Week-1, Lecture-2,3 Stress-Strain Relationship

Shabina Khanam
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering

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 Stress
The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain
cross-sectional area of an object. From the perspective of loading, stress is the applied
force or system of forces that tends to deform a body.

Stress is the internal distribution of forces within a body. The stress distribution may
or may not be uniform, depending on the nature of the loading condition. For
example, a bar loaded in pure tension will essentially have a uniform tensile stress
distribution. However, a bar loaded in bending will have a stress distribution that
changes with distance perpendicular to the normal axis.
F
The force acting per unit area is defined as stress 
A
 Types of Stress
Basically three different types of stresses can be
identified.
Tensile Stress occurs when a material is subjected to
pulling or stretching force.
Compressive Stress is the stress that, when applied,
acts towards the center of that material. When a
material is subjected to compressive stress, then this
material is under compression. Usually, compressive
stress applied to bars, columns, etc. leads to
shortening.
Shear Stress is a stress state in which the shape of a
material tends to change (usually by “sliding” forces)
without particular volume change.
 Compressive Stress

A prime example of this type of stress

is the insoles of your shoes. When
you run or exercise, the pounding of
your feet inside of your shoes will
compact all of the material that is in
there. Eventually, it will stop giving
you the cushiony response that you
expected and wanted when you
bought these shoes. The more that
you run or the more that you weigh,
the faster this will happen.

http://www.sorbothane.com/blog/compressive-stress/#sthash.OXZITz0F.dpuf
 Strain
Normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume and tangential
stress produces change in shape of the body. The ratio of change produced in
the dimensions of a body by a system of forces, in equilibrium, to its original
dimensions is called strain.

When a material is stretched, the change in length and the strain are
positive. When it is compressed, the change in length and strain are
negative.
This conforms with the signs of the stresses which would accompany
these strains, tensile stresses being positive and compressive stresses
negative.
 Longitudinal Strain

 It is the ratio of the change in length of a body to the original length of the body. If
L is the original length of a wire or a rod and the final length of the wire or the rod
is L+ΔL under the action of a normal stress.

 If the length increases due to tensile stress, the corresponding strain is called tensile
strain. If the length decreases due to compressive stress, the strain is
called compressive strain.
 Volume Strain
 It is the ratio of the change in volume of a body to its original
volume. If V is the original volume of a body and V +ΔV is the volume of
the body under the action of a normal stress.
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Induced Stresses
Elastic deformation is induced by a load such that when the load is
removed, the part resumes its original shape. Under service
conditions various parts of the equipment will be subjected to a
variety of induced stresses. Various types of stresses are induced,
depending upon the loading condition, and are classified as:
tensile, compressive, shear, bending and torsion.
Materials undergo strain when they are subjected to stress.
 Stress-Strain Relationship

Typical stress-strain curves

for a few selected materials
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Suppose a material is subject to a uniaxial tensile load. It will deform in a
manner characteristic of the material. Examples of possible behaviour is
linear where materials obey the behaviour, linear elastic.

This means that stresses and strains are

assumed to be related by Hooke’s Law. In its
simplest form, Hooke’s Law can be stated as:
where the constant is known as an elastic
modulus or simply a modulus.

Therefore, E

For normal stress along the x direction only
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Poisson’s Ratio
When a specified segment of metal is loaded in one direction only, with
resulting induced stress and corresponding strain, strain is also induced in
a direction or directions at right angles to the induced stress.

Suppose the stress is tensile, and the specimen of

material is stretched along x. Then, it will get
thinner across the direction of stretching, in the y
and z directions,
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Poisson’s Ratio
Experiments have proved that such axial elongation is related to the corresponding
lateral contraction. The ratio of these two deformations is a constant within the
elastic limit and is known as Poisson’s ratio. The ratio is expressed as

c
 Where,
c = unit lateral contraction
e e = unit axial elongation

This relationship may be used to calculate

the lateral expansion resulting from axial
compression of a material.
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Poisson’s Ratio

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 Stress-Strain Relationship
Biaxial stress
When a rectangular block of some material is subjected to
tensile stresses in two perpendicular directions, the
resultant elongation in one direction will depend not only
upon the tensile stress in this direction but also upon the
stress in the perpendicular direction.

x
If one refers to one direction as x and other is y, the unit
1 
elongation in x axis due to tensile stress, x, will be E

The tensile stress in y direction, y, will produce an y

elongation, 2, in y direction and a lateral 2 
contraction, c, in x direction. E
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Biaxial stress
The accompanying contraction, c, in x direction
will be equal to
y
 c   e  c   2 c  
E
If both stresses, x and y, are acting simultaneously, the net unit elongation, x,
in x direction will be
x y
 x  1   c x  
E E
y x
The corresponding net unit elongation, y, in y y  
direction will be E E
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Biaxial stress
The expressions of stresses as function of 1 and 2 are

x 
 x   y E
y 
 y   x E
1  2 1 2
Tri-axial stress
If three tensile stresses, x, y and z, are acting simultaneously, the net unit
elongation, x, in x direction will be
 x   x    y   z 
1
E
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Tri-axial stress
The corresponding net unit elongation, 2, in y direction
will be

 y   y    z   x 
1
E
The net unit elongation, 3, in z direction will be

 z   z    x   y 
1
E
All these equations are valid for compressive effects also. It is only necessary to
assign positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses, and, conversely,
negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Example – 1
Stresses are to be determined at the inside corner of an opening in a
cylindrical shell by applying strain gauges at the location. The cylindrical
shell is of carbon steel with E = 20 x 109 N/m2 and µ= 0.3. The strain
readings from the three gauges are εx = +400 x 10-6, εy = +300 x 10-6, εz =
+230 x 10-6. Find

a) The stresses in the three directions at the opening?

b) The stresses in the two directions of the cylindrical shell with σz = 0?
 Stress-Strain Relationship
Solution of Example – 1 a) The stresses in the three directions at the
opening?

x 
1
( x   ( y   z )) E = 20 × 109 N/m2, μ = 0.3,  x = 400 × 10-6
E
 y = 300 × 10-6 z = 230 × 10-6
1
y  ( y   ( z   x ))
E 8 × 106 =  x  0.3 y  0.3 z
1
 z  ( z   ( x   y )) 6 × 106 =  0.3 x   y  0.3 z
E
4.6 × 106 =  0.3 x  0.3 y   z

x = 1.158 × 107 N/m2 y = 1.004 × 107 N/m2  z = 6.946 × 106 N/m2

 Stress-Strain Relationship
Solution of Example – 1 b) The stresses in the two directions of the
cylindrical shell with σz = 0?

x 
 x  y E
y 
 y  x E
1  2
1  2

x 
400 10 6

 0.3  300  10 6 20  109
= 1.077 × 107 N/m2
1  0 .3  0 .3

y 
300 10 6

 0.3  400  10 6 20  109
= 0.923 × 107 N/m2
1  0 .3  0 .3
Materials of constructions – Mechanical Properties
Properties of all materials arise essentially from their structure, which varies
from simple to complex crystalline bodies according to the type of bonds
present, the relative sizes of atoms and their geometrical arrangement in the
crystal. Some of the important mechanical properties are:

Strength
Strength represents the capacity of the material to withstand external
forces. Depending on the nature of the force strength can be classified as
tensile, compressive, shear and impact. External forces are resisted by the
material and, therefore, induce stresses and deformations.
Materials of constructions – Mechanical Properties
Stiffness and rigidity
It is a measure of the ability of the material to resist deformation. Modulus of rigidity is
used to express it.

Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of the material to regain its original shape as soon as load is
removed. In the design of most of the components, permanent deformations are
generally avoided and the material is utilized with a view to retaining its elasticity.

Ductility
It is a measure of the deformability of the material, determined by the percentage of
elongation or reduction of area.
Materials of constructions – Mechanical Properties
Toughness It is the ability of the material to absorb energy in deformation
in the plastic range and is measured by finding out the total
area of stress-strain curve.

It represents the surface characteristics of a material and is

Hardness
assessable by the resistance it offers to scratching.

It is a slow and progressive deformation of a material with

Creep
time under constant stress.
Materials of constructions – Mechanical Properties
Proportional limit
Figure shows a stress-strain graph of an elastic
material. Point ‘a’ on the graph indicates the greatest
stress up to which the Hooke’s law of proportionality
of stress of strain is observed. This point is known as
the proportional limit.

Elastic limit
It is maximum stress indicated by point ‘b’, which the
material can withstand without a permanent
deformation. It is generally very close to the
proportional limit.
Materials of constructions – Mechanical Properties
Yield stress
It is the stress at which the resistance of the molecules
of the material begins to break down rapidly and a
sudden large increase in strain occurs without an
increase in stress. This is indicated by point ‘c’ in
figure.
Ultimate stress
It is the greatest stress at which the failure of the
material takes place. The portion of the stress-strain
curve between the yield stress ‘c’ and ultimate stress
‘d’ in figure is termed as plastic range. Hooke’s law is
not applicable to this range and the deformation
produced is permanent.
 Membrane Stresses
For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are
sub-divided into two classes depending on the ratio of the wall
thickness to vessel diameter: thin-walled vessels, with a
thickness ratio of less than 1 : 10; and thick-walled above this
ratio.
The walls of thin vessels can be considered to be
“membranes”; supporting loads without significant bending or
shear stresses; similar to the walls of a balloon.
 Membrane stresses on cylindrical shell
Let a cylindrical vessel of length, L, internal diameter, Di, and
thickness, t, is subjected to an internal pressure, p. This will
cause hoop stress in the tangential direction and longitudinal
stress in the axial direction. The force, F, (causes hoop stress,
1) which is balancing radial forces acting on shell surface, can
be found by force balance.
Taking sum of vertical component of all forces acting on each
half of the shell gives
 /2
Di

pLDi
2F  2 pL sin  d  pLDi F
0
2 2
The hoop stress in shell can be obtained as
F pLDi pDi These expressions are valid for
1   
A 2tL 2t thin wall vessel where t/Di 0.1

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 Membrane stresses on cylindrical shell
The longitudinal stress, 2, can predicted by equating
total pressure against the end of the cylinder to the
longitudinal forces acting on the cylinder as:

Di2
Dt 2  p
4
pDi2
2  Where, D = Di + t
4tD
2

These expressions are valid for

thin wall vessel where t/Di 0.1

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 Worked Examples
Example – 2
A thin cylindrical shell having 3m inner diameter and 12m length is being
operated at 3MN/m2 (g) pressure. Compute the thickness of shell if allowable
stress of material is 200MN/m2.

Solution of Example – 2
t =(1.0533)/(2200)
Di = 3 m
= 0.0236 m
Length = 12 m
P= 3 MN/m2 D=Di+t
t =(1.05333)/(4200(3+t))
= 200 MN/m2 = 0.011765 m
Final thickness = 0.0236 m

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 References
1 I.S.:2825-1969, “Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels”, 1969.
2 Brownell L. E. and Young H. E., “Process Equipment Design”, John Wiley, 2004.
3 Bhattacharya B. C., “Introduction of Chemical Equipment Design”, CBS Publisher, 2003.
4 Moss D. R., ”Pressure Vessel Design Manual”, 3rd Ed., Gulf, 2004.
5 Mahajani V.V. and Umarji S.B., “Joshi's Process Equipment Design” Laxmi Publications
Pvt. Ltd. 2016.
 Summary of the video
 Stress and strain are defined along with types of each.
 Poisson’s ratio of a material is defined.
 Stress-strain relationships for biaxial as well as tri-axial systems
are discussed.
 Mechanical properties of materials are discussed.
 Membrane stresses are defined.
 Expressions of stresses for cylindrical shell are derived.

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Thank You!

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