LEVELING METHODS the vertical angle between the

points
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling
5. Stadia Leveling
- the most commonly employed
method of determining the - combines features of direct
elevation of points some distance leveling with those of trigonometric
apart by a series of set ups of a leveling - differences in elevation
leveling instrument along a selected between points are computed from
route observed vertical angles and the
three intercepts on a rod held at
- uses a spirit level
each point back sighted or
2. Reciprocal Leveling foresighted
- process of accurately determining 6. Barometric Leveling
the difference in elevation between
- determination of differences in
two intervisible points located at a
elevation between points by
considerable distance apart
measuring the variation in
3. Profile Leveling atmospheric pressure at each point
- used to determine differences in by means of a barometer
elevation between points at 7. Cross-Section Leveling
designated short measured
- used to obtain a representation of
intervals along an established line
the ground surface on either side of
to provide data from which a
the centerline
vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted 8. Borrow-Pit Leveling
4. Trigonometric Leveling - method of determining the
relative elevations of points in
- used to determine the difference
borrow-pit excavations for the
in elevation between two points by
purpose of calculating volumes of
trigonometric computations from
earthwork
measurements of its horizontal or
slope distance and
TYPES OF LEVELS • Objective Lens
1. Dumpy Level - This compound lens, securely
mounted in the tube’s object end,
2. Wye Level
has its optical axis reasonably
3. Builder’s Level concentric with the tube axis.
4. Automatic Level Its main function is to gather
5. Tilting Level incoming light rays and direct them
toward the negative focusing lens.
6. Geodetic Level
• Negative Lens
7. Transit as a Level
- The negative lens is located
8. Laser Level between the objective lens and
9. Hand Level reticle, and mounted so its
optical axis coincides with that
of the objective lens.
TELESCOPES
Its function is to focus rays of
• The telescopes of leveling light that pass through the
instruments define the objective lens onto the
line of sight and magnify reticle plane. During
the view of a graduated focusing, the
rod against a negative lens
reference reticle, thereby enabling slides back and forth along the axis
accurate readings to be obtained. of the tube.
• The components of a telescope • Reticle
are mounted in a cylindrical tube.
The reticle consists in a pair of
Its four main components are the
perpendicular reference lines
objective lens, negative lens, reticle,
(usually called crosshairs) mounted
and eyepiece.
at the principal focus of the
objective optical system.
The point of intersection of the LEVEL VIALS
crosshairs, together with the optical
• Level vials are used to orient
center of the objective system,
many different surveying
forms the so-called line of sight,
instruments with respect to the
also sometimes called the line of
direction of gravity.
collimation. The crosshairs are fine
lines etched on a thin round glass • There are two basic types: (1) the
plate. The glass plate is held in place tube vial; and (2) the circular or so-
in the main cylindrical tube by two called “bull’s-eye” vial.
pairs of opposing screws, which are • Tube vials are used on tilting levels
located at right angles to each other (and also on the older dumpy
to facilitate adjusting the line of levels) to precisely orient the line of
sight. sight horizontal prior to making rod
Two additional lines parallel readings.
to and equidistant from the • Bull’s-eye vials are also used on
primary lines are commonly tilting levels, and on automatic
added to reticles for levels for quick, rough leveling,
special purposes such after which precise final
as for threewire leveling occurs.
leveling and for
• The principles of both
stadia. The reticle
types of vials are
is mounted within
the main telescope tube with the identical.
lines placed in a horizontal-vertical BASIC PROCEDURE OF LEVELING
orientation.
(1) SETTING UP THE LEVEL
• Eyepiece
(2) LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT
The eyepiece is a microscope
• INSTRUMENTS WITH FOUR
(usually with magnification from
LEVELING SCREWS
about 25 to 45 power) for viewing
the image. • INSTRUMENTS WITH THREE
LEVELING SCREWS
(3) HOLDING THE LEVELING ROD • Due to curvature, the points
appear to be lower than they
(4) TAKING A ROD READING
actually are; while due to refraction,
ADJUSTMENT OF THE LEVEL they appear to be higher than they
TWO-PEG TEST actually are.

• All instruments are subject to • The effect of curvature being

errors. The checking of the greater than that of refraction, the
instrument (level) is therefore combined effect causes the points
important. to appear to be lower than they
actually are.
• The main error is where the line of
sight is not parallel to the horizontal
line of collimation. In this case your CURVATURE
levels will not be correct.
• Earth has a curved face which is
• A test for checking the level is assumed to be a level surface, but
known as the two peg test. This the line of sight as furnished by the
test determines the amount of levelling instrument is horizontal
error and if an error occurs notify and not the level line.
the technician (the level must be
• Therefore, all points on the line of
serviced).
sight are not equidistant from the

EARTH’S CURVATURE AND

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
• The effects of Earth’s curvature
and atmospheric refraction are
taken into account in leveling work
since the measurements are made
in vertical planes and these effects
all occur in the same plane.
surface of the earth and • The effect of refraction is
consequently the points read on the therefore 1 7 the of that of the
staff are not strictly at the same curvature but is of opposite nature.
level as horizontal hair of the
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
diagram.
process of determining the
• The level line falls away from the
difference in elevation between two
horizontal line of sight and the
or more points some distance
vertical distance between the
apart.
horizontal line and the level line
denotes the effect of curvature of requires a series of set ups of the
REFRACTION instrument along a general route
and, for each set up, a rod reading
• It is a well-established law of
back to the point of known
physics that rays of light passing
elevation and forward to a point of
through layers of different densities
unknown elevation are taken
do not remain straight but are
refracted or bent down towards the DEFINITION OF TERMS
denser medium. 1. Bench Mark
• Consequently, the ray of light - a fixed point of reference whose
from the staff to the instrument is elevation is either known or
not straight (as shown in the assumed
previous figure) but it follows a
- permanent bench marks (PBM)
curved path concave towards the
earth as the near the surface of the - established at intervals
earth is denser than the upper throughout the country by the
layers of air. Philippine Coast and Geodetic
• Under normal atmospheric Surveys (PCGS) or the Bureau of
Lands. It consists of bronze or brass
conditions, arc formed may be
disks which are permanently set in
taken as circular and of radius seven
times that of the earth. concrete foundations. They are
marked with the elevation above
sea level, the year established, and 6. Turning Point (TSP)
its reference number.
- an intervening point between two
- temporary benchmarks (TBM) bench marks upon which point
foresight and backsight rod
– those set up by the surveyor for
readings are taken to enable a
his own use in a particular surveying
leveling operation to continue from
project and may have assumed
a new instrument position - also
elevations
referred to as change point (CP)
2. Backsight
7. Height of Instrument
- a reading taken on a rod held on a
- also called height of collimation
point of known or assumed
elevation - the elevation of the line of sight of
an instrument above or below a
- referred to as plus sights (+S) as
selected reference datum
they are added to the elevation of
points being sighted to determine LEVELING NOTES
the height of instrument
• It is important that all data
3. Foresight gathered in differential leveling
work be properly recorded in a
- a reading taken on a rod held on a
special field notebook ruled with
point whose elevation is to be
suitable lines.
determined - referred to as minus
sights (-S)
4. Backsight Distance (BD)
- horizontal distance from the
center of the instrument to the rod
on which a backsight is taken
5. Foresight Distance (FSD)
- horizontal distance from the
center of the instrument to the rod
on which a foresight is taken
DOUBLE-RODDED DIFFERENTIAL representation of the ground
LEVELING surface
a method of determining - sights observed at regular intervals
differences in elevation between (10 to 30 meters along the
points by employing two level centerline) and at points where
routes simultaneously sudden changes in elevation occur
THREE-WIRE LEVELING 4. Full Stations
a more precise method of - points which are established along
differential leveling wherein three the profile level route at uniformly
horizontal hairs (or threads) are measured distances
read and recorded rather than a
5. Plus Stations
single horizontal hair
- any other intermediate point
PROFILE LEVELING
established along a profile level
1. Profile which is not designated as a full
station
- curved line which graphically
portrays the intersection of a 6. Vertical Exaggeration
vertical plane with the surface of
- process of drawing the vertical
the earth
scale for a profile much larger than
2. Stationing the horizontal scale in order to
accentuate the differences in
- a numerical designation given in
elevation
terms of horizontal distance any
point along a profile line is away 7. Profile Paper
from the starting point
- a special heavy grade graphing
3. Intermediate Foresights paper used for plotting profiles
- also known as ground rod readings
which are taken along the
centreline of the proposed project
to provide an accurate
PLOTTING PROFILES -the name of the draftsman who
plotted the profile.
1. Plotting Scales
RISE AND FALL METHOD OF
The horizontal and vertical scales
LEVELING
used in plotting the profile should
be properly identified. • Another method of carrying out a
leveling operation is by the rise and
2. Stationing
fall method which is popularly
The full stations along the level adapted by the British.
route should be indicated to portray
• It is very simple method and may
the overall linear length of the line.
serve as an alternate method for
3. Reference Points profile or differential leveling or it
Important reference points and may also be used to check a
other ground points which need to completed set of level notes.
be emphasized or pointed out • The rise and fall method is based
should be easily seen. on the principle that two
4. Marginal Information consecutive readings from the
same instrument position gives the
Any other valuable information
difference in elevation of the two
which should explain the profile
points sighted.
better or in detail should be
indicated. Such information may • In this method the actual height of
include the following: instrument has no real significance
other than being the line to which
-a title to identify the leveling
vertical distances are conveniently
operation,
measured from various points on
-location of the profile taken, the ground.
-what the profile represents,
-the date it was surveyed
-names of the survey party
members, and
 TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING /
INDIRECT LEVELING
- is defined as the determination of
difference in elevation from
observed vertical angles and either
horizontal or inclined distances.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
• Vertical measurements
• Reciprocal leveling is employed to determined by trigonometric
determine the difference in methods are only approximate
elevation between two points when unless the observed vertical angles
it is difficult or impossible to keep and the required distances are
backsights and foresights short and precisely measured.
equal.
• This method of leveling is used
• Such a condition usually exists extensively when undertaking
when running a line of levels across topographic surveys over rugged or
wide rivers, lakes, or in rugged rolling terrain since it provides a
terrain where deep canyons and rapid means of determining vertical
ravines are encountered. distances and elevation of points.
• In this method of leveling, two INVERSE LEVELING
sets of rod readings are observed.
• The calculations are still carried
• One set is taken with the out in the usual manner and it is
instrument set up close to one point important note on the right-hand
and another with the instrument page of the field notebook to clarify
set up close to the other point. the reversal of signs.
• The procedure followed is known • When an obstruction such as
as the method of reversion, just as concrete wall is encountered along
employed in the two-peg test. a level route, the usual procedure is
to get around it.
• This may be a way to go about it,
however, it could be time
consuming or may not be possible allowed limits for the right-of-
at all. • In such situation, inverse way (ROW), or up to a point
leveling should solve the problem. where possible earthwork will be
undertaken.
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
• Elevations of ground points
• Cross-sections are short profiles
along the section are taken at
taken perpendicular to the
regular intervals as say 5, 10, 15,
centerline of objects such as a
and 20 meters on either side.
highway, railroad, irrigation canal,
or sewer line. 2. BORROW-PIT CROSS-
SECTIONS
• They may also be taken for
borrow-pits and excavations • Cross-sections are also
required for buildings, structures, employed in the construction of
and quarries. structures and buildings, and in
the excavation of borrow pits.
• Cross-sections provide the
necessary data needed for • A borrow pit is an open area
estimating quantities of earthwork which is usually adjacent to a
and for other related purposes construction project where
suitable fill material is excavated.
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
• For example, before excavation
1. ROADWAYCROSS-SECTIONS
is started for a structure or a
• This type of cross-section is borrow pit, ground cross-
required for most route projects sections are first taken. When it
such as roads and railroads. is desired to determine the
• The sections are taken at amount of excavated material,
regular intervals, usually at full the same system of cross-
and some plus stations, and sections is again taken to
where there are abrupt changes determine the new elevations of
in the profile of a centerline. the corner stakes. The two sets
of cross-sections should provide
• Normally, cross-sections
the necessary data for
should be prolonged to the
computing the volume of earth 3. Grid Meridian
excavated at the project site.
- a fixed line of reference parallel
MERIDIANS to the central meridian of a
system of plane rectangular
• The direction of a line is
coordinates
usually defined by the
horizontal angle it makes with a 4. Assumed Meridian
fixed references line or
- an arbitrary chosen fixed line of
direction.
reference which is taken for
• In surveying, this is done with convenience
reference to a meridian which
- this meridian is usually the
lies in a vertical plane passing
direction from a survey station to
through a fixed point of
an adjoining station or some
reference and through the
well-defined and permanent
observer’s position.
point
FOUR TYPES OF MERIDIAN
UNITS OF ANGULAR
1. True Meridian MEASUREMENT
- also known as astronomic or • The magnitude of an angle can
geographic meridian be expressed in different units,
all of which are basically derived
- this line passes through the
from the division of the
geographic north and south
circumference of a circle.
poles of the earth and the
observer’s position • A purely arbitrary unit is used
to define the value of an angle. •
2. Magnetic Meridian
The principal system of units
- a fixed line of reference which used are:
lies parallel with the magnetic
1. The Degree
lines of force of the earth
2. The Grad a circle by an arc length exactly
equal to the radius of the circle.
The grad is the unit of measure
in the centesimal system. In this DESIGNATION OF NORTH
system the circumference of the POINTS
circle is divided into 400 parts
1. True North
called grads.
- the north point of the true
The grad g is subdivided into 100
meridian
centesimal minutes c and a
centesimal minute is further - symbol: asterisk or TN
subdivided into 100 centesimal 2. Magnetic North
seconds cc .
- a north point that is
3. The Mil established by means of a
• The circumference of the circle magnetized compass needle
is subdivided into 6400 parts when there are no local
called mils, or 1600 mils is equal attractions affecting it
to 90 degrees. - symbol: half arrowhead or MN
• The mil will subtend very 3. Grid North
nearly one linear unit in a
distance of 1000 such units. It is - a north point which is
established by lines on a map
commonly used in military
which are parallel to a selected
operations as in fire direction of
artillery units. central meridian
- symbol: full arrowhead or GN
4. The Radian
or Y
• The radian is another measure
4. Assumed North
of angles used frequently for a
host of calculations. - used to portray the location of
any arbitrarily chosen north
• One radian is defined as the
angle subtended at the center of point
- symbol: small black circle or AN
INTERIOR ANGLES DEFLECTION ANGLES
• The angles between adjacent • The angle between a line and
lines in a closed polygon are the prolongation of the
called interior angles. preceding line is called a
deflection angle.
• These angles may be measured
clockwise or counterclockwise. • It may be turned to the right
(clockwise) or to the left
• It should be remembered that
(counterclockwise) and it is
for any closed polygon, the sum
always necessary to append the
of the interior angles is written in
letters R or L to the numerical
the formula:
value to define in which the
Sum of the interior ∠′s = n − 2 ∙ angle has been turned.
180° where n is the number of
• Right deflections are
sides of a polygon.
considered to have signs
opposite to left deflections.
EXTERIOR ANGLES • Usually, a positive sign is used
• Exterior angles are located to define a deflection angles to
outside a closed polygon and are the left.
referred to as explements of • These angles may have values
interior angles. between 0 and 180 degrees, but
• An explement is the difference often they are not used for
between 360 degrees and any angles greater than 90 degrees.
one angle.
• These angles are often ANGLES TO THE RIGHT
measured in surveying work and
• Angles to the right are
used as a check, since the sum of
measured clockwise from the
the interior and exterior angles
preceding line to the succeeding
at any station or point must
line.
equal to 360 degrees.
• As shown in the figure, the FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS
angles to the right at stations B,
• Using the quadrantal system,
C and D are 𝛽𝑏, 𝛽𝑐 , and 𝛽𝑑,
any line on the surface of the
respectively.
Earth may be defined by two
• These angles are also referred directions which differ from each
to as azimuths from back line. other by exactly 180 degrees.
The direction will depend on
which end the line is observed.
BEARINGS
• When the bearing of a line is
observed in the direction in
which the survey progresses, it is
referred to as a forward bearing;
if the bearing of the same line is
observed in an opposite
direction, it is called the back
bearing.

• The direction of a line may be AZIMUTHS

described by giving its bearing. • Another common method
• The bearing of a line is the used in designating the direction
acute horizontal angle between of a line is by the use of
the reference meridian and the azimuths.
line. • The azimuth of a line is its
• A quadrantal system as shown direction as given by the angle
is used to specify bearings such between the meridian and the
that a line may fall under one of line measured in a clockwise
the following quadrants, NE, SE, direction from either the north
NW and SW. or the south branch of the
meridian.
• Azimuths are usually preferred degrees, subtract 180 degrees to
over bearings by most surveyors obtain the back azimuth.
because they are more
Rule 2: When the forward
convenient to work with such as
azimuth of the line is less than
in computing traverse data by
180 degrees, add 180 degrees to
electronic digital computers.
determine the back azimuth.
• In practice, azimuths are
generally measured from the
north branch of the reference
meridian for ordinary plane MAGNETIC DECLINATION
surveys
• The magnetic poles are not
points but oval areas located
FORWARD AND BACK about 2,000 km away from the
AZIMUTHS actual location of the geographic
poles of the Earth.
• Any line established on the
Earth’s surface has two azimuths • These areas are not fixed and
– a forward azimuth and a back may move to a different location
azimuth. everyday, perhaps as far as 50
km.
• Depending on which end of the
line is considered, these • Since the compass needle
directions differ by 180 degrees normally points toward
from each other since the back the direction of the
azimuth is the exact reverse of magnetic poles, it will be
the forward azimuth. expected that the magnetic
meridian and the true meridian
• To determine the back azimuth
will not be parallel to each other.
when the forward azimuth is
known, the following rules are • For example, in 1960 the
used: plotted position of magnetic
North was located at 75 degrees
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of
North latitude and 101 degrees
the line is greater than 180
West longitude; in 1980, it was 3. Surveyor’s Compass
located at 76.8 degrees North
- its main parts include a
latitude and 101.5 degrees West
compass box containing a
longitude.
graduated circle, two sight
COMPASS vanes, a magnetic needle, and
two clamping screws
- a hand-held instrument for
determining the horizontal 4. Plain Pocket Compass
direction of a line with reference
- similar to surveyor’s compass
to the magnetic meridian
except that it has no sight vanes
TYPES OF COMPASS
5. Prismatic Compass
1. Brunton Compass
- the graduations are found on a
- combines the main features of rotating card instead of being on
a prismatic compass, sighting the compass box
compass, hand level, and
6. Forester’s Compass
clinometer - consists of a brass
case hinged on two sides - a type of pocket compass which
is usually made of aluminum or
2. Lensatic Compass
some type of metal which does
- consists of an aluminum case not affect the free movement
containing a magnetic dial and positioning of the magnetic
balanced on a pivot, a hinged needle
cover with a sighting wire, a
7. Transit Compass
hinged eyepiece containing a
magnifying lens for reading the - has a compass box similar to
dial graduations, and a sighting surveyor’s compass which is
slot for viewing the distant mounted on the upper plate of
object the transit and often used to
check horizontal angles and
- designed for military use
directions measured or laid off
during transit surveys
SOURCES OF ERROR IN
COMPASS WORK
1. Bent needle
2. Bent pivot
3. Sluggish needle
4. Plane of sight not vertical
5. Electrically charged compass
box
6. Local attraction
7. Magnetic variation
8. Errors in reading the needle

*END OF THE REVIEWER*

 lines of a traverse for the
purpose of locating the position
of certain points.
▪ Traverse Station
– any temporary or permanent
point of reference over which
the instrument is set up. It is
usually marked by a peg or a hub
driven flush with the ground and
*BAKA INCLUDED* identified by consecutive letters
or numbers as the survey
progresses. Traverse stations are
COMPASS SURVEYS sometimes called angle points
because an angle is usually
• The method of compass
measured at such stations.
surveying is one of the most
basic and widely practiced
methods of determining the ▪ Traverse Lines
relative location of points where
a high degree of precision is not – these are lines connecting
required. traverse stations and whose
lengths and directions are
▪ Traverse determined.
– is a series of lines connecting • The field work involved in most
successive points whose lengths compass surveys is generally
and directions have been divided into two basic
determined from field operations, the measurement of
measurements. angles at traverse stations and
▪ Traversing the measurement of lengths of
traverse lines.
– it is the process of measuring
the lengths and directions of the • Sometimes, it is important to
determine and record the
 magnetic declination at the time - sometimes called angle points
and place of the survey. because an angle is usually
measured at such stations
• To clarify the record, a definite
statement should be indicated in 4. Traverse Lines
the field notes such as “All
- lines connecting traverse
observed bearings are magnetic
stations and whose lengths and
and read to the nearest 05
directions are determined
minutes. The magnetic
declination is August, 1986 was TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS
13°50′ East. 1. Open Compass Traverse
COMPASS SURVEYS - consists of a series of lines of
1. Traverse known lengths and magnetic
bearings which are continuous
- a series of lines connecting
but do not return to the starting
successive points whose lengths
point or close upon a point of
and directions have been
known position
determined from field
measurements 2. Closed Compass Traverse -
consists of a series of lines of
2. Traversing
known lengths and magnetic
- process of measuring the bearings which forms a closed
lengths and directions of the loop, or begin and end at points
lines of the traverse for the whose positions have been fixed
purpose of locating the position by other surveys of higher
of certain points position
3. Traverse Station
- any temporary or permanent
point of reference over which
the instrument is set up