracy we are
hoping to achieve
• In order for differential leveling results to be acceptable, the computed closure error EC
must be compared with permissible values on the basis of either number of setups n or
distance covered K in kilometers.
 Adjusting the misclose

• Adjustment is carried out to ensure that the measured and

known elevation of the closing benchmark agree

• The misclosure is linearly distributed according to the number

of set-ups in opposite sign

• The adjustment per set-up for the previous example is (-

0.005/5) =-0.001 (cumulatively)
Thanks