GSE 211

*Communicative English*

*General English lll*

*MORPHOLOGY*

Morphology refers to the study of the structure and formation of words and their relationships to other
words in a language. It examines how words are composed of smaller units, called morphemes, which
convey meaning.

Here are definitions and examples for each morphological process:

*1. Affixation*

Adding prefixes or suffixes to roots or stems to form new words.

Examples:

1. Unhappy (prefix "un-" + happy)

2. Running (suffix "-ing" + run)

3. Disagree (prefix "dis-" + agree)

4. Happiness (suffix "-ness" + happy)

*2. Compounding*

Combining two or more words to form a new word.

Examples:

1. Bookshelf (book + shelf)

2. Toothbrush (tooth + brush)

3. Birthday (birth + day)

4. Firefly (fire + fly)

*3. Akcronym*

Forming a new word from initial letters of a phrase.

Examples:

1. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

2. SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus)

3. UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund)

4. IKEA (Ingvar Kamprad Elmtaryd Agunnaryd)

*4. Reduplication*

Repeating all or part of a word to form a new word.

Examples:

1. Bye-bye ( repetition of "bye")

2. Hellohello ( repetition of "hello")

3. Chick-a-dee (reduplication of "chick")

4. Zip-zip (repetition of "zip")

*5. Blending*

Combining parts of two words to form a new word.

Examples:

1. Smog (smoke + fog)

2. Brunch (breakfast + lunch)

3. Motel (motor + hotel)

4. Infomercial (information + commercial)

*6. Clipping*

Shortening a word to form a new word.

Examples:

- Gym (from gymnasium)

- Bus (from omnibus)

- Chip (from microchip)

- Cop (from policeman)

- Vet (from veterinarian)

- Lab (from laboratory)

- Perp (from perpetrator)

These linguistic processes help create new words and expand language.

*IDENTIFICATION AND USAGE OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES*

Phrases and clauses are essential building blocks of sentences.

*Phrases:*

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb combination.

_Types of Phrases:_

1. Noun Phrase (NP): Contains a noun or pronoun.

- Examples:

I. The big red car.

II. *The sunny day* made our trip perfect.

III. *The teacher's desk* was cluttered.

3. Verb Phrase (VP): Contains a verb.

- Examples:

I. Joseph *is running.*

II. *Has been* studying for hours.

III. *Will be attending* the meeting.

4. Adjective Phrase (AdjP): Modifies a noun.

- Examples:

I. Hannah is *Very happy.*

II. Extremely beautiful scenery.

III. A remarkably smart student.

5. Adverb Phrase (AdvP): Modifies a verb.

- Examples:

I. Behaves *extremely carefully.*

II. Drives *extremely carefully.*

III. Works *incredibly efficiently.*

6. Prepositional Phrase (PP): Starts with a preposition.

- Examples:

I. Under the bridge.

II. On the kitchen table.

III. At the office.

*Clauses:*

A clause is a group of words with a subject-verb combination.

_Types of Clauses:_

1. Independent Clause: This expresses a complete sentence.

- Examples:.

I. I went to the store.

II. She studied for the exam.

III. They will arrive tomorrow.

2. *Dependent/Subordinate Clause:* This Cannot stand alone to make sense. It's a

- Examples:

I. Because I forgot my phone.

II. Unless you try harder.

III. Since I moved to this city.

3. Relative Clause: Begins with a relative pronoun.

- Example: Who is standing.

*_Types of Subordinate Clause_*

Here are the types of subordinate clauses with examples:

1. Noun Clauses (or Nominal Clauses)*

Function: Act as nouns

Examples:

1. What she said was true. (Noun clause as subject)

2. I know what you're thinking. (Noun clause as object)

3. That she will succeed is certain. (Noun clause as complement)

2. Adjective Clauses (or Relative Clauses)*

Function: Modify nouns

Examples:

1. The book, which is on the table, is mine. (Modifies "book")

2. The person who helped me was kind. (Modifies "person")

3. The city where I grew up is beautiful. (Modifies "city")

*3. Adverb Clauses*

Function: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs

Examples:

1. I will go to the store because I need milk. (Modifies "will go")

2. She sings beautifully when she's happy. (Modifies "sings")

3. I will arrive tomorrow unless there's traffic. (Modifies "will arrive")

*Identifying Phrases and Clauses:*

1. Look for subject-verb combinations.

2. Identify phrase functions (e.g., noun, verb, adjective).

3. Determine clause types (independent, dependent).

*Using Phrases and Clauses:*

1. Combine phrases to form clauses.

2. Use clauses to build sentences.

3. Vary sentence structure with phrases and clauses.

*Examples:*

1. Phrase: The sun is setting. (NP + VP)

2. Clause: I went to the store because I needed milk. (Independent + Dependent)

3. Sentence: When I arrived, I saw my friends. (Subordinate + Independent)

Mastering phrases and clauses enhances writing, communication, and

language understanding.

*BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS AND ELEMENTS*

The English language has seven basic sentence (or clause) patterns and five elements. Examples are:

*Sentence Element:*

Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, Adjunct (S.V.O.C.A)

*Sentence Patterns:* The following are the seven sentence patterns:

1. John / laughed. (SV)*

2. John / kissed / Jane. (SVO)

3. John / is / tall. (SVC)

4. John / gave / Jane / a present. (SVOO)

5. John / made / Jane / angry. (SVOC)

6. John / sat / up. (SVA)

7. John / considers / Janet/ a good friend/ always. (SVOCA)

*ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE*

Here are explanations and examples of active and passive voice:

Active Voice*

In active voice, the subject performs the action described by the verb.

Examples:

1. The dog bites the man. (Subject: dog; Verb: bites; Object: man)

2. The teacher writes the lesson plan. (Subject: teacher; Verb: writes; Object: lesson plan)

3. The company will launch the new product. (Subject: company; Verb: will launch; Object: product)

Passive Voice*

In passive voice, the subject receives the action described by the verb.

Examples:

1. The man is bitten by the dog. (Subject: man; Verb: is bitten; Agent: dog)

2. The lesson plan is written by the teacher. (Subject: lesson plan; Verb: is written; Agent: teacher)

3. The new product will be launched by the company. (Subject: product; Verb: will be launched; Agent:
company)

_Key differences:_
- Active voice emphasizes the doer (subject).

- Passive voice emphasizes the receiver (object).

_Forming Passive Voice:_

1. Change the verb to a form of "to be" (is, are, was, were, etc.).

2. Add the past participle of the main verb.

3. Add the agent (by + doer) optionally.

Converting Active to Passive:_

- Active: The chef cooks dinner.

- Passive: Dinner is cooked by the chef.

*THE WRITING PROCESS*

The writing process involves several stages that help writers produce clear, effective, and well-organized
content. Here's an overview:

Stage 1: Pre-writing (Planning)*

1. Define purpose and audience.

2. Brainstorm ideas (mind mapping, free writing).

3. Research and gather information.

4. Develop a thesis statement or main idea.

5. Create an outline (organize ideas).

Stage 2: Drafting (Writing)*

1. Start writing (follow outline or thesis statement).

2. Focus on content, not grammar or spelling.

3. Use descriptive language and vivid details.

4. Organize paragraphs (introduction, body, conclusion).

Stage 3: Revising (Editing)*

1. Review content (check thesis statement, organization).

2. Ensure clarity, coherence, and consistency.

3. Revise sentences (structure, tone, style).

4. Check for supporting evidence.

*Stage 4: Proofreading (Final Check)*

1. Check grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

2. Verify facts and citations.

3. Ensure formatting consistency.

4. Finalize headings, titles, and subtitles.

*VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT*

1. Connotation and Denotation

*_Denotation_*

_Definition:_ The literal or dictionary meaning of a word.

_Examples:_

1. Lion - a large carnivorous mammal ( Panthera leo)

2. Doctor - a person with a medical degree

3. House - a building for human habitation

4. Teacher - a person who educates students

5. Book - a written or printed work

*_Connotation_*

_Definition:_ The emotional, cultural, or personal association beyond the literal meaning.

Examples:_
1. Lion - bravery, strength, fierceness (positive connotation)

2. Doctor - expertise, trust, care (positive connotation)

3. House - warmth, safety, home (positive connotation)

4. Teacher - guidance, mentorship, authority (positive or negative)

5. Book - knowledge, wisdom, escape (positive connotation)

*Figures of Speech Definition:*

Figures of speech are words or phrases that deviate from literal or ordinary language to convey
meaning, create vivid imagery, or evoke emotions. They use language in a non-standard way to achieve
a particular effect, such as emphasis, contrast, or irony.

*Figures of Speech Examples:*

1. *Metaphor*: Comparison between two unlike things.

Example:

"He is a lion on the soccer field." (Comparing a person to an animal)

2. *Simile*: Comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as."

Example:

"She runs like a cheetah." (Comparing a person to an animal using "like")

3. *Hyperbole*: Exaggeration for emphasis.

Example:

"I'm so hungry I could eat a whole elephant." (Exaggerating hunger)

4. *Alliteration*: Repetition of initial consonant sounds.

Example:

"Sally sells seashells by the seashore." (Repeating "s" sounds)

5. Personification*: Attributing human qualities to non-human entities.

Example:

"The sun smiled down on us." (Giving human-like quality to the sun)

6. *Onomatopoeia*: Words imitating sounds.

Example:

"The firework exploded with a loud boom." (Imitating the sound of explosion)
*Other Common Figures of Speech:*

- Allegory

- Amphiboly

- Anaphora

- Antithesis

- Apostrophe

- Assonance

- Euphemism

- Idiom

- Irony

- Juxtaposition

- Oxymoron

- Paradox

- Pun

- Rhetorical question

- Symbolism

*Importance of Figures of Speech:*

- Enhance language expression

- Create vivid imagery

- Evoke emotions

- Convey complex ideas

- Add depth and meaning to text

- Engage readers or listeners

*SPEECH*

1. Narrative essay

Here are some tips for writing a narrative essay, along with a sample narrative essay:

*Tips for Writing a Narrative Essay:*

1. Start with a strong hook to grab the reader's attention.

2. Use descriptive language to paint a vivid picture.

3. Create a clear structure: introduction, body, and conclusion.

4. Use dialogue to bring characters to life.

5. Show, don't tell: use actions and sensory details.

6. Use transitions to connect ideas.

7. Edit and revise for clarity and flow.

*Sample Narrative Essay:*

*"A Memorable Camping Trip"*

"I still remember the crisp autumn air and the sound of leaves crunching beneath my feet as we arrived
at the campsite. Our family's annual camping trip was always a highlight of my childhood. This year, I
was determined to catch my first fish.

As we set up our tent, my dad began to teach me the art of fishing. His patient instructions and
encouraging smile calmed my nerves. With each cast, I felt more confident.

Suddenly, my line started to tug, and I exclaimed, 'I think I've got one!' My dad helped me reel it in, and
to my surprise, I had caught a beautiful trout.

That night, we sat around the campfire, roasting marshmallows and sharing stories. The stars twinkled
above, and I felt grateful for this quality time with my family.
Looking back, that camping trip taught me perseverance and the value of family bonding. It's a memory
I'll cherish forever."

*Key Elements of a Narrative Essay:*

1. Plot: A clear sequence of events.

2. Character development: Well-defined characters.

3. Setting: Vivid description of time and place.

4. Theme: Underlying message or lesson.

5. Point of view: Clear narrative perspective.

*Common Narrative Essay Topics:*

1. A challenging experience

2. A memorable vacation

3. A significant achievement

4. A life-changing event

5. A personal struggle

*2. Reported Speech*

Reported Speech is a way to express what someone said, thought, or wrote, without using their exact
words. It's also known as indirect speech.

_Key Features:_

1. No quotation marks

2. Changes in tense, pronouns, and time expressions

3. Introduction using verbs like "said," "told," "asked," or "thought"

_Examples of Reported Speech:_

1. Direct Speech: "I'm going to the store," said John.

Reported Speech: John said he was going to the store.

2. Direct Speech: "She will meet us tomorrow," said Emily.

Reported Speech: Emily said she would meet us the next day.

3. Direct Speech: "I've lost my phone," said David.

Reported Speech: David said he had lost his phone.

4. Direct Speech: "What time is the meeting?" asked Sarah.

Reported Speech: Sarah asked what time the meeting was.

5. Direct Speech: "I'll pick you up at 5," said Tom.

Reported Speech: Tom said he would pick me up at 5.

6. Direct Speech: "I've never been to Paris," said Rachel.

Reported Speech: Rachel said she had never been to Paris.

_Changes in Tense:_

1. Present Simple → Past Simple

2. Present Continuous → Past Continuous

3. Present Perfect → Past Perfect

4. Future Simple → Future in the Past

_Common Reporting Verbs:_

1. Say

2. Tell

3. Ask

4. Think

5. Believe

6. Claim

7. Suggest
8. Advise

_Benefits of Reported Speech:_

1. Paraphrasing information

2. Avoiding plagiarism

3. Changing tone or emphasis

4. Simplifying complex statements

5. Enhancing clarity and concision