CH-4-Measuring Vertical

Distance or Levelling
By
Haile Akelok
(MSc in Geomatics, BSc in Surveying Engineering)
haileakelok12@gmail.com
 Measuring Vertical Distance:

Common Leveling
Introduction to
mistakes, Precision of
Leveling
Differential Leveling,
Leveling
Instruments
Chapter
contents
Terms used in
Differential Leveling and leveling
Theory of spirit leveling, Basic definitions
•Differential Leveling
•Profile leveling, Principle of
•Cross section leveling Direct Leveling,
 Introduction
• Leveling is the process of measuring vertical distances
above or below a given reference surface & a point on
near or above the earth’s surface.
• It can also be defined as the process of determining
elevation differences between various points on, near
or below the surface of the earth.
• The aim of levelling is to determine the relative heights of
different objects on or below the surface of the earth
and to determine the undulation of the ground surface.
 Introduction
• Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various
processes by which elevations of points or differences in
elevation are determined.
• The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below
a reference level know as datum. The most commonly datum
is the mean sea level (M.S.L)
• Mean sea level (MSL) The average height for the
surface of the seas for all stages of tide over a 19-year
period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum
 Introduction

• Leveling results are used to

→ Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water
supply systems, and other facilities having grade lines
that best conform to existing topography
→ Lay out construction projects according to planned
elevations
→ Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials
→ Investigate drainage characteristics of an area
→ Develop maps showing general ground configurations
→ Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
 Introduction

Terms used in leveling

The following terms are commonly used in leveling.
– Station
– Datum
– Height of the instrument. (H.I).
– Back sight (B.S.)
– Fore sight (F.S.).
– Turning point. (T.P.)
– Intermediate sight. (I.S.).
– Balancing of sight.
Datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referred (for example, mean sea level).
 Introduction
1. Station:-The station is the point where the staff is held for
taking reading (observation) from a leveling instrument.
2. Height of the instrument. (H.I).:- It is the elevation of
the line of sight with respect to the datum.
3. Back sight (B.S.):-The back sight is usually the first
reading taken after setting up the instrument on a bench
Mark (B.M) for the first setting of the instrument and on a
turning
. point (T.P.).
4. Fore sight (F.S.):- It is the reading taken on the staff either
held at the last point whose elevation is required or held at
 Introduction
5.Turning point (T.P.). A turning point is the point selected
on the route before shifting the instrument
14. Intermediate sight (I.S):- It is the reading taken on a
staff held at a point whose elevation is required, but is not a
change point or the last point..
 Introduction

6 .Balancing of sight:- The distance of the point where a back sight is

taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is taken, as

measured from the instrument station, should be approximately equal.

7. Zenith angle: An angle between two lines in vertical plane where

one of the lines is directed towards zenith is called zenith angle

8.Vertical angles: It is type of angle that measured in a vertical plane

9. A vertical line- is the line parallel to the direction of gravity

10. A level surface- is a surface of constant elevation that is

perpendicular to a plumb line at every point

 Introduction

11. The elevation of a particular point- is the vertical distance

above or below a reference level surf ace (normally, sea level or datum).

12. A level line- is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are

of equal elevation.
13. horizontal line- is a straight line tangent to a level line at
one point.
Introduction
 Introduction

• Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced.

This is the surface that is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero
• This level surface is also known as a reference datum since points
using this datum have heights relative to this surface.
• Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a
vertical datum to a point or object.
• If the elevation of point A is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the
reference datum. The elevation of a point is also called its height
above the datum.
• Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all
elevations and astronomical observations.
 Introduction
Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or
artificial, having a marked point whose elevation above or below
a reference datum is knownThere
or assumed.
are four types of Benchmarks:
a.GTS Benchmarks: established by the
survey departments at large intervals all
over the country.
b.Permanent Benchmarks: :- fixed
points or marks and established with
reference to the GTS
c. Arbitrary Benchmarks :-adopted in
small survey operations when only
undulation of the ground surface is
 Leveling Instruments
• Level is an instrument which is used for observing staff reading

on leveling staff kept over different points.

Levels are categorized in to four groups.
– Dumpy levels and Tilting levels
– Automatic levels and Digital levels
• Although each differs somewhat in design, all have two
common components:
(1)A telescope to create A line of sight and enable A
reading to be taken on A graduated rod
(2)A system to orient the line of sight in A horizontal plane.
1. Dumpy levels
• The line of sight is perpendicular the vertical axis.

• Once the instrument is leveled the line of sight becomes

horizontal and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical
provided the instrument in adjacent.
• The telescope is restricted against movement in its horizontal plane
and telescope is fixed to its support.
• A bubble tube is provided on the top of the telescope.
2. Tilting levels :- It has the telescope that can be tilted about
a horizontal axis. It Consist a telescope which enabled for the
horizontal rotation as well as rotation about 4 degree in its
vertical plane.
• This design enables the operator to quickly and accurately
centers the bubble and brings the line of sight in to a
horizontal plane.

• In tilting levels the line of sight is or should be parallel to the

axis of the telescope.
• It is only horizontal when the bubble of the spirit level is
central. Centering of bubble can be easily done in this type
3. Automatic level:- Is the most commonly used instrument in
leveling. One of the most significant improvements in leveling
instrumentation has been automatic level or self-leveling levels.
• The telescope is fixed to its supports.
• Circular spirit can be attached to the side of the
telescope for approximate leveling.
• It has an internal compensatory that automatically makes
horizontal the line of sight and maintains the position
through the application of the force of gravity.
• As soon as the instrument is leveled by a means of a
circular bubble, the movable component of the
compensatory swings free to a position that makes the
line of sight horizontal.
DIGITAL LEVELS

• The newest type of automatic level, the electronic

digital level is an accurate instrument used for
accurate leveling.

• Operation of digital levels is based on the digital

processing of video indications of a coded staff.

• It is classified in the automatic category because it

uses a pendulum compensator to level itself, after
an operator accomplishes rough leveling with a
circular bubble.
 Tripods
• A tripod is a three- legged stand used to support a
level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements.
• There are two models of tripods.
(1) The extension leg tripod
(2) The fixed leg tripod
Level rods (leveling staff)

• They are used to measure the vertical distance

between a line of sight and a survey point and a

height different between two points.

• Is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4 or

5 meters

• Graduated wooden or aluminum rod, used with a

levelling instrument to determine the difference in

 Reading the Staff
• Color Alternates every meter each graduation is
100mm, each “E” is 50mm meter height & 1/10m is
located in lower 50mm each Part of the E is 10mm
millimeters are interpolated staff is read to the
millimeter
• Stadia Reduction The middle line is the line of
Collimation, the short lines are called stadia lines
usually stadia multiplier is 10
• Collimation is an imaginary line that passes
through the level instrument at the cross hairs .
Inverted Staff Readings
• In all of the previous topics on leveling, the points observed all lay below
the line of sight.
• Frequently on building sites, the reduced levels of points above the height
of the instrument are required e.g. the soffit level of a bridge or under
pass, the underside of a canopy, the level of roofs, eves, etc. of buildings.
• The reduced levels of points A, B, C, and D on the frame of a multi-
story building require checking. The staff is simply held upside down
on the points A and C and booked with a negative sign in front of the
reading, e.g. –1.520. Such staff readings are called Inverted Staff
Readings.
 Preparing levels for work
• Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press
the tripod feet firmly into the ground.
• The tripod head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the
instrument on it.
• Levelling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws until
the circular bubble is in the centre.
• Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs
appear sharp and clear then point the telescope towards the
object (staff) and
• focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.
 Testing levels

1. The axis of the circular bubble should be

parallel to the instrument’s vertical axis

2. The horizontal cross hair should be

perpendicular to the instruments vertical axis

3. The telescope's line of sight should be true

level for instruments with compensators

 Principle of Direct Leveling
• Direct or spirit leveling, by measuring vertical distances directly.

• Direct leveling is the most precise method of determining

elevations and is the one commonly used.
• Direct leveling is also employed for determining elevations for
cross sections, grades, and contours.
General principle of leveling

• The principle of leveling is to obtain horizontal line of sight

with respect to which vertical distances of the points above or
below this line of sight
• The instruments are set up and correctly levelling in order to make
the line of sight through the telescope horizontal.
• If the telescope is turned through 360 degree a horizontal plane of
sight is swept out vertical measurements from this plane, using
graduated leveling staff enable the relative portion of the
ground points to be ascertained.

• The telescope of a level provides a horizontal line (line of

collimation or a line of sight).

• The heights of points are determined by measuring downwards

from this line, by sighting on to a graduated staff held on each point
in turn
• Direct measurement have two principle these are

• Simple leveling

• Differential leveling

1. Principle of Simple leveling :- It is the simplest operation in

leveling when it is required to find the difference in elevation
between two points both of which are visible from a single
position of the level.
When difference of level between two points is determined by setting
the levelling instrument midway between the points, the process is
called simple levelling.
• Suppose A and B are two points whose difference of
level is to be determined.
• The level is setup at O, exactly midway between A and
RLA
B.+After
BS = HPC . . . And temporary
proper Elevation of point
adjustment, the staff
=HI-IS/FS
readings on A and B are taken.
• Assume the elevation of BM Rock is
known to be 820.00 ft. The BS at
BM Rock is 8.42ft.
• So HI = (820 + 8.42)ft. Now the
FS on “X” is 1.2ft.
• So the RL at “X” = HI – FS =
828.42ft
Note that the RL of the instrument
In Simple Levelling the points should be remembered that
1. When the point is lower, the staff reading is greater, while
when it is higher, the staff reading is smaller.
2. The bubble must traverse, i.e. keep its mid position while
readings are being taken. If relevelling of the instrument is
required for the second reading, the two horizontal planes will
not coincide; the difference between them is, however,
negligible.
3. If the true difference of level between two points is required,
the level must be set up exactly midway between them.
 2. Principle of Differential Leveling:- The process of determining the
elevation of a new point from the known elevation of an existing point.
The method is adopted to find the difference in elevation between points if:
(i)the points are at a great difference apart,
(ii)the difference of elevation between the points is large
(iii)There are obstacles between the points

The resulting data from leveling is a significant piece of

engineering design, used for mapping and construction projects.
 The points should be remembered that:
1. Each of the successive points C, D e.t.c is called a Change Point
(C.P.) and is read twice, once before and the second time after the
instrument is shifted.
2. The level must remain stationary while the staff is being carried
forward.
3. The staff at the change point must not be moved but kept on the
same spot while the level is carried forward. It should be turned
round to face the telescope when a second reading is to be taken.
4. A change point must be taken on a stable and definite object. The
distance of the change point from the level should not exceed
100m.
5. The level must be set up on firm ground.
6. The bubble must be brought to the center of its run each time staff
a reading is taken.
 Differential Leveling and Theory of spirit leveling,

• Differential leveling is a surveying technique that uses a

precisely leveled telescope and graduated rods to measure
vertical distances and transfer elevations from a known point
to other points.
• It's also known as spirit leveling or optical leveling
• Reduced level of a point is the height or depth of the point
above or below the assumed datum.
• It is the elevation of the point.
 Methods of Levelling
• For booking & reducing the level of points, there are two
methods convert the Backsight, Foresight and Intermediate
Sight readings into Reduced Levels:
There are two methods for levelling operations
1. Height of Collimation Method
2. Rise and Fall Method
 1. Height of Collimation Method
It consist of finding the elevation of the plane of collimation ( H.I.) for
every set up of the instrument, and then obtaining the reduced level
of point with reference to the respective plane of collimation.
2. Elevation of plane of collimation for the first set of the level
determined by adding back sight( BS) to R.L. of B.M.

3. The R./elevation of intermediate point and first change point

are then obtained by starching the staff reading taken on respective
point (IS & FS) from the elation of the plane collimation. [H.I.]
3. When the instrument is shifted to the second position a new
plane collimation is set up.
• The elevation of this plane is obtained by adding B.S.
taken on the C.P. From the second position of the level
to the R.L. C.P.
• HI2 =
• The R.L. of successive point and second C.P. are found
by subtract these staff reading from the elevation of
second plane of collimation
Hight of columniation method
 • RL = HI- staff reading taken
Let RL be reduced level/elevation and R =
Staff reading. Then, without back sight-reading

• RLC = TBM RLD = RLC + (RC – RD) HI= RL + BS (back sight)

• RLE = RLC + (RC – RE) RLF = RLE +Arithmetical check
(RE – RF) Sum of B.S. – sum of F.S. =

• RLG = RLE + (RE – RG) last R.L. – First R.L

FS (BS) IS FS
IS
BS
2.0 2.5 3.0
1.50 2.5 0.50
E B
C
TBM D A F G
C (TBM) D (IS)
F (IS)
E (FS, BS)
G (FS)
A
 Staff BS IS FS HPC(HI) RL Distance
position

Note: The arithmetic check to be applied to this system of booking are

(BS) - (FS) = Last RL – First RL
(All except the first) = (each HPC) * (No. IS and FSs deducted from it) - (FS +
IS)
• The following staff reading were taken in succession
with a level. The instrument was shifted after 3rd,
6th and 8th reading.
• By the plane of collimation method, calculate the
R.L and all the points. R.L of Bench Mark is 500
meters.
• Readings are: 0.365, 1.450, 2.335, 0.855, 2.225,
2.905, 1.275, 0.725, 1.975, 2.305, 2.610, 3.335
Stati Backsight Intermediate Foresight HI Elevat Remark
on (BS) sight(IS) (FS) ion
1 0.365 500 Bench
Marck
2 1.450
3 2.335
4 0.855
5 2.225
6 2.905
7 1.275
8 , 0.725
9 1.975
10 2.305
11 2.610
12 3.335
 2. Rise and fill method
• It consists of determining the difference of elevation between
consecutive points by comparing each point after the first that
immediately preceding it.
• The difference between there staff reading indicates a rise or
fall according to the staff reading at the point.

• The R.L is then found adding the rise to, or subtracting the fall
from the reduced level of preceding point.

Where rise/fall = first reading –second reading

The difference indicate
• A RISE if the back sight or first reading is more than the fore
sight or second reading&
• A FALL if back sight is less than the fore sight.
The
Stafftwo consecutive
Position BS ISmay have
FS readings
Rise as B.S.
Fall & F.S.,
RL B.S. &
Remark
I.S., I.S. & I.S., or I.S. & F.S.

Arithmetic check
Sum of B.S. – sum of F. S. = sum of rise – sum of fall = last R. L. –
first R.L.
Illustrate exampl1:-Following table shows a page of a level book of
reading taken using automatic level for bench mark transfer or
deferential level for the use of drainage construction of OBU. Then
calculate the reduced or elevation of each station with the first reading
elevation is 100 and Arthimatic check
For the reduction of levels, let us first determine the rise & fall
as follow

• B.S 0.685 – F.S. 2.095 = - 2.220 or fall 2.220

• B.S 1.800 – I.S. 1.225 = +0.575 or rise 0.575,

• I.S. 1.225 – I.S 2.83 = - 1.605 or fall 1.605

• I.S. 2.830 – F.S. 0.455 = + 2.375 or rise 2.375

• B.S 2.550 – I.S 2.745 = - 0.195 or fall 0.195

• I.S 2.745 – F.S. 1.555 = + 1.190 or rise 1.190

• B.S. 2.590 – F.S. 2.625 = - 0.035 or fall 0.035

 Now the R.L’s of station are calculated as follow:
• RL1 or R.L. (B.M) =100
The rise & fall methods of
• RL2= 100-fall (2.220) = 97.780 reducing the levels, provides
two arithmetic checks as
• RL3= 97.780 + rise (0.575) = 98.355;
follow
• Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ
• RL4= 98.355 –fall (1.605) = 96.750
Fall = Last R.L – First R.L.
• • 7.265 – 7.540 = 4.140 –
RL5= 96.750 + rise (2.375) = 99.125;
4.055 = 100.085 – 100.00
• RL6= 99.125 – fall (0.195) = 98.930
or 0.085 = 0.085 = 0.085
• RL7= 98.930 + rise (1.190) =100.120;

• RL8= 100.120 –fall (0.035) =100.085

Then, the result are book as follows
• Example 2 :- Following staff readings were taken on
an uneven ground with a 4 m leveling staff. Calculate
reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method
and apply usual checks. The instrument was shifted
after 3rd, 6 th and 9th readings. The first reading was
taken on a benchmark of 100 m.
1.20,2.65,3.50,2.40,1.95,0.90,1.80,3.70,2.50,0.85,1.7
0.
The comparison of line of collimation method and Rise – fall method

Height of collimation Rise fall method

1. It is more rapid & saves 1. It is laborious to
considerable time and compute the rise & fall then
labor. RL
2. this method is use for 2. It is well adopted for
reduction of level for determining d/c in
construction work, Such as elevation of two points
longitudinal or cross- were
sectional leveling precision is required.
operation.
3. There is no check for 3. There is complete check
reduction of RLs of on reduction of RLs of IS.
intermediate site
4. There are only two 4. There arithmetic check.
 Fly leveling
• When differential levelling is done in order to connect a benchmark to the
starting point of the alignment of any project, it is called fly levelling.
• Fly levelling is also done to connect the BM to any intermediate point of
the alignment for checking the accuracy of work.
• In such levelling, only the back sight and foresight readings are taken at
every step-up of the level and no distances are measured along the
direction of levelling.
• The fly levelling done at the end of the day’s work to connect the
finishing point with the starting point on that particular day is known as
check levelling. It is undertaken in order to check the accuracy of the
day’s work.
• A differential leveling loop
is the one in which
leveling starts at a
benchmark up to the
required point then
closing back at the same
benchmark.
• Different turning points
and instrument setups
 Profile leveling
• The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured
intervals along a fixed line (proposed route) is called profile leveling.
• The need of profile leveling arises during the location and construction
of highways, railroads, canal, and sewers.
• The operation of taking levels along the center line of any
alignment (road, railway etc.) at regular intervals is known
as longitudinal levelling.
• Reduced levels at various points at regular interval along the line are
calculated, after getting the RL of various points the profile is drawn.
Normally vertical scale is much larger than horizontal scale for the
clear view of the profile.
In this operation, readings are
taken at regular intervals at every
set-up of the instrument.
• The operation is taken in order
to determine the undulations of
the ground surface along the
profile line
 Cross Section leveling
• Cross sections are lines of levels or short profiles made
perpendicular to the center line of a project. They provide the
information necessary for estimating quantities of earth work for
highways, railways & etc.
• The operation of taking levels transverse to the direction of
longitudinal levelling, is known as cross-sectional levelling.
• The cross sections are taken at regular intervals along
the alignment.
• Cross sectional levelling is done in order to know the
nature of the ground across the center line of any
alignment.
We have here two type of distance
1. Distance along the centerline of the project from the
project starting point
2. Distance perpendicular to the project centerline. Its
zero at the centerline and it is distinguished on both
right and left of the centerline in the direction of
leveling
 Reciprocal leveling
• When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is
impossible to balance the back sight and foresight
distances
• It is necessary to take sights much longer than
permissible.
• Under such a measurement errors due to curvature and
refraction become significant.
• To obtain the best results we should have to use the procedure
termed as reciprocal leveling.
• The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by
leveling from BM1.
• At a set up near BMl , a back sight is taken on BM1 and fore
sight on A.
• The difference in elevation is computed as (BS -FS).
• Next the level is set up near point A.
• Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant
during the time between the two set ups, the correct
differences in elevation is computed as the mean of the two
measured differences.
• Balancing BS and FS distances may not be possible
all times, for example, when crossing rivers, lakes, or
canyons. In such cases do the following:
1. At setup 1, take a BS1 at A, then a FS1 at B.
2. At setup 2, take a BS2 at A, then a FS2 at B.
3. Elev. Difference between A and B =
 Three-Wire Leveling
• It is a leveling method in which level rod readings at upper, lower, and middle
hairs are taken, then the average of the three readings is used.
• Advantages over regular method are:
1. Providing checks against rod reading blunders.
2. Producing greater accuracy because average of 3 readings is available.
3. Providing for BS and FS distance measurements by Stadia method.
 Indirect leveling
Indirect leveling is done by measuring vertical angles and horizontal
or slope distances.
• Barometric leveling

• Trigonometric leveling
 Barometry levelling
• Since the pressure of the earth's atmosphere varies inversely with the elevation, the
barometer may be employed for making observations of difference in elevation.
• Barometric leveling is employed principally on exploratory or reconnaissance
surveys where differences in elevation are large, as in hilly or mountainous country
Usually, barometric observations are taken at a fixed station during the same period
that observations are made on a second barometer, which is carried from point to
point in the field.
• This procedure makes it possible to correct the readings of the portable barometer
for atmospheric disturbances.
 Trigonometric leveling
• Trigonometric leveling is a process of determining the differences of
elevations of stations from observed vertical angles and known
distances, which are assumed to be either horizontal or geodetic
lengths at mean sea level.
• The difference in elevation can then be calculated.

• The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by

measuring
1.Inclined or horizontal distance between them

2.Zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the

other
 Source of levelling Error
Natural Errors
1. Earth curvature: Increases rod readings. Can be eliminated by balancing distances of
BS and FS readings.

2. Refraction: Decreases rod readings. Can be eliminated by balancing distances of BS

and FS readings.

3. Temperature: Heat waves near ground surface make the rod appear to wave and
prevent accurate sighting. Can be eliminated by raising the line of sight by high tripod
setup along with choosing short sights.

4. Settlement of the instrument: If the tripod legs are not pushed firmly into the ground,
the HI when taking a BS and a FS may not be the same.
 Instrumental Errors
1. Line of sight not horizontal, even after leveling the instrument
which indicates manufacturing defect. May be eliminated by
calibrating the instrument or by running a two-peg test.

2. Horizontal hair not exactly horizontal: Can be eliminated by

reading the rod near the center of the horizontal cross hair.

3. Incorrect length of level rod, and graduation errors: Can be

eliminated by comparing with standardized tape.
 Human Errors
1. Bubble not centered: Check the bubble before and after each
reading.
2. Parallax: Improper focusing of objective and/or eyepiece
lenses.
3. Faulty rod reading and recording: Check before and after
recording.
4. Level rod not vertical: It increases rod readings. Can be
eliminated by carefully leveling the rod circular bubble, and by
waving the rod.
 Common Leveling mistakes
I. Misreading the rod- unless the instrument man is very careful, he or she may
occasionally read the rod incorrectly; as, for instance, 3.72m instead of 4.72m.
• This mistake most frequently occurs when the line of sight to the rod is partially
obstructed by leaves, grass and so on.
II. Moving Turning points- A careless rod man causes a serious leveling mistake if he
or she moves the turning points.
• The rod man holds the rod at one point while the instrument man takes the
foresight reading, and then while the level is being moved to a new position, the
Rodman may put the level rod down while he or she does something else.
III. Field Note mistakes- To prevent the recording of incorrect values, the
instrument man should call out the reading as he or she reads& records them.
IV. Mistakes with extended rod- When readings are taken on the extended
portion of the level rod, it is absolutely necessary to have the two parts
adjusted properly.
 Types of Errors in Leveling
1. Systematic errors:- Such as earth curvature, refraction, incorrect
length.
2. Random errors:- Due to temperature, wind, and settlement of
instrument.
3. Mistakes:- Such as misreading or mis recording measurements,
not properly leveling the instrument, and not holding the rod
vertical.
 Precision of Differential Leveling
Misclosure
• The amount by which the measured Elevation (Hmeas) derived from the
computations differs from the known Elevation (Hknown) of the starting
and finishing benchmarks

• Also known as Closure error: discrepancy between the known elevation of

a benchmark (BM) and its measured elevation at the end of the survey
route
Small misclosures in closed level loops are expected
because of the accumulation of errors
• If the misclosure is small, it can be adjusted

• If the misclosure is large, the loop (or part of it)

must be repeated
• Misclosures can also result from errors in
published BM levels and from BM instability
 Differential levelling precision

Acceptable closure error is computed as a function of the length of

the leveling route or as a function of the number of instrument
setups. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Order Surveys
o First-order surveys – Closure error -3mm (K)0.5 to 5mm (K)0.5
o Second-order surveys – Closure error -6mm (K)0.5 to 8mm (K)0.5
o Third-order surveys – Closure error - 12mm (K)0.5
 Differential Leveling Precision
• The amount of misclosure we are prepared to accept depends on the
accuracy we are hoping to achieve
• In order for differential leveling results to be acceptable, the computed
closure error EC must be compared with permissible values on the
basis of either number of setups n or distance covered K in kilometers.
 Adjusting the misclose
• Adjustment is carried out to ensure that the
measured and known elevation of the closing
benchmark agree
• The misclosure is linearly distributed according to
the number of set-ups in opposite sign
• The adjustment per set-up for the previous
example is (-0.005/5) =-0.001 (cumulatively)
Thanks