AGNI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING

BM3411-BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
LABORATORY

(Fourth semester)

EVEN-SEM (2023-2024)
 EX. NO :1 DESIGN OF PREAMPLIFIER TO ACQUIRE BIODISGNALS ALONG WITH
IMPEDANCE MATCHING CIRCUIT USING SUITABLE IC’S

AIM:

To design a design of pre amplifiers to acquire bio signals along with impedance matching circuit

using suitable ic‘s .

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGEQUANTITY

1 Signal (0-1) MHz 1

Generator

2 CRO (0-20)MHz 2

3 Dual Power (12-0-12)V 1

Supply

4 Bread board - 1

5 IC 741 - 3

6 Resistor 8
10 KΩ
7 Wires - As required

THEORY:

Bio signals are recorded as potentials, voltages, and electrical field strengths generate by nerves and
muscles. The measurements involve voltages at very low levels, typically ranging between 1 µV and
100 mV, with high source impedances and superimposed high level interference signals and noise.
The signals need to be amplified to make them compatible with devices such as displays, recorders,
or A/D converters for computerized equipment. Amplifiers adequate to measure these signals have to
satisfy very specific requirements. They have to provide amplification selective to the physiological
signal, reject superimposed noise and interference signals, and guarantee protection from damages
through voltage and current surges for both patient and electronic equipment.
Amplifiers featuring these specifications are known as biopotential amplifiers.

The basic requirements that a biopotential amplifier has to satisfy are: The physiological process to
be monitored should not be influenced in any way by the amplifier

1. The measured signal should not be distorted

2. The amplifier should provide the best possible separation of signal and interferences
3. Theamplifierhastoofferprotectionofthepatientfromany electrical shock
4. The amplifier itself has to be protected against damages that might result from high input voltages
as they occur during the application of defibrillators or electrosurgical instrumentation
Instrumentation Amplifier:
An important stage of all bio potential amplifiers is the input preamplifier which substantially
contributes to the overall quality of the system. The main tasks of the preamplifier are to sense the
voltage between two measuring electrodes while rejecting the common mode signal, and
minimizing the effect of electrode polarization over potentials. Crucial to the performance of the
preamplifier is the input impedance which should be as high as possible. Such a differential
amplifier cannot be realized using a standard single operational amplifier (op-amp) design since this
does not provide the necessary high input impedance. The general solution to the problem involves
voltage followers, or noninverting amplifiers, to attain high input impedances.

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

 Set the Inputs E1 and E2 at different values but at the same frequency.
 Adjust R1 to a particular value.
 Switch on the dual power supply.
 Calculate the theoretical gain from the given formula
 Repeat the above procedure for different values of R1.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 ECG is a bodily electrical signal with typical amplitude of 500 μV and a frequency range of to 250 Hz.
Thus the desired output from our ECG amplifier is a 5V maximum amplitude signal, with a frequency
rangeof0.5 to 100 Hz. Therefore, the amplifier will have a gain of 1000, and the filter will have
apassbandof0.5to100Hz. We need to keep three important and basic functions of any bio potential amplifier
in mind: patient protection, signal amplification,and signal filtering

OBSERVATION

RESULT:
Thus the design and working of pre amplifiers to acquire bio signals along with impedance
matching circuit using suitable ic‘s is done.
 EX. NO :2 DESIGN OF ECG AMPLIFIER WITH APPROPRIATE FILTER TO
REMOVE POWER LINE AND OTHER ARTIFACTS.

AIM:

To record ECG signals using surface electrodes and the heart rate is calculated using R-R
interval method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Battery, ECG amplifier, Low Pass Filter, ECG surface electrodes, Digital Oscilloscope,
connecting wires.

THEORY:

Electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument used to record electrical activity of

the heart over a period of time, as detected by electrodes attached to the surface of the skin and
recorded by a device external to the body. The recording produced by this noninvasive procedure
is termed an electrocardiogram.

Figure 1 Normal ECG waveform

Amplitude: Time period:
P wave – 0.25 mV PR interval – 0.12 – 0.22 sec
Q wave – 0.4 mV QT interval – 0.35 – 0.44 sec
R wave – 1.6 mV ST segment – 0.05 – 0.15 sec
T wave – 0.1 – 0.5 mV P wave interval – 0.11 sec
U wave - <0.1 mV QRS duration – 0.06 – 0.1 sec
An ECG is used to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats, as well as the size and
position of the chambers, the presence of any damage to the heart, and the effects of drugs or
devices used to regulate the heart, such as a pacemaker.
ECG provides a wide range of cardiac disorders such as the presence of an inactive part
(infarct) or an enlargement (hypertrophy) of heart muscle. The ECG device detects and amplifies
the tiny electrical changes on the skin that are caused when the heart muscle depolarizes during
each heartbeat.

The diagnostically useful frequency range is usually 0.05 too 150Hz. The interference of
non-biological noises can be handled by using modern differential amplifiers, which are capable
of providing excellent rejection capabilities. Common Mode Rejection Ratio of the order of 100-
120db with 5KΩ unbalance in the leads is a desirable feature of ECG machines. It is necessary to
use a notch filter tuned to 50Hz to reject hum due to power mains.

LEADS:

The term "lead" in electrocardiography refers to the electrical cable attaching

the electrodes to the ECG recorder. These leads are placed according to a practical system of
electrocardiography used in medical diagnostics known as Einthoven’s Triangle.

Einthoven’s Triangle is an equilateral triangle whose vertices lie at the left and right
shoulders and the pubic region and whose center corresponds to the vector sum of all electric
activity occurring in the heart at any given moment, allowing for the determination of the
electrical axis. Einthoven's triangle is approximated by the triangle formed by the axes of the
bipolar electrocardiographic (ECG) limb leads I, II, and III.
 There are three different configurations of leads that are used to record ECG signals. They
are:

1. Limb leads
2. Precordial leads
3. Augmented limb leads

LIMB LEADS:

Leads I, II and III are called limb leads. The electrodes that form these signals are located on
the limbs—one on each arm and one on the left leg. The limb leads form the points of what is
known as Einthoven's triangle.

Lead I is the voltage between the (positive) left arm (LA) electrode and right arm (RA) electrode:

Lead II is the voltage between the (positive) left leg (LL) electrode and the right arm (RA)
electrode:

Lead III is the voltage between the (positive) left leg (LL) electrode and the left arm (LA)
electrode:
AUGMENTED LIMB LEADS:
Leads aVR, aVL, and aVF are augmented limb leads. They are derived from the same three
electrodes as leads I, II, and III. However, they view the heart from different angles (or vectors)
because the negative electrode for these leads is a modification of Einthoven's central terminal.
Wilson Einthoven's central terminal paved the way for the development of the augmented limb
leads aVR, aVL, aVF and the precordial leads V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 and V6.

 Lead augmented vector right (aVR) has the positive electrode (white) on the right arm. The
negative electrode is a combination of the left arm (black) electrode and the left leg (red)
electrode, which "augments" the signal strength of the positive electrode on the right arm.

 Lead augmented vector left (aVL) has the positive (black) electrode on the left arm. The
negative electrode is a combination of the right arm (white) electrode and the left leg (red)
electrode, which "augments" the signal strength of the positive electrode on the left arm.
 Lead augmented vector foot (aVF) has the positive (red) electrode on the left leg. The
negative electrode is a combination of the right arm (white) electrode and the left arm (black)
electrode, which "augments" the signal of the positive electrode on the left leg.

PRECORDIAL LEADS:

The electrodes for the precordial leads (V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 and V6) are placed directly on
the chest. Because of their close proximity to the heart, they do not require augmentation.
Wilson's central terminal is used for the negative electrode, and these leads are considered to be
unipolar. The precordial leads view the heart's electrical activity in the so-called horizontal plane.
The heart's electrical axis in the horizontal plane is referred to as the Z axis.
PLACEMENT OF ELECTRODES:

Electrode label (in the

Electrode placement
USA)

RA On the right arm, avoiding thick muscle.

LA In the same location where RA was placed, but on the left arm.

RL On the right leg, lateral calf muscle.

LL In the same location where RL was placed, but on the left leg.

In the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 and 5) just to the right of
V1
the sternum (breastbone).

In the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 and 5) just to the left of
V2
the sternum.

V3 Between leads V2 and V4.

 In the fifth intercostal space (between ribs 5 and 6) in the mid-clavicular
V4
line.

V5 Horizontally even with V4, in the left anterior axillary line.

V6 Horizontally even with V4 and V5 in the mid axillary line.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

PLACEMENT OF ELECTRODES:

 Black- Right leg.

 Yellow- Left arm.
 Red- Right arm.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the modules as per the block diagram.
2. Connect the three electrodes (distinguished by colour coding) to the subject using conductive
gel.
3. Switch ON the equipment.
4. The signal is passed to the QRS filter.
5. The time period is set to 0.1 ms and amplitude knob is placed at 1mV.
6. The ECG signal is viewed in the DSO
7. It is stopped by pressing RUN/STOP button.
8. The R-R interval is calculated.

CALCULATION:

R – R interval = t

Heart Rate = (Beats /min)

RESULT:
Thus the design of ECG amplifier with appropriate filter to remove power line and other
artifacts.
 EX. NO:3 RECORDING AND ANALYSIS OF EMG USING SURFACE ELECTRODES

AIM:

To record and analyze the EMG signal.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Ring electrodes, HPF, EMG amplifier, DSO, Battery.

THEORY:

The EMG signal is the electrical manifestation of the neuromuscular activation associated
with a contracting muscle. It is an experimental technique concerned with the development,
recording and analysis of myoelectric signals. Myoelectric signals are formed by physiological
variations in the state of muscle fiber membranes. The focus of ―Kinesiological EMGǁ can be
described as the study of the voluntary neuromuscular activation of muscles within postural
tasks, functional movements, work conditions and treatment/training regimes. It is an
exceedingly complicated signal which is affected by the anatomical and physiological properties
of muscles, the control scheme of the peripheral nervous system, as well as the characteristics of
the instrumentation that is used to detect and observe it.

EMG signal origin:

The smallest functional unit to describe the neural control of the muscular contraction process is
called a Motor Unit. It is defined as the cell body and dendrites of a motor neuron, the multiple
branches of its axon, and the muscle fibers that innervates it. The term units outlines thebehavior,
that all muscle fibers of a given motor unit act ―as oneǁ within the innervation process.

Normal EMG signal

THE MOTOR UNIT ACTION POTENTIAL:

Under normal conditions, an action potential propagating down a motor neuron activates
all the branches of the motor neuron; these in turn activate all the muscle fibers of a motor unit.
When the postsynaptic membrane of a muscle fiber is depolarized, the depolarization propagates
in both directions along the fiber. The membrane depolarization, accompanied by a movement of
ions, generates an electromagnetic field in the vicinity of the muscle fibers. An electrode located
in this field will detect the potential or voltage (with respect to ground), whose time excursion is
known as an action potential. The individual muscle fiber action potentials represent the
contribution that each active muscle fiber makes to the signal detected at the electrode site.

EMG MEASUREMENT:

EMG is measured using similar techniques to that used for measuring EKG, EEG or other
electrophysiological signals. Electrodes are placed on the skin overlying the muscle.
Alternatively, wire or needle electrodes are used and these can be placed directly in the muscle.
EMG signals are small and need to be amplified by an amplifier designed to measure
physiological signals. These amplifiers include a differential amplifier circuit, and frequently
include some filtering and other signal processing features. The frequency range is 0-10khz and
the amplitude ranges from 0.1 to 0.5mv.
EMG APPLICATIONS:

BENEFITS OF EMG:

• EMG allows to directly look into the muscle.

• It allows measurement of muscular performance.

• Helps in decision making both before/after surgery.

• Documents treatment and training regimes.

• Helps patient to find and train their muscle.

• Allows analysis to improve sports activity.

• Detects muscle response in ergonomic studies.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the modules as per the block diagram.

2. Clean the hand and Apply electrode Gel.
3. Insert the ring electrodes in the alternate fingers, so that it is firmly attached to the
fingers.
4. Perform a series of four Clench-Release-Wait cycles.
 Hold clench for two seconds, release for two seconds.
 Begin with a weak clench, and then increase grip so the fourth clench is at
maximum.
5. Record the EMG data. Listen to the EMG data through headphones.
6. The EMG signal is viewed in the DSO
7. It is stopped by pressing RUN/STOP button.
8. The Amplitude and Frequency during contraction and relaxation is noted.

TABULATION:

CLENCH AMPLITUDE FREQUENCY

1
2
3
4

RESULT:

Thus the EMG signals are recorded and analyzed during contraction and relaxation.
 EX. NO:4 DESIGN OF SUITABLE CIRCUIT TO DETECT QRS
COMPLEX AND MEASURE HEART RATE.

AIM:

To design a suitable ECG amplifier circuit to detect QRS complex and measure heart rate.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus required Range Quantity

1 AD620AR - 1
2 UA 741 - 1
1000uF, 1uF, 34nF,
3 Capacitor 68nF 1,1,2,1

5.6K, 11K, 10K, 100K,

4 Resistor 50K, 560OHM 1,1,1,3,1,1

5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires - Required
7 RPS 9V 1

THEORY:

The ECG is an instrument which records the electrical activity of the heart. The electrical signals from
the heart characteristically proceed the normal mechanical function and monitoring of these signals has
great clinical significance. ECG provides valuable information about wide range of cardiac disorders such
as pressure of often inactive part or enlargement of the heart muscles. They are used in catheterization labs,
coronary care units and for routine diagnostic application in cardiology. Thus, a cardiac monitor is
specifically useful for monitoring patients with cardiac problems and the special areas in the hospitals
where they are generally used are known as cardiac care units or coronary care units (CCU). ECG LEAD
SYSTEM

There are four different ECG lead system used universally

• Bipolar Limb Lead (or) Standard lead system. Augmented Limb Leadsystem.
• Chest Lead (or) Precordial Leads.
• Frank lead system (or) corrected orthogonal lead system.
BIPOLAR LIMB LEADS:

In Bipolar Limb Leads system ECG is recorded with twoelectrodes at a time. The final trace
is due to difference in potential of 2 electrodes kept at 2 different location son the body. This is also
called the standard lead system. For this, system the potentials are tapped from 4 locations of the
body namely,
 a) Right arm- White color electrodes

b) Left arm- Black color electrodes

c) Right Leg- Green color electrodes (Reference electrode)

d) Left leg- Red color electrodes

The three different leads of the system are

e) Lead-I-V1-Voltage drop from Left Arm (LA) to Right Arm (RA)

f) Lead-II-V2-Voltage drop from Left Leg(LL) to Right Arm (RA)
g) Lead-III-V3-Voltage drop from Left Leg (LL) to Left Arm (LA)

The closed path between RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called Einthoven triangle.

R-wave amplitude of lead II is equal
to sum of R-wave amplitude of lead I and lead III
LEAD I+LEAD II+LEAD III =0
(or)
LEAD II=LEAD I+LEAD III

AUGMENTED UNIPOLA LIMB LEADS:

• Introduced by Wilson.
• ECG trace is due to potential between single measuring electrode and central reference electrode.
• The central reference electrode is built up by tying two electrodes with two equal and large
resistors in between them. A pairs of limb electrodes are tied up with 2 large resistors to make the
central reference electrode and the third limb electrode is the measuring electrode.

FRANK LEAD SYSTEM:

Same as chest lead system. Heart’s dipole field is resolved into three mutually
perpendicular components and hence state of heart is studied 3 – dimensionally.

UNIPOLAR CHEST LEAD:

In unipolar chest leads system in addition to electrodes present in augmented

unipolarlimbleadsattherearetwomoreelectrodesplacedinthechest,clo seto heart. By connecting 3
large equal resistors between LA, RA and LL reference electrode centrepoint
obtainedthisisthecentralelectrode. Thissystemincludes an integration of 3 unipolar leads, 3
bipolar leads and 6 chest leads.
Location of chest leads (V1 to V6) are,
Normal ECG wave Characteristics:

PR Interval: 0.12 - 0–20 sec

QRS Duration: 0.06 - 0–10 sec

QT Interval (QTc ≤ 0.40 sec)

QT ≤ 0.38 @ 80 bpm

QT ≤ 0.42 @ 60
ECG Acquisition circuit

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the limb electrode to patient.

• Lead-I- Left Arm (LA) &Right Arm (RA)
• Lead-II- Leg (LL) & Right Arm (RA)
• Lead-III-Left Leg (LL) &Left Arm (LA)

2. At each site, apply one of the disposables, pre-gelled ECG electrodes. Find locations as free of
subcutaneous fat and muscle as possible. Do not remove these electrodes until the end of the
experiment.

3. Connect the lead wires to ECG Amplifier. Select any two of the leads and display them on the
oscilloscope.

4. For the ECG amplifier start with the following settings and adjust as necessary to achieve the best
possible signal quality:
1. Connect input
2. DC output
3. Gain as per the requirment 5. On the oscilloscope:
4. Below the Channel 1 vertical control knob there is AC GND DC (Input Coupling) switch. First select GND
and adjust ground level with your POSITION knob. Then select DC and use it for the rest of the lab. Note
that AC coupling may be necessary for particularly large drifts in the signals.
5. Vertical scaling control knob both channels should be the same and approximately 2 or 5 VOLTS/DIV.
6. Horizontal control knob: 2 SEC/DIV.
7. Trigger should be set to AUTO.
 Save an image of the ECG on the oscilloscope using the memory function (or record with the
 acquisition program on the computer).

 From this, compute the period and heart rate for the subject.

OBSERVATION:
Interval Time(ms)

P/Q interval 120-200 ms

QRS complex interval 60-100 ms

S/T interval 80-120 ms

Q/ T interval 300-440 ms

Respiration-induced modulation of QRS amplitude.

HEART RATE

The heart rate is a measurement of the heart rate, or the number of times the heart beats per
minute. As the heart pushes blood through the arteries, the arteries expand and contract with
the flow of the blood. Taking a pulse not only measures the heart rate, but also can indicate the
following:

 Heart rhythm
 Strength of the pulse
 The normal pulse for healthy adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute. The pulse rate
may fluctuate and increase with exercise, illness, injury, and emotions. Females ages 12 and
older, in general, tend to have faster heart rates than do males. Athletes, such as runners, who
do a lot of cardiovascular conditioning, may have heart rates near 40 beats per minute and
experience no problems.

As the heart forces blood through the arteries, you feel the beats by firmly pressing on the
arteries, which are located close to the surface of the skin at certain points of the body. The
pulsecan be found on the side of the neck, on the inside of the elbow, or at the wrist. For most
people, it is easiest to take the pulse at the wrist.

DATA AND CALCULATIONS:

Subject Profile:

Name:

Height:

Age:

Gender: Male /

FemaleWeight:

Heart Rate: BPM

QRS Interval : t

RESULT:

Thus, the design of suitable ECG amplifier circuit is constructed and ECG waveform was recorded and
then the heart rate is calculated.
 EX. NO:5 DESIGN OF FRONTAL EEG AMPLIFIER

AIM
To design frontal EEG system and record EEG signals using suitable EEG amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Apparatus required
S.No Range Quantity

1 AD620AR - 1
2 UA 741 - 1
1000uF, 1uF, 34nF,
3 Capacitor 68nF 1,1,2,1

5.6K, 11K, 10K,

100K, 50K,
4 Resistor 1,1,1,3,1,1
560OHM

5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires - Required
7 RPS 9V 1

THEORY:

EEG is an instrument for recording the electrical activity of the brain, by suitably placing surface electrodes on
the scalp. It describe the general function of the brain activity, is the superimposed wave of neuron potentials
operating in a non- synchronized manner in the physical sense. It is an effective method of diagnosing many
neurological illness and diseases, such as epilepsy, tumour, cerebrovascular lesions, ischemia and problems
associated with trauma. Several types of electrodes may be used to record EEG. These include: Peel and Stick
electrodes, Silver plated cup electrodes and Needle electrodes. EEG may be recorded by picking up the voltage
difference between an active electrode on the scalp with respect to reference electrode on the ear lobe or any
part of the body. This type of recording is called “monopolar‟ recording. However „bipolar‟ recording is more
popular wherein the voltage difference between two scalp electrodes is recorded.
The recorded representation of bioelectric potentials generated by the neuronal activity of the brain is

called the electroencephalography abbreviated as EEG. EEG potentials measured at the surface of the

scalp, actually represent the combined effect of potential from a wide region of the cerebral cortex and

from various points beneath EEG waveforms. Certain characteristics of EEG waveform can be related to
epileptic seizures and sleep. A drowsy person often produces a large amount of activity in the activity in the
range of 8-13Hz. When the person begins to fall asleep, the amplitude and frequency of the waveform decreases
and in light sleep, large amplitude, low frequency waveform emerges. Deeper sleep generally results in even
slower and higher amplitude waves. The period of high frequency EEG that occurs during sleep is called
paradoxical sleep. The waveform varies greatly with the location of the measuring electrode on the surface of
the scalp.EEG pattern potentials have random appearing waveforms with peak-peak amplitude ranging from
less than 10µv to over 100µv and bandwidth of EEG signal is from below 1Hz to over 100Hz. 10 – 20 electrode
placement system is used.

ELECTRODE MONTAGE SELECTOR:

EEG signals are transmitted from the electrode to the head box, which is labeled according to the 10-
20 lead system, and then to montage selector. Montages are bipolar or referential.

PREAMPLIFIER:

Every channel has an individual, multistage, ac coupled, very sensitive amplifier with differential
input and adjustable gain in wide range. The preamplifier used in EEG must have high gain and low noise
characteristics because the potentials are small in amplitude. Amplifier must have high CMRR to minimize
stray interference.

SENSTIVITY CONTROL:
The overall sensitivity of an EEG machine is the gain of the amplifier multiplied by the sensitivity of
the writer. Thus, if the writer sensitivity is 1cm/V, the amplifier must have an over all gain of 20,000 for a
50µV signal.

FILTERS:
An EEG may also contain muscle artifacts due to contraction of the scalp and neck muscles, which
overlie the brain and skull. Low pass filters are used to remove the artifacts, which is having frequency of 5.3,
1.6, 0.53, 0.16Hz. High pass filters are used to control the cut-off frequency, which is having the frequency of
15, 30, 70, 300Hz. Notch filters are used to eliminate interference, whose frequency tuned at 50Hz.

NOISE:
EEG amplifier is selected for minimum noise level, which is expressed in terms of equivalent input voltages.

WRITING PART:
It is usually of ink type direct writing recorder. The best type is the pen motor have a frequency response of
about90Hz.

PAPER DRIVER:
This is provided by the synchronous motor. An accurate and stable paper drive mechanism is necessary. Speeds
of 15, 30, 60 mm/s are essential.

CHANNELS:
An EEG is recorded simultaneously from an array of many electrodes. The record can be made from
bipolar or mono-polar leads. The electrodes are connected to separate amplifiers and writing system.
Modern EEG machines are mostly PC based, with a Pentium processor, 16-MB RAM, at least a 2 GB hard
disk, cache memory and a 4 GB DAT tape
 driver.
ELECTRODE PLACEMENT SYSTEM

STUDY OF BRAIN WAVES:

EEG circuit Diagram

EEG electrode placement using EEG Frontal Electrode:

PROCEDURE:

 Constructed the circuit using the circuit diagram.

 Connect the EEG electrode as per the circuit setup.
 Connect the output waveform of the EEG circuit to oscilloscope (DSO).
 Observe the waveform of the EEG.
 After the acquisition of good waveforms, freeze and store the waveform.
 Store the waveforms for future reference using Pen drive.
 Remove the electrode and turnoff the simulator properly

OBSERVATIONS:

RESULT: Thus design of the frontal EEG system and record EEG signals using suitable EEG amplifier is done and the
observation is noted.
 EX. NO:6 DESIGN OF EOG AMPLIFIER TO DETECT EYE BLINK.

AIM:
To design EOG acquisition system and record EOG signals to detect the eye blink using suitable EOG
amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Apparatus
S.No required Range Quantity

1 AD620AR - 1
2 UA 741 - 1
1000uF, 1uF, 34nF,
3 Capacitor 68nF 1,1,2,1

5.6K, 11K,
10K, 100K,
4 Resistor 1,1,1,3,1,1
50K, 560OHM

5 Bread Board - 1
Connecting Wires
6 - Required

7 RPS 9V 1

THEORY:

While it is fairly well known that your heart and brain generate electrical potentials, you may not
know that your whole eye has a potential as well! It does not change quickly in the form of "impulses" like
your heart and brain, but does have a voltage difference we can measure. Specifically, the front of the eye,
where the cornea is located, is more positive than the back of the eye (where the retina is).

With this potential difference, the eye is an electric dipole. And when dipoles move, they cause
electric field changes that can be observed. By moving the eyes from left to right or up and down creates an
electrical deflection we can measure called an electrooculographic signal (EOG). By placing the electrodes
over eye, so that each electrode lies on either side of the eye, we can detect left vs right movement. By
having one electrode above the eye and another electrode below the eye, we can detect up and down
movements along with blinks. Blinks? What is this about blinks! Yes, we can detect blinks too! However,
we believe this is due to the electromyography signal of the eye blink muscles, and not the movement of the
eye.
EOG acquisition circuit

Model EOG wave form:

PROCEDURE:

 We will start with Left vs. Right movements of the eye. Take your BYB headband, and place it
such that the electrodes are positioned on either side and eye.
 Add globs of electrode gel underneath the metal patches in the headband.
 Now, add an electrode patch on the bony protrusion behind your ear (the mastoid process).
 Note: An alternative electrode setup is to put both electrodes patch electrodes on either side of
 the temples, on the outer side of the eyes..
 Now it's time to connect your electrodes! place the red alligator clips on the electrodes
 around the eye, and the black alligator clip on the ground behind your ear. Which red is in
which location around the eye does not matter for introductory experiments..
 This experiment is easier with a assistant to have you observe. When the signal, move your
eyes left. You should see a deflection in one direction followed by a rapid deflection in another
direction. If you move your eyes to the right, the signal will change polarity.
 Now, we will try to record up and down vs blinking movements. With your headband, have one
electrode above the eye, and place a sticker electrode under your eye. Place the red alligator
clips on the electrodes above and below your eye, and the black ground clip on the ground
behind your ear.
 Now blink vs moving your eyes up and down. And save the waveform from your DSO and
store the waveform form further analysis

OBSERVATION

RESULT: Thus design of the EOG system and record EOG signals using suitable EOG amplifier is done and the
observation is noted.
 EX. NO:7 DESIGN A RIGHT LEG DRIVEN ECG AMPLIFIER.

AIM:

To design of a right leg driven ECG amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Apparatus required
S.No Range Quantity

1 AD620AR - 1

2 UA 741 - 1

1000uF, 1uF, 34nF,

3 Capacitor 68nF 1,1,2,1

5.6K, 11K, 10K, 100K,

50K,
4 Resistor 1,1,1,3,1,1
560OHM

5 Bread Board - 1

6 Connecting Wires - Required

7 RPS 9V 1

THEORY:

The ECG is an instrument which records the electrical activity of the heart. The electrical signals
from the heart characteristically proceed the normal mechanical function and monitoring of these signals
has great clinical significance. ECG provides valuable information about wide range of cardiac disorders
such as pressure of often inactive part or enlargement of the heart muscles. They are used in catheterization
labs, coronary care units and for routine diagnostic application in cardiology. Thus, a cardiac monitor is
specifically useful for monitoring patients with cardiac problems and the special areas in the hospitals where
they are generally used are known as cardiac care units or coronary care units (CCU).
ECG LEAD SYSTEM

There are four different ECG lead system used universally

• Bipolar Limb Lead (or) Standard lead system. Augmented Limb Lead system.
• Chest Lead (or) Pericardial Leads.
• Frank lead system (or) corrected orthogonal lead system.

BIPOLAR LIMB LEADS:

In Bipolar Limb Leads system ECG is recorded with two electrodes at a time. The final trace is
due to difference in potential of 2 electrodes kept at 2 different location s on the body. This is also
called the standard lead system. For this, system the potentials are tapped from 4 locations of the body
namely,

1. Right arm- White color electrodes

2. Left arm- Black color electrodes

3. Right Leg- Green color electrodes (Reference electrode)

4. Left leg- Red color electrodes

Normal ECG wave Characteristics:

5. PR Interval: 0.12 - 0–20 sec

6. QRS Duration: 0.06 - 0–10 sec

7. QT Interval (QTc ≤ 0.40 sec)

8. QT ≤ 0.38 @ 80 bpm QT ≤ 0.42 @ 60 bpm ECG Acquisition circuit

PROCEDURE:

i. Connect the limb electrode to patient.

ii. At each site, apply one of the disposables, pre-gelled ECG electrodes. Find locations as free of
subcutaneous fat and muscle as possible. Do not remove these electrodes until the end of the experiment.

iii. Connect the lead wires to ECG Amplifier. Select any two of the leads and display them on the
oscilloscope.

iv. For the ECG amplifier start with the following settings and adjust as necessary to achieve the best
possible signal quality:
v. Connect input
vi. DC output
vii. Gain 500 On the oscilloscope:
viii. Below the Channel 1 vertical control knob there is AC GND DC (Input Coupling) switch. First select
GND and adjust ground level with your POSITION knob. Then select DC and use it for the rest of the
lab. Note that AC coupling may be necessary for particularly large drifts in the signals.
ix. Vertical scaling control knob both channels should be the same and approximately HORIZONTAL
VOLTS/DIV
x. Horizontal control knob: 2 SEC/DIV.
xi. Trigger should be set to AUTO.
xii. Save an image of the ECG on the oscilloscope using the memory function (or record with the
acquisition program on the computer).
xiii. From this, compute the period and heart rate for the subject.
 OBSERVATION:

Interval Time(ms)

P/Q interval

QRS complex interval

S/T interval

Q/T interval

RESULT:
Thus, the design of ECG right leg driven ECG amplifier.
 EX. NO:8 STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

AIM:

To study the optical characteristics of optical isolation amplifier and application of optical isolation amplifiers in
biomedical field.

THEORY:

Isolation amplifiers are commonly used for providing protection against leakage currents. They
break the ohmic continuity of electric signals between the input and output of the amplifier. The isolation
includes different supply voltage sources and different grounds on each side of the isolation barrier.
Three methods are used in the design of isolation amplifiers:

1. Transformer isolation
2. Optical isolation
3. Capacitive isolation.

OPTICAL ISOLATION AMPLIFIER:

Isolation could also be achieved by optical means in which the patient is electrically connected with
neither the hospital line nor the ground line. A separate battery-operated circuit supplies power to the
patient circuit and the signal of interest is converted into light by a light source (LED). This light falls on a
phototransistor on the output side, which converts the light signal again into an electrical signal, having its
original frequency, amplitude and linearity. No modulator/demodulator is needed because the signal is
transmitted optically all the way. Fig 8.2 represents the optical isolation amplifier.

Optical Isolation amplifier circuit diagram:

SCHEMATICS OF ISOLATED AMPLIFIER:

ADVANTAGES OF OF ISOLATION TECHNIQUES ARE:

1) All three types are in common use, though the transformer isolation amplifier is more popular.
2) Opto-coupled amplifier uses a minimum number of components and is cost effective, followed by the transformer
coupled amplifier. The capacitor coupled amplifier is the most expensive.
3) Opto-isolated amplifiers offer the lowest isolation voltage (800 V continuous) between input and output;
transformer coupled 1200 V and Capacitance coupled 2200 V. Isolation resistance levels are of the order of 1010,
1012 and 1012 ohms for transformer coupled, opto-coupled and capacitance coupled amplifiers respectively. Gain
stability and linearity are best for capacitance coupled versions— 0.005%, and on par for the transformer and opto-
coupled amplifier—0.02%. Electrical isolation is the most commonly used technique to ensure patient protection
against electrical hazards. Instruments such as electrocardiographs, pressure monitors, pressure transducers,
pacemakers and others have been designed to electrically separate the portion of the circuit to which the patient is
connected from the portion of the circuit connected to the ac power line and ground
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

Applications of optical isolation amplifier

Industrial process control

Data acquisition

Interface element

Biomedical measurements

Patient monitoring

Test equipment

Current shunt measurement

Ground-loop elimination

RESULT:
Thus the importance of optical Isolation amplifier and application of optical isolation amplifiers in biomedical
field is studied.
 EX. NO:09 DESIGN A MULTIPLEXER AND DEMULTIPLEXER FOR
ANY TWO BIOSIGNALS.

AIM:
To design a Multiplexer and Demultiplexer for any two bio signals using suitable MUX/DEMUX IC.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Apparatus required
S.No Range Quantity

1 74HC157 - 1
ECG stimulator/
2 acquisition kit - 1

EMG acquisition kit

3 - 1

4 DSO - 2
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires - Required
7 RPS (0-15)V DC

THEORY:

IC description:

The ’HC157, ’HCT157, ’HC158, and ’HCT158 are quad 2input multiplexers which select four
bits of data from two sources under the control of a common Select input (S). The Enable input (E) is
active Low. When (E) is High, all of the outputs in the 158, the inverting type, (1Y-4Y) are forced High
and in the 157, the noninverting type, all of the outputs (1Y-4Y) are forced Low, regardless of all other
input conditions.

MUX/DEMUX (pin diagram )

PROCEDURE:

1. Constructed the circuit using the circuit diagram.

2. Connect any two bio signals (from bio signal stimulator) to the input of MUX/DEMUX IC electrode as
per the circuit setup.
3. Observe the output of the MUX/DEMUX Circuit using the DSO.
4. After the acquisition of good waveforms, freeze and store the waveform.
5. Store the waveforms for future reference using Pen drive.
6. Remove the connections and turnoff the simulator properly
OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT:
Thus design of the Multiplexer and Demultiplexer for any two bio signals using suitable MUX/DEMUX IC is
done and the observation is noted.
 EX. NO:10 MEASUREMENT OF PULSE RATE USING
PHOTOTRANSDUCER.
AIM:

To perform the measurement of pulse-rate using photo transducer in the laboratory by using patient
monitoring system.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. Patient monitoring Main Unit 1
2. Power cable 1
3. SPO2 Probe 1
4. Grounding wire 1

THEORY:

The objective of patient monitoring is to have a quantitative assessment of the important physiological
variables of the patients during critical periods of their biological functions. For diagnostic and research
purposes, it is necessary to know their actual value or trend of change. Patient monitoring systems are used for
measuring continuously or at regular intervals, automatically, the values of the patient’s important
physiological parameters. There are several categories of patients who may need continuous monitoring or
intensive care. Critically ill patients recovering from surgery, heart attack or serious illness, are often placed in
special units, generally known as intensive care units, where their vital signs can be watched constantly by the
use of electronic instruments. The long- term objective of patient monitoring is generally to decrease mortality
and morbidity by: (i) organizing and displaying information in a form meaningful for improved patient care,
(ii) correlating multiple parameters for clear demonstration of clinical problems, (iii) processing the data to set
alarms on the development of abnormal conditions, (iv) providing information, based on automated data,
regarding therapy and (v) ensuring better care with fewer staff members. During a surgical operation, the
patient is deprived of several natural reaction mechanisms, which normally restore abnormalities in his
physical condition or alert other people.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MODERN BEDSIDE MONITOR:
Physiological signals from the patient are acquired by transducers. These transducers convert the
appropriate physiological signal into an electrical signal that is then amplified and conditioned (usually
an analog filter of some sort) and then present the signal to an Analog to Digital converter (ADC) . The
ADC sends the data to a microprocessor-based signal processor which extracts features such as heart
rate and blood pressure. After processing, the physiological signals are displayed on a display device
and usually sent to a centralized ICU display system and frequently to a electronic patient record.

VITAL PARAMETERS MEASURED USING PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM:

Various Biological parameters with its general values

Photo Transducer(Spo2 Probe)
 Spo2 Wave form which represents the Cardiac Function

OXYGEN SATURATION (Spo2):

This number measures how much oxygen is in your blood, on a scale up to 100. The number is
normally 95 or higher, and anything below 90 means your body may not be getting enough oxygen.

Pulse oximeter:

Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells when moving through the lungs. It is transported
throughout the body as arterial blood. A pulse oximeter uses two frequencies of light (red and infrared) to
determine the percentage (%) of hemoglobin in the blood that is saturated with oxygen. The percentage is
called blood oxygen saturation, or SpO2. A pulse oximeter also measures and displays the pulse rate at the
same time it measures the SpO2 level.
 Monitoring blood oxygen saturation:

Oxygen in the atmosphere is brought into the lungs by breathing. Each lung contains nearly 300 million
alveoli which are surrounded by blood capillaries. Since alveolar walls and capillary walls are very thin,
oxygen passing into the alveoli immediately transfers into the blood capillaries. (Usually in adults, the transfer
would take about 0.25 seconds while resting.) A large proportion of the oxygen diffusing into the blood binds
to hemoglobin in the red blood cells, while a part of the

oxygen dissolves
in the blood plasma. Blood enriched with oxygen (arterial blood) flows through pulmonary veins, then into the
left atrium and left ventricle, and finally circulates throughout the body’s organs and their cells. The amount of
oxygen transported around the body is determined mainly by the degree to which hemoglobin binds to oxygen
(lung factor), hemoglobin concentration (anemic factor), and cardiac output (cardiac factor).Oxygen saturation
is an indicator of oxygen transport in the body, and indicates if sufficient oxygen is being supplied to the body,
especially to the lungs. The pulse oximeter can also measure pulse rate. The volume of blood being pumped by
the heart per minute is called the cardiac output. The frequency of pumping during one minute is called the
pulse rate. These cardiac function indicators can be determined by the pulse oximeter.

How does oxygen get into the blood?

One of the main functions of blood is to receive oxygen from the lungs and transport it into the
body’s tissues. At the same time, blood receives carbon dioxide from the tissues, and brings it back to the
lungs. The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid (blood, in this case) is proportional to the pressure (partial
pressure) of the gas. In addition, each gas has a different solubility. Only about 0.3 ml of gaseous oxygen
dissolves in 100 ml blood per mmHg (pressure). This amount is only 1/20 of carbon dioxide solubility. This
suggests that a human could not get sufficient oxygen if solubility were the only way to get oxygen in the
blood. For this reason, hemoglobin (Hb) has an important role as a carrier of oxygen. One molecule of
hemoglobin can bind to 4 molecules of oxygen, and 1 g of hemoglobin can bind to 1.39 ml of oxygen. Since
100 ml of blood contain about 15 g of hemoglobin, the hemoglobin contained in 100 ml of blood can bind to
20.4 ml of oxygen.

Oxygen saturation:

Hemoglobin bound to oxygen is called oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2). Hemoglobin not bound to
oxygen is called deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb). The oxygen saturation is the ratio of the oxygenated
hemoglobin to the hemoglobin in the blood, as defined by the following equation.
 Since each hemoglobin molecule can bind to 4 molecules of oxygen, it may bind with 1 to 4
molecules of oxygen. However, hemoglobin is stable only when bound to 4 molecules of oxygen or
when not bound to any oxygen. It is very unstable when bound to 1 to 3 molecules of oxygen.
Therefore, as shown in the above figure, hemoglobin exists in the body in the form of deoxygenated
hemoglobin (Hb) with no oxygen bound, or as oxygenated hemoglobin with 4 molecules of oxygen.
Oxygen saturation can be assessed by SaO2 or SpO2. SaO2 is oxygen saturation of arterial blood,
while SpO2 is oxygen saturation as detected by the pulse oximeter. They are called arterial blood
oxygen saturation and percutaneous oxygen saturation, respectively.

Measurement of oxygen saturation by pulse oximeter :

Hemoglobin bound to oxygen is called oxygenated hemoglobin and has a bright red color.
Hemoglobin with no oxygen bound to it is called deoxygenated hemoglobin and has a dark red
color. that is why arterial blood is bright red and venous blood is dark red. The percentage of
oxygenated hemoglobin and deoxygenated hemoglobin is determined by measuring the ratio of
infrared and red light detected by the pulse oximeter. The pulse oximeter emits red (R) and infrared
(IR) LED light that passes through the body, receives data from a photodetector, and calculates the
oxygen saturation by determining the ratio of the two waveforms. When the amount of HbO2 is
greater, the absorption of red light becomes smaller and the absorption of infrared light becomes
larger, resulting in a lower ratio of absorption Of the two wavelengths. In contrast, when the
amount of deoxygenated hemoglobin is greater, the absorption of red light becomes greater while
the absorption of infrared light becomes smaller, resulting in an increased ratio of absorption of the
two wavelengths. Thus, the pulse oximeter determines oxygen saturation by measuring the ratio of
oxygenated hemoglobin to deoxygenated hemoglobin.

Permissible levels of SpO2:

Usually, levels of SpO2 range from 96 to 99% in healthy individuals. However, when patients have
pulmonary or cardiovascular chronic diseases at the same time as a common cold or pneumonia, the level
of SpO2 may drop rapidly. SpO2 lower than 90% is defined as acute respiratory failure. When SpO2 drops
by 3 to 4% from its usual level, even if it is not less than 90%, an acute disease may be suspected. In some
patients, usual levels of SpO2 may be below 90%. Most other individuals will have fluctuations of 3 to 4%.
Depending on individual pulmonary or cardiovascular conditions, the level of SpO2 may be relatively
higher at rest, even though the level drops considerably during exercise or sleep. As with “normal” body
temperature, the level of SpO2 varies from person to person. Since pulse oximeters may produce errors,
there is no “correct” or “incorrect” result. Therefore, it is best to record the individual’s level of SpO2 over
a long period, and determine their typical range at rest and at various levels of activity so that abnormal
decreases can be detected.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the power cables with safety guidelines.

2. Charge the batteries before use and Power on the monitor.
3. Connect all the necessary patient sensors between the monitor and the patient.
4. Check the connection properly and record the parameters.
5. Note down the values and observe the variations
OBSERVATION
 HEART BEAT SPO2 RESULT
PER MINUTE LEVEL(percentage) Normal heart rate
(bpm) For an adult (60-100 bpm)
&
Normal pulse oximeter reading (95100%)
This shows the patient is healthy

RESULT: Thus, Oxygen Saturation rate (SpO2) were recorded and Heart rate also measured using Spo2 Probe
and Patient monitoring system.
 EX. NO:11 MEASUREMENT OF pH AND CONDUCTIVITY

AIM:

xiv. To measure the pH values of given unknown samples.

xv. To measure the conductivity values of given unknown samples.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1 Digital pH meter 1
2 PC type calomel electrode 1
3 Samples As required
4 Digital Conductivity meter 1
5 Tissue paper & Distilled water As required
6 Conductometric electrode 1
7 Beaker, pipette, burette, flask and glass rod 1 each

PRINCIPLE:

When one metal is brought in contact with another, a voltage difference occurs due to their
differences in electron mobility. When a metal is brought in contact with a solution of salts or
acids, a similar electric potential is caused, which has led to the invention of batteries. Similarly,
an electric potential develops when one liquid is brought in contact with another one, but a
membrane is needed to keep such liquids apart. A pH meter measures essentially the electro-
chemical potential between a known liquid inside the glass electrode (membrane) and an
unknown liquid outside. Because the thin glass bulb allows mainly the agile and small hydrogen
ions to interact with the glass, the glass electrode measures the electro-chemical potential of
hydrogen ions or the potential of hydrogen. To complete the electrical circuit, also a reference
electrode is needed.

THEORY:

pH Meter

The pH of a solution measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity relative to the ionization of
water. pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. Measuring pH
involves comparing the potential of solutions with unknown [H+] to a known reference potential.
pH meters convert the voltage ratio between a reference half-cell and a sensing half-cell to pH
values.
Based upon the Nernst equation, at 25°C, the output of a pH measuring electrode is equal to
59.16 mV per pH unit. At 7.00 pH, which is the isopotential point for a perfect electrode, the
output is 0 mV. As the solution pH increases (less acidic), the mV potential becomes more
negative. Conversely, as the solution pH decreases (more acidic), the mV potential becomes
more positive.

At 25C:

pH 0 = +414.12 mV (Acidic)

pH 4 = +177.480 mV (Acidic)

pH 7 = 0.000 mV (Neutral)

pH 9 = -119.68 mV (Basic)

pH in body fluids pH

gastric acid 0.7

lysosome 5.5

granule of chromaffin cell 5.5

Neutral H2O at 37°C 6.81

Cytosol 7.2

CSF 7.3

arterial blood plasma 7.4

mitochondrial matrix 7.5

exocrine secretions of pancreas 8.1

The voltage on the outer glass surface changes proportionally to changes in [H+]. The pH meter
detects the change in potential and determines [H+] of the unknown by the Nernst equation:

E=Er + (2.303RT/nF) log (unknown [H+]/internal [H+])

Where:

E = total potential difference (measured in mV)

Er = reference potential

R = gas constant

T = temperature in Kelvin

n = number of electrons

F = Faraday’s constant

[H+] = hydrogen ion concentration

A glass pH electrode is the heart of pH meter. A glass electrode is a type ion selective
electrode made of a doped glass membrane that is sensitive to a specific ion. A pH electrode
consists of two half-cells; an indicating electrode and a reference electrode. Most applications
today use a combination electrode with both half-cells in one body. Over 90% of pH
measurement problems are related to the improper use, storage or selection. Since pH glass
electrodes measure H+ concentration relative to their reference half-cells, they must be calibrated
periodically to ensure accurate, repeatable measurements. Although calibration against one
buffer typically ensures accurate pH readings, frequent two-buffer calibrations ensure the most
reliable results. Electrode should always be washed with deionised water and blot dried with a
paper towel. Electrode should be stored in electrode in storage solution to ensure that your
electrode glass stays hydrated.
pH Electrode – Combination type:

PROCEDURE FOR Ph METER:

1. Switch on the equipment.

2. Connect the combined electrodes through the socket provided on the rear panel.

3. Place the electrode in Buffer ―7ǁ and select pH mode in front panel using function control
knob. Using Standardise knob set the instrument to read 7 pH in the display.

4. After calibration the electrodes are rinsed and cleaned with distilled water.

5. The glass electrode is dipped in the given isotonic solution.

6. The electrodes should be rinsed and cleaned each time they are dipped into various solutions
taken in glass beakers.

7. Adjust the temperature knob and set the temperature to room temperature. Note that all the
solutions will have the same temperature.

8. Place the function control in pH mode and note the Ph value from the display for the given
solution.

9. Set the function control knob in mV and note the mV value from the display.
BACK PANEL

FRONT PANEL

SHORT PROCEDURE:

Estimation of HCL
CONTENTS
Std. NaOH vs HCL MODELGRAPH

Burette solution Std. NaOH

Pipette solution 20ml acid mixture (HCL)

Additional solution 30ml distilled water

Electrode/Cell used Conductivity cell

Instrument used Digital Conductivity meter

1. Decrease to increase of
conductance
End point
2. slow to rapid increase of
conductance
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Make sure that the electrode tip does not touch the beaker. This will lead to
breakage ofthe tip.
 Do not mix the standard ph7 and ph4 solutions with distilled water in the beaker.
Thiswill alter the solution concentration and hence the ph values will change
 Always ensure that the standby mode is selected before lifting the electrode each
timefrom the solution.
 Keep repeating the calibration with standard solutions ph7, ph4 till perfect
value isobtained.
 Do not use the electrode beyond the pH of the temperature range.
 Every solution should be prepared by distilled water.
 Permanent damage may occur if used beyond the range.
 Electrode should be cleaned every time.

MAINTENANCE

Conductivity cells should be kept immersed in water at 50 c for few hours and soaked
indistilled water for at least 2 hours before use.
No air bubble should be sticking on to the plates.

RESULT:

Thus the pH value and conductivity value are noted and tabulated for unknown

solutions.
 EX. NO:13 MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE USING
PHYGMOMANOMETER

Aim:

To conduct blood pressure measurement experiments using clinical sphygmomanometer and

record the measured values in tabulation.

Apparatus requires:

Clinical sphygmomanometer

Clinical stethoscope

Record notepad

Procedures:

Step by step Procedures

 To begin blood pressure measurement, use a properly sized blood pressure cuff. The length of the
cuff's bladder should be at least equal to 80% of the circumference of the upper arm.
 Wrap the cuff around the upper arm with the cuff's lower edge one inch above the antecubital fossa.
 Lightly press the stethoscope's bell over the brachial artery just below the cuff's edge. Some health
care workers have difficulty using the bell in the antecubital fossa, so we suggest using the bell or the
diaphragm to measure the blood pressure.
 Rapidly inflate the cuff to 180mmHg. Release air from the cuff at a moderate rate (3mm/sec).
 Listen with the stethoscope and simultaneously observe the sphygmomanometer. The first knocking
sound (Korotkoff) is the subject's systolic pressure. When the knocking sound disappears, that is the
 diastolic pressure (such as 120/80).
 Record the pressure in both arms and note the difference; also record the subject's position (supine),
which arm was used, and the cuff size (small, standard or large adult cuff).
 If the subject's pressure is elevated, measure blood pressure two additional times, waiting a few
minutes between measurements.
 A BLOOD PRESSURE OF 180/120mmHg OR MORE REQUIRES IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!

Tabulation:

Result: Thus blood pressure measurement using clinical sphygmomanometer and record the measured values
are tabulated.
EX. NO:13 MEASUREMENT AND RECORDING OF PERIPHERAL BLOOD FLOW

AIM:

To study the measurement of blood flow velocity using ultrasound Doppler blood flow monitor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

a.) Ultrasound Transducer

b.) Ultrasound Doppler Blood Flow Monitoring System
c.) DSO

THEORY:

SOUND:

Sound is a mechanical, longitudinal wave that travels in a straight line. Sound requires a medium
to travel.

Classification of sound

 Infrasound <20 Hz
 Audible sound 20 – 20 000Hz
 Ultrasound >20 000Hz
 Surgical Ultrasound 25-55 KHz
 Diagnostic Ultrasound 2-15 MHz

Ultrasound beam

The beam propagates inside the tissues as shown below. Near Zone length is the useful length for
imaging which depends on the crystal size and the probe frequency.
Transducer Construction:

Piezoelectric material

• Naturally occurring - quartz

• Synthetic – Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)

Production of Ultrasound:

• When a DC (Direct current) voltage is applied across the flat faces of the crystal disk, it
expands (or contracts). If the voltage is reversed, it contracts (or expands). The degree of
movement of the faces is proportional to the voltage.

• Similarly, when the disk is compressed, a corresponding voltage appear on the two flat
faces; if the pressure is reversed (i.e., disk is allowed to relax), the polarity of the voltage
also get reversed. The voltage produced is proportional to the pressure. This effect is
known as Piezo electric effect.

• So, Piezo electric effect is reversible. In other words, the same crystal can transmit
as well as receive the ultrasound beam or pulses.

Ultrasound Production – Piezoelectric effect:

• The thickness of the crystal determines the frequency of the scan-head. Thus low
frequencies are used where greater penetration is required.

Low Frequency 3 MHz High Frequency 10 MHz

Doppler Effect:

The Doppler Effect is the change in the observed frequency due to the relative motion between
the source of sound and the observer or scatterer (RBCs). The effect was first described by
Christian Doppler in 1843.

Doppler shift (dF) = Received frequency – Actual frequency

(T2 –T1) phase shift with known beam / flow angle can calculate flow velocity.
As the angle of insonation increases, the Doppler shift decreases for a particular flow. If the
angle is 900, there will be no Doppler shift. So, the flow could not be detected. So, the angle
should be as small as possible.

Effect of the Doppler angle in the sonogram: (A) higher-frequency Doppler signal is obtained
if the beam is aligned more to the direction of flow. In the diagram, beam (A) is more aligned
than (B) and produces higher-frequency Doppler signals. The beam/flow angle at (C) is almost
90° and there is a very poor Doppler signal. The flow at (D) is away from the beam and there is a
negative signal.
DIFFERENT MODES IN ULTRASOUND:

A-mode (A=amplitude)

The amplitude of reflected ultrasound is displayed on an oscilloscope screen. It is just of

historical importance. The A-mode is now used only in ophthalmology.

M-mode (M=motion)

It reflects a motion of the heart structures over time. Nowadays, the integration of 2D and M-
mode images is possible. Due to its excellent temporal resolution (high sampling rate), M-mode
is extremely valuable for accurate evaluation of rapid movements.

B-mode (B=brightness) (2D in echocardiography)

This is now the essential imaging modality in the diagnostic ultrasound. An amplitude of the
reflected ultrasound signals is converted into a gray scale image. Owing to the wide gray scale
(most of the ultrasound machines use 256 shades of gray) even very small differences in
echogenicity are possible to visualize.

D-mode (D=Doppler)

This imaging mode is based on the Doppler effect, ie. Change in frequency (Doppler shift)
caused by the reciprocal movement of the sound generator and the observer. Diagnostic
ultrasound uses the change in frequency of ultrasound signal backscattered from red blood cells.
The frequency of the reflected ultrasound wave increases or decreases according to the direction
of blood flow in relation to the transducer.

USAGE OF ULTRASOUND IN MEDICAL FIELD:

The use of Ultrasonic’s in the field of medicine had nonetheless started initially with its
applications in therapy rather than diagnosis, utilising its heating.

To obtain images of the pregnant or nonpregnant pelvis, frequencies of 2 to 10 million Hertz (2

to 10 megahertz [MHz]) are typically required. Real-time imaging is the most common
sonographic technique used in obstetrics and gynaecology.
An echocardiogram uses sound waves called ultrasound to look at the size, shape, and motion of
the heart.

A high-resolution 7.5- 10-MHz or higher linear array ultrasound transducer is used to perform an
ocular examination.
BLOOD FLOW VELOCITY
FRONT PANEL

BACK PANEL

DEVICE LAYOUT:

Front Panel

Front panel consist of sensor connector, gain controller knob, headphone connector, output
connector, speaker and spectrum.

1. Sensor connector: The sensor connector is used as input, 2MHz Doppler (Blood flow sensor)
is connected here.

2. Gain controller knob: This gain controller knob is used to minimize or maximize the sound of
blood flow.

3. Headphone connector: The headphone connector is used to connect headphone to hear the
sound of flowing blood. The speaker and headphone can’t be used together.

4. Output banana pins: The output banana pins are used to see the blood flow on CRO through
CRO probe.

5. Spectrum: Spectrum Led’s are divided into low, medium and high columns.
 Back panel

5. Input supply socket: AC socket is for connecting 230V AC supply through mains cable
with a fuse of 500mA.

6. ON / OFF switch: A switch is provided on the front panel to switch ON / switch OFF the
instrument. Instrument is switched ON in the switch position marked ON and otherwise it is
switched OFF.
Ultrasound Transducer

PROCEDURE:

 Switch ON the system.

 Connect 8MHz transducer to sensor connector.

 Add some water drops on the tip of the sensor for better contact with body and to
increase sensibility.

 Place the tip of the sensor on one of the blood vessel.

 Listen to the blood flow using the headphone or from the built in speaker.

 Connect the output from the BNC Connector to the DSO.

 Determine the Doppler shift and calculate the blood flow.

TABULATION

S.No Angle of Frequency Doppler shift Wave form

Inclination frequency

RESULT:

The blood flow velocity using ultrasound transducer is measured.

 EX. NO:13 DESIGN A PCB LAYOUT FOR AY BIOAMPLIFIER USING SUITABLE
SOFTWARE TOOL.

AIM:

To design a PCB layout for bio-amplifier using suitable software tool.

APPARATUS REQUIREMENT:

Personal Computer with Proteus Software installed

THEORY:
The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic design automation.
The software is used mainly by electronic design engineers and technicians to create schematics and
electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards.
The Proteus Design Suite is a Windows application for schematic capture, simulation, and PCB
(Printed Circuit Board) layout design. It can be purchased in many configurations, depending on the size of
designs being produced and the requirements for microcontroller simulation. All PCB Design products include
an auto-router and basic mixed mode SPICE simulation capabilities.

This simulation software has many product modules:

Schematic Capture
Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the simulation of designs and as the
design phase of a PCB layout project. It is therefore a core component and is included with all product
configurations.

PCB Design
The PCB Layout module is automatically given connectivity information in the form of a netlist from
the schematic capture module. It applies this information, together with the user specified design rules and
various design automation tools, to assist with error free board design. PCB's of up to 16 copper layers can be
produced with design size limited by product configuration.

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: open proteus software from your PC desktop.
Step 2: open new project from start page

Step 3: Create project name and its path from the pop-up dialogue box
Step 4:Select the PCB layout options

Step 5:Select the PCB layout sketch up settings

Step 6: Select PCB drill pair option

Step 7: Preview the PCB board preview

Step 8: select project wizard framework

Step 9:Verify the New project summary

Step 10: now the work space will be opened ,and start the project with selecting the components which we using to
draw the schematic of required circuit.

Step 11: Once we selected the components from the library verify the components.
Step 12: Draw the proper schematic diagram using the model circuit which is available in the lab manual.

Step 13: Now open the PCB work space and covert the same circuit in this PCB workspace also and take printout
for further process.

RESULT:
Thus, the design of a PCB layout for bio-amplifier using suitable software tool such as Proteus software has been
done.