IGNOU

MMPC-15

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Research Methodology for Management Decisions

Q1) What are the functions and goals of research design? Discuss different types
of research designs.

A) The functions of a research design

The definition of the research design explains the functions of a research design. A
research design is a logical procedural plan that the researcher takes on to get answers to
the research questions. The aim in the selection and building a research design is to ensure
the validity, reliability, and accuracy of the research will stay intact. It includes how data
is to be collected, what will be the sample size, how sampling will be done and how data
is to be analyzed. The details regarding sampling, data collection, and data analysis are
mentioned in detail in the research design so as to be very clear about each step of the
research study.

Basically, every research design has two main functions;

To develop an operational plan to undertake various steps of the research

To ensure validity, reliability, and authenticity in each step of the research.

Operational plan
The operational plan of the research is an overall, detailed answer to the steps that are
taken in the research in order to get answers to the research question. This plan helps
the researcher and the readers get to know about the sampling process, data collection,
data analysis, and interpretation. It is necessary that you have a practical, workable
procedural plan that also ensures research validity and authenticity. The researcher,
his/her research supervisor, and in some cases a statistician can be asked for help to
develop a research design. The research design constitutes the following.

Sampling and sampling technique

Sampling size and sampling technique both need to be mentioned in the operational
plan of the research design. Most of the research have a materials and methods chapter
and the researcher precisely explains about the sampling procedure in that chapter.

Type of data to be collected

Data can be primary or secondary and some research needs a combination of both of
them. The researcher should explicitly describe the type of data to be collected as the
person who is appointed to collect data will need this information.

Data collection technique/s

 Multiple techniques can be used in one research, on the other hand, the researcher
decides to use a single technique. It depends on the research problem and the objectives
that what technique the researcher decides to use.

Data analysis technique/s

The researcher at this point already knows that the data is quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data needs a different approach for analysis while qualitative data needs
completely different approach. The researcher needs to explain what variables need to
be analyzed, whether a comparison between variables is to be studied or not.

Data coding and interpretation technique/s

The researcher should decide at this stage what codes need to be assigned and how to
quantify and analyze raw data through the process of coding.

Main Goals of Research Design

1. The main goal of research design is for a researcher to make sure that the conclusions
they’ve come to are justified. It means that the research has to confirm or deny the
hypothesis.

2. Another purpose of research design is to broaden the researcher’s understanding of the

topic, and to make them more conscious about various places, groups, and settings.

3. Finally, research design allows the researcher to achieve an accurate understanding of

the topic they are working on, and be able to explain the topic to others.

Examples of Research Design

One should choose the type of research design corresponding to the particular purpose
of their research. Here are some examples to choose from when you’re doing research.
General Structure and Writing Style
The chosen type should help the researcher work on the hypothesis accurately; while
collecting data, you have to choose specific evidence, which will show you the
differences between the variables. Before conducting research, think about what
information you will need and how you're going to use it. Otherwise, you can get lost.
Action Research
When you’ve developed an understanding of the problem, and you’ve begun planning
an interventional strategy, action research design helps to bring the deviation to the
surface. You make an observation and bookmark the deviation. Then you commit an
action, and compare the outcome of having committed the action with the outcome of
not having committed the action.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which
model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be
broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

 Qualitative research

It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on

mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to
a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that
conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.

 Quantitative research

It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential.
Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business decisions.
Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization.
Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective
when making decisions about the business’s future.

Q2) Non-Probability Sampling Methods

A) What is non-probability sampling?

Definition: Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the

researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather
than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This sampling method depends
heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by observation, and
researchers use it widely for qualitative research.

Non-probability sampling is a method in which not all population members have an

equal chance of participating in the study, unlike probability sampling. Each member of
the population has a known chance of being selected. Non-probability sampling is most
useful for exploratory studies like a pilot survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample
compared to pre-determined sample size). Researchers use this method in studies
where it is impossible to draw random probability sampling due to time or cost
considerations.

Types of non-probability sampling

  Convenience sampling:

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are

selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to the
researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because they are easy to recruit, and
the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the entire
population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in
some research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire
population. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience sampling,
which is the most common non-probability sampling method, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.

 Consecutive sampling:

This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling, with a

slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of a sample,
conducts research over a period, analyzes the results, and then moves on to another
subject or group if needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher a
chance to work with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results
that have vital insights.

 Quota sampling:

Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and
female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization, also
known as the population. To understand better about a population, the researcher will
need only a sample, not the entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in
particular strata within the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing
the population into strata or groups.

 Judgmental or Purposive sampling:

In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely on the
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those
people who they deem fit to participate in the research study. Judgmental or purposive
sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the downside to this sampling
technique is that the preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results.
Thus, this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.

 Snowball sampling:

Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available.
This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers find
suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a
considerably good size sample.
Non-probability sampling examples

Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the subject
better.

1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known

to the researcher. Researchers can send the survey to students belonging to a
particular school, college, or university, and act as a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically,
the sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males and females.
Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since this is unlikely,
the researcher selects the groups or strata using quota sampling.
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from
subjects to refer to other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a
subjective sample to carry out the study.

Q3) Briefly explain the role of research in managerial planning and decisions.

A) Role of Business Research in Decision Making Process

One of the best methods of collecting information is carrying out research. When
research is carried out explicitly for the purpose of running businesses, it is termed as
“business research”. Business research, which is also commonly known as market
research, is a process by which business relevant information is collected so as to
ensure that the business operations are run intelligently. With the help of business
research, existing businesses are able to keep in touch with the ever-changing consumer
demands and expectations and adapt accordingly. Typically, business research is aimed
at gaining information that is likely to make the business more successful. While
running a business, there may arise some situations which may seem difficult and
management face problems as to find a solution to them. In such cases, business
research can be used to making confident decisions. Business research can help the
management to answer questions regarding issues varying from understanding
industry trends, determining which products or services to be offered and deliver to the
market, or to better understand the ways to meet the demands of target customer
segment and satisfy them so as the ensure brand loyalty. In one way or the other,
business research ensures that an informed decision is made so that it can be fruitful.

Business Research: Steps in Decision Making

Role of business research in management decision making process is as follows;

Assess Current Business: The current business environment of the company provides
the platform the development and growth of the company. So it is of great importance
to assess the current business situation. There might be some problems in the existing
business model that have been overlooked till now, but need to be addressed in order to
grow. Identifying the problem at the right time and finding a solution to the same
quickly and efficiently might give an advantage by improving the bottom line.

Create Research Methods: On the basis of the problems that evolve as a result of
assessing the current business situation, research methods will be chosen. These
research methods could include collection of demographic data about the target market
of the new product or service intended to be sold, or to conduct consumer surveys,
filling up of questionnaires or through focus groups and ask for reviews on sample
products which could be either given away freely with other products.

Determine an Action Plan: Having collected information about the possible courses of
actions that can be taken, the management should focus on creating a plan that will
effectively execute the change. This plan should be made keeping in mind the long term
as well as the short term plans of the organization.

The key to responsive decisions is in connecting with the available information by

capturing business events which are happening across the worlds and are related to
your business, as well as by constantly researching the market about the scope for
growth and the possible courses of action.

Business Research: Benefits & Methods

Business research can be taken up in various methods mainly depending upon the type
of the information that is required. However, other factors that also play an important
role in the research method to be chosen include the size of the company, the budget
allocated, the time constraints etc. Business research is primarily focused on performing
market research activities. By doing so, businesses are successfully able to define an
optimal marketing mix for their products or services. They can identify potential
markets, their needs and wants, what measures can be taken to meet those needs and
wants, their distribution channels and ways of making the products and services most
accessible to customers and clients. With the help of research, they can identify the
potential competitor threats, what the competitors are doing and what benefit the
competitors may reap as a result of that. It also helps them to predict the possible best
price for their product or service based on the market conditions, situations and the
competitor pricing.

Business research focusing on the customer may involve finding out about the
customers’ feelings and experiences after using a product or service. The methods that
can be used for the purpose include questionnaires, interviews or seminars, etc.
Researching public data can provide financial statistics as well as educational
information in regards to customer demographics and product usage.

One of the most significant trends in the current business scenario, across all industries,
is mergers and acquisition. Mergers and acquisition decisions are very sensitive ones as
one step taken in the wrong direction can not only result in huge financial losses but
also affect the company’s goodwill. It is only with the aid of business research, an
organization can decide which company to merge with based on their vision and
mission, how to value them, and do they have the necessary resources available to
garner some benefits from the merger.

Business Research helps businesses to understand the possible opportunities and

threats that lay ahead. Opportunities help your organization to grow & prosper, &
threats endanger your position. Using business researches can a business not only find
possibly opportunities but also assess them and choose the most viable option.

Research can also be used for making decisions which have a financial dependability as
to judge if the chosen action would be cost beneficial or not. A cost benefit analysis can
be made on the basis of data collected from business research and an informed decision
can thus be made.

As discussed above, business research answers a lot of questions about businesses and
helps a great deal in making decisions. The two most important types of data that help
in the information collection process, and thereby the decision making process, are the
primary data and the secondary data. Primary data is the data which is collected
specifically for the problem at hand, while secondary data is the data that is collected
from researches done by other individuals, groups or institutions, including government
agencies, trade associations or even other businesses, for generic purposes.

Primary data, if on one hand, is important because it is unmodified information and is

most relevant to the research, then on the other hand, secondary data is important
information that can show a clearer picture of the roads that lay ahead and to foresee
the possible outcomes of any action taken. It also paves the pathway for conducting
research for the collection of primary data.

Business Research, Decision Making and Information Technology

As discussed earlier, collection of relevant information is only the beginning of

considering the role of business research in efficient decision making. After collecting
the information, it is also necessary that the collected information should also be
properly analyzed, and so, undoubtedly, Information Technology (IT) comes into the
picture. Since 1970s, use of Decision Support Systems (DSS) has been greatly
acknowledged by various businesses, traders, organizations as well as academicians.
DSSs are knowledge based systems which help the businesses by making decisions in
terms of management (both financial and strategy formulation decisions), operations,
and planning levels. They help the management in keeping pace with the changing
needs and wants of the customers.

DSSs are deployed by businesses in order to provide recent, relevant, and complete
information in an easily understandable manner. They are interactive systems which
aid in analyzing data, extract usable and deployable information. This raw data, as
mentioned earlier could come from either primary research or secondary data available
from multiple resources. DSSs also make use of company documents, company policies,
strategies, and business models to aid decision making. DSSs have a number of benefits
including:

They help in improving personal effectiveness.

They aid quick & informed decision making.

They support decisions by finding evidences of benefits reaped.

They help the business growth by ensuring better organizational control.

They drive the thirst for information in the decision maker, focusing on the learning or
training of the individual.

They help to optimize the problem solving approach in an organization by revealing

multiple pathways to the solution of the problem.

They also provide opportunities for improved interpersonal communication.

They help to create a competitive advantage.

DSSs also help in automation of managerial processes.

Recently, the information environment that surrounds today’s business activities and
decisions is getting ever more complex. This is mainly due to the fact that with the
advancements in IT, the relevant information available to the business management is
growing exponentially by leaps and bounds. With ever increasing number of
information releasing sources and constantly multiplying technologies, it is no surprise
to see the huge importance of IT in aiding business research and hence, decision making
process by properly accessing and handling data & information. IT helps by extracting
and ensuring relevant information flows to the concerned individuals and
simultaneously providing reliable and flexible support. Also, during the process of
decision making in order to solve an existing problem, it is also possible to extract
valuable information about the market, the business, the competitor etc for possible
future situations, such as competitor threats, or product demand and supply. Hence it
helps in generating new knowledge & experience for the participants involved, and in
the case of right decision increasing confidence in the future actions.

Q4) Discuss the role of research in managing businesses.

A) Role of Research in Business

Making the right decision is an ideal practice in any business whenever the organization
encounters a problem. A good organization primarily conducts research to resolve the
critical problems surrounding their business such as competition, customer satisfaction,
product innovation, customer complaints, and new government policies affecting the
industry.

Decision making process requires systematic and organized efforts to investigate a

specific problem in a business setting. The first step in understanding the problem is to
identify specifically the main issue that requires further investigation. The next steps
are to identify factors associated with the problem, gather the relevant information,
analyze data, interpret output and provide the recommendation to the manager for his
decision-making. It simply means that the decision making process comprises a series of
steps designed and executed with the goal of getting the best solution to the underlying
problem faced by the organization.

Actually, the entire process in which the managers attempt to solve their problem is the
steps in conducting a research project. The research definition in the previous section
suggests that research involved the process of inquiry, investigation, examination, and
experimentation that need to be conducted systematically, diligently, critically,
objectively and in a logical order. Thus, the results of research would be the findings,
which would help the managers to deal with the real situation. Therefore, we can define
business research as an organized, systematic inquiry concerning the problem, and
undertaken with the purpose of finding the best solution to a problem. In addition, the
research findings should be able to clarify all ambiguities surrounding the problem. In
research the ambiguities surrounding the problem are addressed in term of research
questions.

Q5) The problem definition stage is perhaps more critical in the research process
than the problem solution stage.” Discuss the statement.

A) The problem definition stage is probably the most important stage in the research
process because it involves several interrelated steps. One it ascertains the decision
maker's objectives. That is, the purpose for conducting the research and what the
decision maker hopes to accomplish. Also, it narrows broad and vague ideas into
manageable specific difficulties to to solved. In other words, it helps decision makers
zoom in on the right questions to be answered. Two it gives background analysis of the
problem in view. That is, it points to where the problem is located, how it fits with
current developments, and what the current environment is, which is crucial when
working out whether a solution will actually work or not. Three it isolates and identifies
the problem rather than the symptoms. That is, it gets to the center of the problem to be
solved so that possible solutions can be generated.
In essence, the problem definition stage allows decision makers to identify the specific
problem to be solved so they can search for alternative solutions, which as a result, help
them select the best alternative that eventually decide the course of action.

Q6) Methods of data collection

A) What is Data Collection?

In Statistics, data collection is a process of gathering information from all the relevant
sources to find a solution to the research problem. It helps to evaluate the outcome of
the problem. The data collection methods allow a person to conclude an answer to the
relevant question. Most of the organizations use data collection methods to make
assumptions about future probabilities and trends. Once the data is collected, it is
necessary to undergo the data organization process.
The main sources of the data collections methods are “Data”. Data can be classified into
two types, namely primary data and secondary data. The primary importance of data
collection in any research or business process is that it helps to determine many
important things about the company, particularly the performance. So, the data
collection process plays an important role in all the streams. Depending on the type of
data, the data collection method is divided into two categories namely,

 Primary Data Collection methods

 Secondary Data Collection methods
In this article, the different types of data collection methods and their advantages and
limitations are explained.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data or raw data is a type of information that is obtained directly from the first-
hand source through experiments, surveys or observations. The primary data collection
method is further classified into two types. They are

 Quantitative Data Collection Methods

 Qualitative Data Collection Methods
Let us discuss the different methods performed to collect the data under these two data
collection methods.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

It is based on mathematical calculations using various formats like close-ended
questions, correlation and regression methods, mean, median or mode measures. This
method is cheaper than qualitative data collection methods and it can be applied in a
short duration of time.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

It does not involve any mathematical calculations. This method is closely associated
with elements that are not quantifiable. This qualitative data collection method includes
interviews, questionnaires, observations, case studies, etc. There are several methods to
collect this type of data. They are
Observation Method
Observation method is used when the study relates to behavioural science. This method
is planned systematically. It is subject to many controls and checks. The different types
of observations are:

 Structured and unstructured observation

 Controlled and uncontrolled observation
 Participant, non-participant and disguised observation
Interview Method
The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses. It is achieved in two ways,
such as

 Personal Interview – In this method, a person known as an interviewer is

required to ask questions face to face to the other person. The personal interview
can be structured or unstructured, direct investigation, focused conversation,
etc.
 Telephonic Interview – In this method, an interviewer obtains information by
contacting people on the telephone to ask the questions or views, verbally.
Questionnaire Method
In this method, the set of questions are mailed to the respondent. They should read,
reply and subsequently return the questionnaire. The questions are printed in the
definite order on the form. A good survey should have the following features:

 Short and simple

 Should follow a logical sequence
 Provide adequate space for answers
 Avoid technical terms
 Should have good physical appearance such as colour, quality of the paper to
attract the attention of the respondent
Schedules
This method is similar to the questionnaire method with a slight difference. The
enumerations are specially appointed for the purpose of filling the schedules. It explains
the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove misunderstandings, if any
have come up. Enumerators should be trained to perform their job with hard work and
patience.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the actual user. It means that
the information is already available, and someone analyses it. The secondary data
includes magazines, newspapers, books, journals, etc. It may be either published data or
unpublished data.
Published data are available in various resources including

 Government publications
 Public records
 Historical and statistical documents
 Business documents
 Technical and trade journals
Unpublished data includes

 Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies, etc.

Q7) Describe the various methods of collecting primary data and comment on
their relative advantages and disadvantages.

A) 1. Direct personal observation: In this method the investigator collects the required
information by personal observation of the units, through the enumerator, from the
informants. This methods is successively employed-Where the field of enquiry is
confidential, small, greater accuracy and sufficient time is available.

Merits: This method is most reliable, accurate and confidential.

Demerits: This method is expensive, time consuming and this method becomes difficult
where the enquiry field is large. In this method there is chance of personal bias in
collection of data, needs trained and skilled personnel.

2. Indirect oral interview: This method is applied, where the required information from
the informant is not possible to obtain by direct interview method. In this method the
investigator/enumerator approaches the witnesses or third parties, who are capable to
supply the necessary information about the first person/informant.

Merits: This method is simple, convenient, free from bias and successively employed by
New paper, Broadcasting, Investigating agencies.

Demerits: In this method there is an ample scope of influencing the enquiry by the third
person.

3. Information through agencies Under this method, local agents or correspondents will
be appointed. They collect the information and transmit it to the investigator. They may
apply any method according to the intensity of the situation. Agents who collect
information from the informants are generally called correspondents. This method is
generally adopted in those cases where the information is to be obtained at regular
intervals from a wide area. News papers are the-examples of collection of information
through agencies.

Merits : This method is very cheap and economical. It is useful where information is
needed regularly.

Demerits: The information may be biased. It is difficult to maintain the degree of

accuracy and uniformity.

4. Mailed questionnaire Questionnaire is a list of questions where the answers are filled
by the informants and these answers are the required information for the investigation.
The questionnaire is sent to the respondents, who are expected to write the answers in
the space provided in the questionnaire. The questionnaire will by sent to the
informants through mail. A covering letter is also sent along with the questionnaire,
requesting the informants to extend their full cooperation by giving the correct
information and return the duly filled questionnaire with in a fixed time. This method is
appropriate in cases where informants are spread over a wide area and are literates.

Merits: This method is most economical. It saves manpower. It can be widely used,
where the area of investigation is large.

Demerits: This method cannot be used if the informants are illiterates. In this method
many informants will not respond. In the case of non response, follow up work is
essential.

5. Schedules sent through enumerators: It is a widely used method of collection of

primary data. A number of enumerators are selected and trained for this purpose. Here,
the trained investigator collects data through enumerators. The enumerators contact
the informants and collect the information which is called schedule method. Schedule is
a list of questions where the facts will be supplied by informants and recorded by
enumerator.

Merits This method is very useful where the informants are illiterates. In this method
the rate of non response is less.

Demerits In this method the training of enumerators is essential. This method is time
consuming. Personal bias of the enumerators may lead to failure of enquiry

Q8) Examine the merits and limitations of the observation method in collecting
data. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.

A) Advantages of Observation:

(1) Simplest Method:

Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It
does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation
requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods.
Everybody in this world observes many things in their daily life. A little training can
make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.

(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis:

Observation is one of the main bases of formulating hypothesis. By observing a

phenomenon continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed.
He came to know about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perception, different
activities and so many other things. All these help him a lot to form a hypothesis on
them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.

(3) Greater Accuracy:

In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on
information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the
investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by
them. But in observation the observer can directly check the accuracy from the
observed. He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So very
often the data collected through observation is more reliable than these collected
through interview or questionnaire.

(4) An Universal Method:

Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social. So it

has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and
accepted.

(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases:

Observation can deal with phenomena which are not capable of giving verbal
information about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the reason that they
cannot speak e.g. infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants
who can neither understand the quarries of the researcher nor express themselves
clearly. In the case of animals observation is the only way out. For deaf and dumb
persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons, for non-cooperative persons,
for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand the language of researcher,
observation will be the only appropriate tool.

(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report:

Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various
information about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves
to an outsider. Some people do not have time or required skill to provide important
information to the researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such
problems, still relatively speaking it requires less active co-operation and willingness of
respondents. Observation is ever possible without the knowledge of the respondents.

Limitations of Observation:

(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation:

There are many personal behaviours or secret activities which are not open for
observation. For example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual
activities. In most of the cases people do not allow the outsider to study their activities.

(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at
Hand:

Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very
much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine
their time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the
other hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For example, the
quarrel and fight between two individuals or groups is never certain. Nobody knows
when such an event will take place.

(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study:

Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling
and emotion of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also
cannot be quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ other
methods like case study; interview etc. to study such phenomena.

(4) Lack of Reliability:

Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments,

generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of
the social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for
making valid generalization in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation, no
attempt is made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the
phenomenon.

(5) Faulty Perception:

Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the
same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently.
One person may find something meaningful and useful from a situation but the other
may find nothing from it. Only those observers who are having the technical knowledge
about the observation can make scientific observation.

(6) Personal Bias of the Observer:

The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates
obstacle for making valid generalization. The observer may have his own ideas of right
and wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the
objectivity in social research.

(7) Slow Investigation:

Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid
observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period
through observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed
to continue their observation process.

(8) Expensive:

Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort.
Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of
sophisticated equipment’s. Because of this it is called as one of the most expensive
methods of data collection.

(9) Inadequate Method:

According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone”.
Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods
also.

(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity:

Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of

observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does not help in drawing a
valid generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper validity and
reliability of observation.

Q9) Define secondary data. State their chief sources and point out the dangers
involved in their use and the precautions necessary to use them. Illustrate with
examples.

A) Meaning of Secondary Data

Secondary data refers to the data that is gathered by a secondary party (other than the
user). Common sources of secondary data for social sciences include statements, data
collected by government agencies, organisational documents, and the data that was
collected for other research objectives. However, primary data, by difference, is
gathered by the investigator conducting the research.

Precautions to be Taken while Using Secondary Data

The investigator must take precautions before using secondary data. In this juncture,
the following precautions should be taken into consideration.

1. Suitable purpose of investigation

2. Inadequate data
3. Definition of units
4. Degree of accuracy
5. Time and condition of collection of facts
6. Homogeneous conditions
7. Comparison

8. What Precautions Should Be taken before Using Secondary Data?

The following are the main precautions that should be taken before using secondary data.

(1) Reliable agency ● We must ensure the agency that has published the data
should be reliable.

(2) Suitability for the ● The Investigator must ensure that the data is suitable for
purpose of an enquiry the purpose of the present enquiry.
● The suitability of the data is determined by investigating
the nature, objectives, time of collection, etc. of the secondary
data.

(3) Adequacy and accuracy ● It is necessary to use adequate data to avoid biases and
to avoid the impact of bias prejudices leading to incorrect conclusions.

(4) Method of collecting the ● The investigator should also ascertain as to what method
data used was used in collecting the data.
● Sampling methods may be biased depending upon the
mode of selection of samples.
● All these should be ascertained before making use of the
secondary data.

Q10) What do you understand by the terms attitude and attitude measurement?
Explain

A) Attitude measurement

An attitude measurement survey is a study, on a properly drawn sample, of a specified

population to find out what people in that population feel about a specified issue.

explanatory context

Attitude surveys usually use carefully constructed, standardised questionnaires.

1. Nominal Scale
 This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various
alternative categories which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive.
These scales are just numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales.
Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit card numbers, bank account numbers,
employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used when relationship between
two variables is to be studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than labels
and are used specifically to identify different categories of responses. Following
example illustrates -
What is your gender?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of
maintaining stocks and daily turnover.
How do you stock items at present?
[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
A two way classification can be made as follows
Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method
100 – 200
200 – 300
Above 300

Mode is frequently used for response category.

2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing
Research. It is more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the
property of rank order. The ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as
deemed important by the respondents is obtained through the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a
microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
 5. Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least
important is ranked 5. Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to
rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale makes no attempt to measure the degree of
favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on
the basis of quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent
ranks them based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank
2 the second maximum Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers
unlike in Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also
termed as Rating Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further
numbers placed at equal intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a
Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following
qualities.
Company Less Well
1 2 3 4 5
Name Known Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Very
Overall Very
Dis- 1 2 3 4 5
Satisfaction Satisfied
Satisfied

Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above
position 4 and also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a
scale however does not permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as
position 2 because no zero position has been established. The data obtained from
the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean scores of each attributes over
all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion) can also be
calculated.

Q11) The Likert’s scale

A) Likert scale
Likert scaling is an attitude scaling method in which respondents indicate the extent of
their agreement with each item on a scale (e.g., a five- or-seven point scale). Their score
on the scale is the sum of the scores for each item.

Likert scales were devised in 1932 as a development of Thurstone scales, the aim was to
eliminate the unreliability of using intermediary judges in scale construction. Original
Likert scales had no neutral or middle point and respondents were ‘forced’ to some
degree of agreement or disagreement with the scale item. This specification is not
enforced by most current users of Likert-type scales.

Likert scales are relatively easy to construct. At the pilot stage, each test item is
analysed to see to what extent it contributes consistently to the scale. This can be done
by correlating each item score with the overall scale score. Alternatively, the sample can
be split into quartiles on the basis of their scale score. The mean score on each item for
the upper quartile is compared with the mean score on the same item for the lower
quartile. The difference in mean scores for each item is called the discriminatory power
of the item. Those with larger discriminatory power are preferable, especially if they
have overall item score means approximately equal to the expected mean (i.e., the mean
of the possible scores for the item, or mid-point of the range of possible item scores).

Likert scales may not always be unidimensional but the approach basically assumes a
single dimension. It has been argued that analysis of a Likert scale could identify
clusters that are indicative of a number of dimensions, although this is much weaker
than the multi-dimension identification claimed for Guttman scaling.

The Likert method (like Thurstone and latent structure analysis) involves making
inferences about the latent classes into which the manifest data can be made to fit.
Unlike the Thurstone scale (where judges have to rationally assess an item’s relation to
others) Likert scale items can be included that need not be overtly related to the
attitude being tested. What is included is determined by the item’s correlation with the
entire scale score. Thus items that show ‘underlying’ relationships can be included. For
some critics, however, this raises issues of objectivity.

Q12) Ethics in research

A) What is Research Ethics?

 Ethics are the set of rules that govern our expectations of our own and others’
behavior.
 Research ethics are the set of ethical guidelines that guides us on how scientific
research should be conducted and disseminated.
 Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers It is the
guideline for responsibly conducting the research.
  Research that implicates human subjects or contributors rears distinctive and
multifaceted ethical, legitimate, communal and administrative concerns.
 Research ethics is unambiguously concerned in the examination of ethical issues
that are upraised when individuals are involved as participants in the study.
 Research ethics committee/Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews whether the
research is ethical enough or not to protect the rights, dignity and welfare of the
respondents.

Objectives of Research Ethics:

 The first and comprehensive objective – to guard/protect human participants,

their dignity, rights and welfare .
 The second objective – to make sure that research is directed in a manner
that assists welfares of persons, groups and/or civilization as a whole.
 The third objective – to inspect particular research events and schemes for
their ethical reliability, considering issues such as the controlling risk,
protection of privacy and the progression of informed consent.

The general principles of research ethics are:

Honesty Being honest with the beneficiaries and respondents. Being honest
about the findings and methodology of the research. Being honest
with other direct and indirect stakeholders.
Ensuring honesty and sincerity. Fulfilling agreements and promises.
Integrity Do not create false expectations or make false promises.
Objectivity
Avoiding bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, and other aspects of research.
 Informed consent means that a person knowingly, voluntarily
and intelligently gives consent to participate in a research.
 Informed consent is related to the autonomous right of the
individual to participate in the research.
 Informing the participant about the research objective, their
Informed consent role, benefits/harms (if any) etc.

It includes:
 autonomy, which requires that those who are capable of
deliberation about their personal goals should be treated with
respect for their capacity for self-determination; and
 protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy,
Respect for which requires that those who are dependent or vulnerable be
person/respondent afforded security against harm or abuse.

Maximize the benefits of the participants. Ethical obligation to

maximize possible benefits and to minimize possible harms to the
Beneficence respondents.
Non-maleficence/
Protecting the Do no harm. Minimize harm/s or risks to the human. Ensure privacy,
subjects (human) autonomy and dignity.
Responsible Responsibly publishing to promote and uptake research or
publication knowledge. No duplicate publication.
It means keeping the participant anonymous. It involves not
revealing the name, caste or any other information about the
participants that may reveal his/her identity.

Protecting anonymity
Protecting confidential information, personnel records. It includes
information such as:
 Introduction and objective of the research
 Purpose of the discussion
 Procedure of the research
 Anticipated advantages, benefits/harm from the research (if
any)
 Use of research
 Their role in research
 Right to refuse or withdraw
 Methods which will be used to protect anonymity and
confidentiality of the participant
 Freedom to not answer any question/withdraw from the
research
 Who to contact if the participant needs additional information
Confidentiality about the research.

Q13) What is research? Discuss the various types of research with suitable
examples.

A) What is Research: Definition

Careful consideration of the study regarding a particular concern or problem using
scientific methods. Earl Robert Babbie defines research as a systematic inquiry to
describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. research involves
inductive and deductive methods.

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive methods
are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with
qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with
quantitative research.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?
 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or
concept?
Characteristics of Research
 A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are
an integral part of the process that sets the objective. researchers need to practice
ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
 Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
 The data or knowledge that is derived is in real-time from actual observations in
natural settings.
 There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
 research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create
more opportunities for research.
 Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is
no ambiguity in inference.
 Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide
a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments
used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.
What are the types of Research?
Following are the types of research methods:

Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The
main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is non-commercial research that doesn’t
facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example an experiment to determine a
simple fact.
Applied research: applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life
problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using
scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the
overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.
Problem-oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is
conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions.
The term “problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation. For
example, the revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The
following could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of
a product, no advertising, or economic conditions.
Problem-solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to
understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied
research to find solutions to existing problems.
Qualitative research: qualitative research is a process that is about the inquiry. It helps
create an in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is
a non-statistical method. Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of
the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually
restricted to 6-10 people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages
answers that lead to another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking
open-ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.
The following are the methods used for qualitative research:

 One-to-one interview
 Focus groups
 Ethnographic research
 Content/Text Analysis
 Case study research

Q14) Describe, in brief, the importance of editing, coding, classification,

tabulation and presentation of data in the context of the research study.

A) Data required for the purpose of analysis & presentation of a research study is often
consisting of errors such errors must be rectified before the final presentation is made.

This process involves editing, coding, classification, tabulation & presentation of data.

Editing- This is concerned with removal of redundant data, filling of missing data
completeness of data substance & reliability of data. The data obtained from variance
sources are not always complete-sometimes fields remain black due to the human
errors also this requires to be corrected. It also corrects the entries present at wrong
positions. Many techniques like filling the empty values by frequent values, average
values, random value, lowest value etc are common. The editing must be performed just
after the data have been collected. This ensures that consistency is maintained various
details like editor. data of editing etc are recorded.

Coding^ Coding is performed to assign a predefined meaning to the data captured. The
records that satisfy a given constraints are often marked with some Alphabets numerals
etc. so that while sorting. Searching such records are taken out by a single search
command. This concept is mutually exclusive.

Classification- This step of data sorting involves the segregation of data into various
classified forms. The step of-classification makes the data analysis easy often a research
study conducted. Serves not only single but multiple purposes. The various departments
in organisation are interested in different aspects of the same data collected by the
researches. These data correspond to the various form of analysis to make a particular
decision. Data classification helps in making-comparisons & design strategies & policies
for future action classification is performed accounting to various criterias like year
wise, caste wise income group wise, department wise etc. During the problem study
itself the classification criteria must be mentioned. Data classified into various forms
may be further summed up to form an aggregated plan & even the aggregated data may
be drilled down to achieve the desired results as per specifications.

Tabulation" Classified data is presented in the form of rows & columns called tables.
Such an approach is helpful for sorting, indexing, searching, aggregating & performing
 all sorts of operations leading to the data bank. This is further used for performing what
if analysis. They present data clearly & to the point. The table must have row & column
name to identify what the table represents. There must also be table names & headings
for proper presentation Table also help to perform joining of two data sources. There
must be appropriate messages attached to the cells, column, Page header & footer to
allow easy referencing. Table hence designed must present simple, accurate & clear
picture of the conclave to be displayed. The table designed must be able to fulfill the
basic criteria for which if were designed.

Presentation^ Data available in table in form of facts & figures are also presented in the
form of the charts, pictorial graphics, picture analysis-graphics etc. This helps the top
management to perform an effective data decision presentation is in the form of
presentation is in the form of Graphics, pictorial. Pie charts etc. These are" tools for top
managements for an accurate data interpretations.

Q15) What is regression analysis? In what ways can multiple regression be used
to forecast some industry’s sales? Discuss the steps involved in conducting
regression analysis.

A) What is regression analysis and what does it mean to perform a regression?

Regression analysis is a reliable method of identifying which variables have impact on a

topic of interest. The process of performing a regression allows you to confidently
determine which factors matter most, which factors can be ignored, and how these
factors influence each other.

In order to understand regression analysis fully, it’s essential to comprehend the

following terms:

 Dependent Variable: This is the main factor that you’re trying to understand or
predict.
 Independent Variables: These are the factors that you hypothesize have an impact
on your dependent variable.
In our application training example above, attendees’ satisfaction with the event is our
dependent variable. The topics covered, length of sessions, food provided, and the cost
of a ticket are our independent variables.

How does regression analysis work?

In order to conduct a regression analysis, you’ll need to define a dependent variable that
you hypothesize is being influenced by one or several independent variables.
You’ll then need to establish a comprehensive dataset to work with. Administering
surveys to your audiences of interest is a terrific way to establish this dataset. Your
survey should include questions addressing all of the independent variables that you
are interested in.

Let’s continue using our application training example. In this case, we’d want to
measure the historical levels of satisfaction with the events from the past three years or
so (or however long you deem statistically significant), as well as any information
possible in regards to the independent variables.

Perhaps we’re particularly curious about how the price of a ticket to the event has
impacted levels of satisfaction.

Why should your organization use regression analysis?

Regression analysis is helpful statistical method that can be leveraged across an

organization to determine the degree to which particular independent variables are
influencing dependent variables.

The possible scenarios for conducting regression analysis to yield valuable, actionable
business insights are endless.

The next time someone in your business is proposing a hypothesis that states that one
factor, whether you can control that factor or not, is impacting a portion of the business,
suggest performing a regression analysis to determine just how confident you should be
in that hypothesis! This will allow you to make more informed business decisions,
allocate resources more efficiently, and ultimately boost your bottom line.

What are the Steps in Regression Analysis?

At the learning stage, the following steps could be suggested for an easier
understanding of the regression analysis process.

The Most Useful Scatter Plot

Before performing any statistical analysis, simple scattered plot(s) between the
dependent and the independent variable(s) can be performed to check if there is any
major issue with the data, especially the linearity of the data and any extremely usual
observations. Detail discussion on the data quality can be found in the Regression
Analysis diagnostic section.
 The Statistical Significance

The first step of the regression analysis is to check whether there is any statistical
significance between the dependent and the independent variables. If there is no
statistically significant relationship between the dependent and the independent
variables, the data diagnostic analysis (step #4) can be performed to check whether
there is any problem/issue with the data that is causing the results to be statistically
insignificant. If data are observed to be okay, step 2 and 3 are considered unnecessary,
and the analysis may stop here.

The Practical Significance

The second step of the regression analysis is to check whether the statistically
significant results have any practical significance. Often, there is statistical significance.
However, the relationship may not be strong enough to predict the dependent variable
well. If there is no practical significance of the results, the data diagnostic analysis (step
#4) can be performed to check whether any problem/issue with the data that is causing
the results to be practically insignificant. If data is observed to be okay, step # 3 is
considered unnecessary, and the analysis may stop here.

The Explanation of Relation

When both step #1, and step #2 are significant, in step #3, the analysis results are
explained in the context of the problem, particularly the explanation of the regression
relationship, the slope parameter and the intercept.

The Diagnosis Analysis

Finally, in step #4, the diagnostic analysis is performed to check whether there is any
problem in the data such as any outlier and influential points that may skew the results.
Ideally, this step could be performed at first. However, the amount of time and
resources it takes to perform this step does not justify this step first if there is no
statistical significance between the dependent and the independent variables.
Nevertheless, using any statistical software, (including MS Excel), this step can be
performed within a couple of mouse clicks. The outliers and the influential points could
be removed if justified from the analysis first before doing any steps in regression
analysis at all. If this step is performed at the last step, the analysis must be rerun if the
outliers and the influential points are removed. Finally, step 1, 2, and 3 must be
performed again after the diagnostic analysis step. Though it sounds like the diagnostic
should be performed first, many diagnostic analyses are impossible to perform without
performing the analysis first, whether manually using formulas or using any software.
Therefore, the regression analyses are performed a couple of times to produce the best
analysis results, including the test statistics and the predicted fitted regression.
Q16) Explain the steps involved in the questionnaire design.

A) Steps involved in designing a questionnaire

The investigator cannot get a ready made questionnaire appropriate for his study. He
has to prepare it for himself. He should keep in mind the following steps and
suggestions.

1. While planning and constructing his questionnaire, the investigator should secure all
the help he can. He should study other questionnaires and submit his items for critical
evaluation. He should consult those who have experience in questionnaire construction.
2. He should obtain a thorough grasp of the field in which he is constructing
questionnaire. He must have a clear understanding of the objectives of the study and
of the nature of the data needed.
3. Constructing a questionnaire calls for numerous revision. Variations of the same
questions should be submitted to experimental trial. The same question posed in
different ways brings out different response.
4. The content of question should elicit valid and reliable answers. Each question
must be justified on the basis of its contribution to the overall purpose of the study.
5. Each question must be absolutely clear not only to the maker but also to the
listener.
6. If the desired information is delicate or confidential in nature, he should provide for
anonymous response.
7. The questionnaire may not be desirable for all. It should be sent only to those who
possess the required information.
8. The questions should be so worded as to allay any fears, suspicion, hesitation,
embarrassment or hostility of the respondent.
9. Some specific questions may be asked in order to check the truthfulness of answers
to general questions.
10. The items should be placed psychologically or logically – in a sound sequence –
simple, interesting neutral questions preceding the more difficult ones.
11. He should include a courteous, carefully constructed covering letter to explain the
purpose and importance of the study.
12. The respondents often cause delay while returning completed questionnaires. To
avoid this, a vigorous follow up is necessary.

Q17) Discuss the advantages of the sampling method over the census method of
data collection

A) Sample method has the following merits (or advantages) over the census method:

(i) Less time-consuming: Since the sample is a study of the part of the population,
considerable time is saved when a sample survey is carried out. Time is saved not only
in collecting data but also in processing it.

(ii) Less cost: Under sample method, a lot of expenses are saved in terms of money and
labour not only in the collection of data but also in the administration, transport and
 training etc. This is because in the sampling method, a part of the population is studied
and examined to arrive at the desired conclusion.

(iii) Greater Scope: In certain types of enquiry, highly trained personnel or specific types
of equipment are needed to obtain and analyse the data. In such cases,sampling
methods are more suitable.

(iv) More detailed information: Since the sampling method saves time and money, it is
possible to collect more detailed information in a sample survey.

Intensive Study
Data collection through census method gives opportunity to the investigator to have an
intensive study about a problem study about a problem. The investigator gathers a lot of
knowledge through this method.

Higher Degree of Accuracy

In this method there would be higher degree of accuracy in data. No other method is
accurate like census method when the universe is small.

Suitable for Heterogeneous Units

This method is also applicable for units having heterogeneity or difference.

Indispensable in Some Cases

In certain cases this method is very important and suitable to be used for data
collection. Without this method the study of a universe remains uncompleted.

Q18) Sampling is a necessity under certain conditions.” Explain with illustrative

examples.

A) In research words, a sample is a set of people, objects, or things that are taken from a
larger population for measurement.
Explanation:
Sampling is a technique utilized in statistical examination in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from a bigger population. The methodology utilized
to sample from a larger population depends on the type of research being performed,
but it may contain simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
The following are the reasons for sampling:

 To obtain the population to a manageable number

 To decrease cost
 To support in minimizing mistakes from the despondence due to the large number in
the population
 Sampling assists the researcher to meet up with the challenge of time.

Q19) Discuss the importance of the sampling frame. What are the possible errors
resulting from a faulty sampling frame?

A) A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a complete list of
everyone or everything you want to study. The difference between a population and a
sampling frame is that the population is general and the frame is specific. For example,
the population could be “People who live in Jacksonville, Florida.” The frame would
name all of those people, from Adrian Abba to Felicity Zappa. A couple more examples:

A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the
whole population. Sampling errors often occur, and thus, researchers always calculate a
margin of error during final results as a statistical practice. The margin of error is the
amount of error allowed for a miscalculation to represent the difference between the
sample and the actual population.

What are the most common sampling errors in market research?

Here are the top four market research errors while sampling:

Population specification error: A population specification error occurs when

researchers don’t know precisely who to survey. For example, imagine a research study
about kid’s apparel. Who is the right person to survey? It can be both parents, only the
mother, or the child. The parents make purchase decisions, but the kids may influence
their choice.

Sample frame error: Sampling frame errors arise when researchers target the sub-
population wrongly while selecting the sample. For example, picking a sampling frame
from the telephone white pages book may have erroneous inclusions because people
shift their cities. Erroneous exclusions occur when people prefer to un-list their
numbers. Wealthy households may have more than one connection, thus leading to
multiple inclusions.

Selection error: A selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to

participate in the study. Only the interested ones respond. You can control selection
errors by going the extra step to request responses from the entire sample. Pre-survey
planning, follow-ups, and a neat and clean survey design will boost respondents’
participation rate. Also, try methods like CATI surveys and in-person interviews to
maximize responses.

Sampling errors: Sampling errors occur due to a disparity in the representativeness of

the respondents. It majorly happens when the researcher does not plan his sample
carefully. These sampling errors can be controlled and eliminated by creating a careful
sample design, having a large enough sample to reflect the entire population, or using
an online sample or survey audiences to collect responses.

Controlling your sampling error

Statistical theories help researchers measure the probability of sampling errors in

sample size and population. The size of the sample considered from the population
primarily determines the size of the sampling error. Larger sample sizes tend to
encounter a lower rate of errors. Researchers use a metric known as the margin of error
to understand and evaluate the margin of error. Usually, a confidence level of 95% is
considered to be the desired confidence level.

What are the steps to reduce sampling errors?

Sampling errors are easy to identify. Here are a few simple steps to reduce sampling
error:

Increase sample size: A larger sample size results in a more accurate result because the
study gets closer to the actual population size.

Divide the population into groups: Test groups according to their size in the population
instead of a random sample. For example, if people of a specific demographic make up
20% of the population, make sure that your study is made up of this variable to reduce
sampling bias.

Know your population: Study your population and understand its demographic mix.
Know what demographics use your product and service and ensure you only target the
sample that matters.

Q20) What do you mean by sampling design? What points should be taken into
consideration while developing the sampling design for studying the problems of
domestic airline passengers?

A) Sampling design is a mathematical function that gives you the probability of any
given sample being drawn.

Since sampling is the foundation of nearly every research project, the study of sampling
design is a crucial part of statistics, and is often a one or two semester course. It
involves not only learning how to derive the probability functions which describe a
given sampling method but also understanding how to design a best-fit sampling
method for a real life situation. The following video is an overview of some of the more
popular probabilistic sampling methods:

Examples of Sampling Design

 Sampling design can be very simple or very complex. In the simplest, one stage sample
design where there is no explicit stratification and a member of the population is chosen
at random, each unit has the probability

n/N

of being in the sample, where:

 n is the total number of units to be sampled,

 N is number of units in the total population.
Other types of design include:

 Systematic sample: all members of a population are listed in order and samples
are chosen at defined intervals
 Stratified sample: the population is first divided into strata and then samples
are randomly selected from the strata (for example, divide a population between
men and women, then randomly select a given number of men and a given
number of women)
 Cluster strata: a population is divided into clusters and first clusters are
randomly selected, then random members of the selected clusters are sampled.
(for instance, first randomly select a number of classes, then, from the class lists
of those classes, randomly sample a number of students)
Each of these have their own sampling design function. The sampling method chosen
will depend on the situation and priorities of the researcher. Sometimes, non-
probability sampling methods will be chosen; for example, convenience sampling,
where the sample is simply those easily reached and observed. Unlike systematic,
stratified, or cluster sampling, these types of sampling cannot be easily described by a
function.

Steps in Sample Design

There are various steps which the researcher should follow. Those are;

1. Type of universe: In the first step the researcher should clarify and should be expert in
the study of universe. The universe may be finite (no of items are know) or Infinite
(numbers of items are not know).
2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting a
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc., or
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school etc., or it may be an individual.
3. Source list: Source list is known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
It consists the names of all items of a universe. Such a list would be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate and the source list should be a representative of the
population.
4. Size of sample: Size of sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. Selection of sample size is a headache to the researcher.
The size should not be too large or too small rather it should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample. Cost factor i.e., budgetary conditions should
also be taken into consideration.
5. Sampling procedure: In the final step of the sample design, a researcher must decide
the type of the sample s/he will use i.e., s/he must decide about the techniques to be
used in selecting the items for the sample.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

The characteristics of a good sample as follows;

1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample,

2. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error,
3. Sampling design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study,
4. Sample design must be such that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way, and
5. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general,
for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Q21) Write briefly about the different forms of data presentation devices.

A) 1. Tabulation:

Tables are devices for presenting data simply from masses of statistical data. Tabulation
is the first step before data is used for analysis. Tabulation can be in form of Simple
Tables or Frequency distribution table (i.e., data is split into convenient groups).

2. Charts and Diagrams:

They are useful methods in presenting simple statistical data. Diagrams are better
retained in the memory than statistical tables.

The methods used are:

(a) Bar Charts:

They are merely a way of presenting a set of numbers by the length of a bar. The bar
chart can be simple, multiple or component type.

(b) Histogram:

It is a pictorial diagram of frequency distribution. It consists of a series of blocks. The

class intervals are given along the horizontal axis and the frequencies along the vertical
axis.
(c) Frequency Polygon:

A frequency distri-bution may be represented diagramatically by the frequency

polygon. It is obtained by joining the mid-points of the histogram blocks.

(d) Line Diagram:

Line diagram are used to show the trend of events with the passage of time.

(e) Pie Charts:

Instead of comparing the length of a bar, the areas of segments of a circle are compared.
The area of each segment depends upon the angle.

(f) Pic to Gram:

Pictogram is a popular method of presenting data to the “man in the street” and to those
who cannot understand orthodox charts. Small pictures or symbols are used to present
the data.

3. Statistical Maps:

When statistical data refer to geographic or administrative areas, it is presented either

as “Shaded Maps” or “Dot Maps” according to suitability.

4. Statistical Averages:

The term “average” implies a value in the distribution, around which the other values
are distributed. It gives a mental picture of the central value.

Q22) Distinguish the differences between parametric and nonparametric tests.

What are the importance of nonparametric tests?

A) Parametric is a statistical test which assumes parameters and the distributions about
the population are known. It uses a mean value to measure the central tendency. These
tests are common, and therefore the process of performing research is simple.

Definition of Parametric and Nonparametric Test

Parametric Test Definition
In Statistics, a parametric test is a kind of hypothesis test which gives generalizations
for generating records regarding the mean of the primary/original population. The t-
test is carried out based on the students’ t-statistic, which is often used in that value.
The t-statistic test holds on the underlying hypothesis, which includes the normal
distribution of a variable. In this case, the mean is known, or it is considered to be
known. For finding the sample from the population, population variance is identified. It
is hypothesized that the variables of concern in the population are estimated on an
interval scale.
Non-Parametric Test Definition
The non-parametric test does not require any population distribution, which is meant
by distinct parameters. It is also a kind of hypothesis test, which is not based on the
underlying hypothesis. In the case of the non-parametric test, the test is based on the
differences in the median. So this kind of test is also called a distribution-free test. The
test variables are determined on the nominal or ordinal level. If the independent
variables are non-metric, the non-parametric test is usually performed.

What Is the Difference between Parametric and Non-parametric?

The key differences between nonparametric and parametric tests are listed below
based on certain parameters or properties.

Properties Parametric Non-parametric

Assumptions Yes No

central tendency Value Mean value Median value

Correlation Pearson Spearman

Probabilistic distribution Normal Arbitrary

Population knowledge Requires Does not require

Used for Interval data Nominal data

Applicability Variables Attributes & Variables

Examples z-test, t-test, etc. Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney

Q23) What is meant by “representativeness” in a Sample? Explain in what sense a

simple random sample is representative of the population?

A) A representative sample is one where the individuals in the sample reflect the
properties of an entire population. Use a representative sample when you want to
generalize the results from the sample to a population. By studying a representative
sample, you can approximate the properties of the population from which it was drawn.

Generally speaking, a representative sample proportionally reflects the attributes of a

population. The demographic characteristics of the individuals in the sample must be
similar to those in the population: gender, rural, urban, religion, marital status, income
levels, etc. However, the relevant attributes depend on your study area. For example, if
it’s a health study, you might need to consider other aspects such as health habits, BMI,
blood pressure, and so on.

Each study needs to define the target population it wants the sample to represent. You’ll
need to do some research to understand the population. During the course of the study,
the researchers will learn about the people in the target population.

Examples of Using Representative Samples

Suppose you are assessing the approval of a controversial opinion in a state. You define
your population as all adults in the state. Unfortunately, it’s impractical to contact all
adults. Instead, you need to obtain a representative sample.

Your sample will need to contain individuals who resemble the whole population by
including all demographic groups (gender, rural, urban, income levels, etc.) and have
them in the same proportions as the whole population. For example, it’s not truly
representative if you have too many rural participants, or males, etc.