Runyenjes Technical and Vocational

Institute

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND ICT

INTRODUCTION TO ICT NOTES

P.O BOX 239- 60103, RUNYENJES.

TEL: +254797210054

www.runyenjestechnical.ac.ke

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ 2
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ........................... 4
DEFINITION OF TERMS ........................................................................................................... 4
A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY .............................................................................................. 5
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS ............................................................................... 8
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ....................................................................................... 9
ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT .................................................................. 11
ROLE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY ............................................................................................. 12
THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM ..................................... 14
COMPUTER HARDWARE .................................................................. 15
HARDWARE CATEGORIES (FUNCTIONAL PARTS) ................................................................ 16
1. INPUT DEVICES ....................................................................................................... 16
2. PROCESSING DEVICES .......................................................................................... 25
3. OUTPUT DEVICES ................................................................................................... 28
4. STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA.................................................................................... 33
5. COMMUNICATION DEVICES .......................................................................................... 43
COMPUTER HARDWARE SELECTION CRITERIA............................................................ 44
COMPUTER SOFTWARE - INTRODUCTION .................................... 46
SYSTEM SOFTWARE.............................................................................................................. 46
APPLICATION SOFTWARE ................................................................................................... 50
CHOOSING APPROPRIATE COMPUTER SOFTWARE ....................................................... 53
WORD PROCESSING .............................................................................................................. 68
SPREAD SHEETS ..................................................................................................................... 76
 HOW WILL A CHANGE IN THE COST OF A RAW MATERIAL AFFECT PROFITS? .................. 77
 HOW CHANGES IN INTEREST RATES ARE GOING TO AFFECT REPAYMENTS? ................... 77
TYPES OF ERROR MESSAGES IN MS EXCEL 2003 ............................................................ 79
BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING .................................................. 85
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING ................................................................ 85
TYPES OF NETWORKS........................................................................................................... 86
NETWORK COMPONENTS .................................................................................................... 89
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ...................................................................................................... 96
INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB ................................................................................ 102
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL) ............................................................................................ 109
DATA PROCESSING ........................................................................ 121
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE ............................................................................................... 121
DATA PROCESSING MODES............................................................................................... 123
ELEMENTS OF DATA HIERARCHY ................................................................................... 123
FILE ORGANIZATION AND ACCESS METHODS ............................................................. 124
DATA SECURITY ............................................................................. 126
THREATS AND HAZARDS TO DATA ................................................................................. 126
METHODS OF SECURING DATA ........................................................................................ 126
HARDWARE SAFETY ........................................................................................................... 128
SOFTWARE SAFETY ............................................................................................................ 129
COMPUTER CRIMES ............................................................................................................ 131
HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES IN A COMPUTER ........................ 142
ENVIRONMENT (ERGONOMICS) ....................................................................................... 142

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EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ICT ..................................... 145
1. E-LEARNING...................................................................................................................... 145
2. E-COMMERCE ................................................................................................................... 145
3. DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS OF ICT ............................................................................... 146
4. E-GOVERNMENT .............................................................................................................. 147
5. E-HEALTH .......................................................................................................................... 147
6. E-EMPLOYMENT .............................................................................................................. 147
7. E-ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................. 147
8. E-AGRICULTURE .............................................................................................................. 148
EMERGING ISSUES IN ICT .................................................................................................. 148
9. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ............................................................................................. 148

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INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
DEFINITION OF TERMS
i) Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and under the control
of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use.

NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the manipulation
of electron flow for its operation.

ii) Data
Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively
meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee.

iii) Information
Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and
presented in a given context so as to make it useful. e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the
hourly rate to get each employee’s gross earning. Information is an important component in
decision making.

For example from a students test scores, the following information can be derived:
a) Class' average score
b) Most improved student
c) Median Score etc.

USES OF INFORMATION
(a) Decision-making
When managers are ready to make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date
information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure.
(b) Monitoring and control
Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they
will act upon it.

iv) Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT)

ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include
personal computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking
hardware.
For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications
technology (data, image, and voice networks).

v) Information System (IS)

An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and
procedures that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization. These
elements of an Information System are also known as the components of an Information System.

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Characteristics of High Quality Data
The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data.
a) Accuracy
Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it
may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity.

b) Validity
Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct
application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar
organizations, measuring what is intended to be measured.

c) Timeliness
Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be available for the
intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to
support information needs and to influence service or management decisions.

d) Relevance
Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a periodic
review of requirements to reflect changing needs.

e) Completeness
Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and
data collection processes matched to these requirements.

f) Uniqueness
In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive.

A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY

The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, may be
considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a system of
sliding beads arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting device.

The Abacus

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It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In 1642, Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a
numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight movable dials
to add sums up. It was not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged.

In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the ‘Difference Engine’, a machine which could
perform mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and
demonstrated to a number of audiences. He also worked on another invention, the more complex
Analytical Engine, a revolutionary device which was intended to be able to perform any
arithmetical calculation using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a
memory unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today's computers.
Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the analytical machine. She is claimed to be
possibly the first programmer.

Five Generations of Modern Computers

Modern computers can be classified into five generations.

First generation: 1946-1959.

First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs
produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were
very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations. The Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was announced in 1946. It cost almost
$500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today). The computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and
consumed 150 kW of electricity.

Another example of computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I
(UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW,
and could perform about 1,905 operations per second.

Vacuum Tubes

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In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation Punched cards,
Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. It is said that this computer
weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When this
computer was turned on for the first time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia. Computers
of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and they had no operating system.

NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time.

Second generation: 1959-1965.

Computers in this generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more
compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

A Transistor

In this generation assembly languages and high level programming languages like FORTRAN
and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include IBM 300 series and
the ATLAS.
NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power.
The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon instead
of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor
nor insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a conductor or an insulator
depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a
conductor.

Third Generation: 1965-1971.

The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in
size, reliable and efficient.

In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming

Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation

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NB:
o A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element.

o A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

store energy electrostatically in an electric field.

Fourth Generation: 1971-1980.

The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used.
All the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation

Fifth Generation: 1980-todate.

In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components or more.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)

software.

AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net
etc. are used in this generation
THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER’S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

 Continual decrease in computer size

 Improved speed and power of processing
 Decrease in computer’s power consumption and its related facilities cost
 Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

 Processing capability/Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of
processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always
give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which
could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided
in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the
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 same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of
the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
 Computer can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it’s
risky for humans to operate.
 Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
 Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
 Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

 Initial cost of installation is high
 Can result to retrenchment of staff
 Computerization projects are not always cost-effective
 In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to
the old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
 Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
 Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. pornography etc
 They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction
 Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by size and capability

a) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very
quickly. They use extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processor-
intensive calculations such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern modeling.
Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully
controlled environment and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large
commercial organizations. They are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous
variety of workloads. They can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line
secondary storage capacities. Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and
microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in
medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International
Computer Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities
i.e. they are designed for an individual. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell.
They include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks.
Examples of computers in this category include:

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 OTHERS
I. LAPTOPS
 Are among the smallest in modern world and have very large-scale circuit integration. They
have low memory and are portable.
 The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size. They are portable.
 Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited
 They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet.
 They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the
computer is carried around.
 They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a
touch pad).

II. PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA)

 It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability.
 They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws
characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus).
 PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection,
infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves.
 PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books,
and for taking notes.

III. PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC

 It is a very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability.
These devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and
small keyboard.
 They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
 Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can
check e-mail or surf the web on the move.

Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled)

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers
Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used
for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater
accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most
commonly used type of computers.

b) Analog computers
These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in
the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output
physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in
electronic voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog values, unlike digital values,
are typically many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the
slide rule.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers;
hybrid computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and economical method
of working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering.
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 Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a
dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time
the switch will be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which
have discrete values (like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off , but can
be changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full on setting. At any one instant,
a dimmer switch can have a setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog
electrical signal, which may be on or off or somewhere in between.

NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals.
Digital signals have two discrete states, on or off. Analog signals are continuous. An analog signal’s
voltage may be constant or vary with time.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose/ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word processing
etc.

ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only the way that
business is conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs. Examples are companies like Google,
Amazon, Safaricom M-Pesa and e-Bay.
Some examples of the nature of this change include:

Marketing and eCommerce: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and
cheaper ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods and
services whenever they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the level of customer
service.

Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage, QuickBooks and Excel
to manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information when required,
monitor and respond to their customers purchasing patterns. The result of this has been for many
companies a reduction in their accountancy fees.

Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away from the office attending
meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown alongside employee demands for
more flexible working patterns. However effective communication and ability to access information
remains critical to the productivity of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology
many companies now use a range of technologies to enable this. These include mobile phones, e-
mail, broadband, laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and adaptive
depending on their business needs.

Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The existence of two or
more computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of a network. The main advantage of
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 doing so is that resources can be shared e.g. printers, internet access, files/information can be
managed and shared amongst workstations and the security of information can be better managed
through a network. Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being adopted so
that they allow home/remote working that supports changing business needs.

Inventory management
Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an
order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a predetermined amount

Customer Relationship Management

Customer Relationship Management systems store every interaction a company has with a customer
for future reference. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits
from improved productivity.

Payroll Systems
A payroll system is used to maintain pay accounts of employees, easily and quickly.

Human Resource Management

HRIS help in recruitment, Human Resource Planning, wage and salary planning, personnel record
keeping and training and development.

ROLE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY

1. Industry and commerce
 It has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable
 Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and
services
 They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control

2. Health care
 Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and
monitoring
 Storage of medical records on patients
 Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations

3. Government Institutions
 Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and
improve work efficiency
4. Education and research
 Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions. Long distance learning (e-learning) has
replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage.
 It is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators.
 Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design.

5. Communication Industry
 In telecommunication industry, it is used in control of exchange switch
 Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and
goods
 Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment

6. Police and defense

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  Computers are currently used in fighting crime
 Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analysed by computers
 Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military

7. Home and leisure (entertainment)

 Computer can be used for home shopping
 There are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games
 They have also been used to help handicapped e.g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen to
help deaf, while text are turned into simulated speech for the blind.

8. Employment
 Employment in the computer industry world wide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher
percentages
 In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing industry.

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is now more commonly called problematic internet use (PIU) or
compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include internet overuse, problematic computer use
or pathological computer use – and even iDisorder. These terms refer to excessive computer use that
interferes with daily life.

Internet addiction includes:

a) Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber porn.
b) Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships.
c) Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading.
d) Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches.
e) Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing.

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THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer System

System Unit

Arithmetic & Logic Unit

Control Unit

Input Main Memory Output

Devices (Primary storage) Devices

Secondary Storage Communication

Devices Devices

Key
Flow of Information

Flow of Instructions

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data. Consists of
the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
o Control Unit – Controls execution of programs. The control unit does not execute
program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.
o Registers – Temporary and very fast storage areas for instructions and data
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/ processing.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by the
computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.
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COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hard ware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary storage
(for data and programs), and communication.

Basic Computer Parts

System Unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your
desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your
computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that
the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is
turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into
specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system
unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices can be external such as a mouse, keyboard,
printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal
modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals. There are two types
according to shape: tower and desktop.

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed circuit board
found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial electronic components of the
system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other
peripherals.

The Power Supply

Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC
input to lower DC voltages, a form that is usable by the Personal computer. The typical voltages supplied are:

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  3.3 volts
 5 volts
 12 volts

The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors in disk
drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup
is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically
mains power, fails. The device allows the computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary
power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in"
when the device senses a loss of power from the primary source.

HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts)

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information.
Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device. There are five main
hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication
devices.

1. INPUT DEVICES
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as speech or hand-
written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that provides easy
conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly achieved by typing data using the
keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any other input device.

a) THE KEYBOARD
Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer (refer to figure 2.2). It contains
three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to

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type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>,
<Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3>
etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g.F5 reloads a page of an internet
browser. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC. When any
key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a
binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys
keyboard is the most popular one.

How the keys are organized

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and symbol
keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT, the Windows key , and
ESC.
 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labelled as F1, F2, F3,
and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
 Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or
WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN,
DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are grouped
together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

Key names
A – Function keys
B – Alphanumeric keys
C – Control keys
D – Navigation keys/cursor movement keys
E – Numeric keypad

The above illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard. Your keyboard layout may
differ.

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Exercise: With the help of your tutor, identify all the keys in each of the categories listed above and
their general tasks.

b) THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in
many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the
system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB. Some
newer mice are wireless.

A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many
mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of
information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The
pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to
select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and
clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. There are several types of mice:
Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse and laser mouse.

Basic parts
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button (usually
the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most mice also include a scroll
wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and WebPages more easily. On some mice,
the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can
perform other functions.

Holding and moving the mouse

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the mouse
gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and you thumb resting on the side. To move the
mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you. As
you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen moves in the same direction. If you run out of
room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back closer to you.

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Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight.

Pointing, clicking, and dragging

Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item.
When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item. For example, when you
point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information: "Contains the files and folders
that you have deleted."

Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it

The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing at. For example, when you point to a link in your
web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a hand with a pointing finger .

Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There are four basic ways to
use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging.

Clicking (single-clicking)

To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button (usually the
left button).

Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes called single-clicking
or left-clicking.

Double-clicking

To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the two clicks are
spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one double-click.

Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can start a program or
open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.

Right-clicking

To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary button
(usually the right button).

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Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example, when you
right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it,
delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.

Right-clicking the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands

Dragging

You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to the object on the
screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new location, and then release the primary
button.

Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and folders to a
different location and to move windows and icons around on your screen.

Using the scroll wheel

If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and WebPages. To scroll down,
roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away from you).

The mouse as an input device- every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input
signal to the computer. These commands allow you to open programs, drag objects, and perform many other
functions on your computer.

Mouse Types
i. Opto-Mechanical Type
This type of mouse contains a round ball that makes contact with two rollers—one for the x-axis (the
horizontal) and one for the y-axis (the vertical). Moving the mouse causes the ball to roll, and because the
ball is in contact with the two rollers, it causes them to turn. These rollers are connected to wheels with small
holes in them. Each wheel rotates between the arms of a U-shaped optical sensor. The holes allow a light to
shine through the wheel onto the optical sensor in flashes as the wheel turns. By the speed and patterns of the
light pulses, the mouse senses the speed and direction it is moving and sends its interpretation of those
movements to the computer and the mouse control software.

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 ii. Optical Mouse
An optical mouse looks the same as any other computer mouse, except there is no mouse “ball.” Instead, the
optical mouse uses a special mouse pad and a beam of laser light. The beam of light shines onto the mouse
pad and reflects back to a sensor in the mouse. The mouse pad has small lines crossing it that can reflect the
light into the sensor in different ways. It is in this fashion that the optical mouse detects direction and speed
of movements.

c) TRACKBALLS
A trackball is basically an opto-mechanical mouse turned upside down. Instead of moving the mouse on a
table, you move the mouse ball (or, properly, the trackball), which otherwise remains stationary.

c) COMPUTER TERMINAL. A terminal is a form of input and output device. A terminal can be
connected to a mainframe or other type of computers called a host computer or server. There are four types
of terminals namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet.

 Dumb Terminal
- Used to display, send, and receive text.
- It cannot process data independently.
E.g. a terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe computer for flight
information is an example of a dumb terminal

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  Intelligent/Smart Terminal
- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage. It has a processor and does its
own processing. It can also submit jobs to be processed by a server or mainframe, but it can stand
alone as a non-connected machine
- It uses communications software and a telephone hookup or other communications link.
E.g. a microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or network link is an
example of an intelligent terminal.
 Network Terminal
- Also known as a thin client or network computer.
- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.
- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.
- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application or system
software.
 Internet Terminal
- It is also known as a web terminal.
- It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard television set.
- It is used almost exclusively in the home.
 Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct entry.
POS software records each sale when it happens, so that inventory records are always up-to-date.
 Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.
 Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags.

Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform scanners as direct entry devices.
 Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters.
 Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable code.
 Encoded information on the product’s barcode e.g. price appear on terminal’s digital display.

Bar code readers

d) Direct data entry devices

Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go directly to the CPU. It reduces human error that
may occur during keyboard entry. Direct entry devices include pointing, scanning, voice-input devices and
gaming devices.
(i) The mouse as an input device - every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific
input signal to the CPU. These commands allow you to open programs, drag objects, and perform
many other functions on your computer.
(ii) Pen input devices e.g. Light pen, stylus pen etc
Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light pens
accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed against the

22
 monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot for entering or
modifying data. It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar
way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. Engineers who design microprocessor
chips or airplane parts use light pens.
A stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to input commands to a computer
screen, mobile device or graphics tablet. With touch screen devices, a user places a stylus on the
surface of the screen to draw or make selections by tapping the stylus on the screen

Stylus pen

(iii) Touch sensitive screen

Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu items
by touching a portion of a special screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are
crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can activate
actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centers, restaurants,
and convenience stores. They are popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade
of gas or request a receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants
to allow clerks to easily enter orders.

(iv) Scanning Devices

Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data directly into a
computer. The scanner digitises the data into machine-readable form. The scanning devices used
in direct-entry include the following:
 Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.
 Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be sent over
telephone lines.
 Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks printed on items.
 Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read characters and
marks on documents.
There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers printed at
the bottom of checks in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data that is
both machine readable and human readable. The technology allows MICR readers to scan
and read the information directly into a data-collection device. The use of MICR readers
increases the speed and accuracy of processing checks.

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  Optical-Character Recognition (OCR)
It is the electronic conversion of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into
machine-encoded text. It is widely used as a form of data entry from original paper data source such as
documents, sales receipts, mail, or any number of printed records. It is a common method of digitizing
printed texts so that they can be electronically searched, stored more compactly, displayed on-line, and
used in machine processes.

 Optical-Mark Recognition (OMR)

This is the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.
Optical mark recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks
on what is sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized tests, such as
the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.

NB/ Scanners are generally classified into two: flatbed scanners and handheld scanners. Flatbed scanners are
named after the flat bed of glass that the item to be scanned would lie upon, they resemble the top half of
a photocopier

(v) Voice–input devices

Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition can be used
for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may use voice
recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient. Voice recognition can also be
used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into certain areas or to use certain devices.

 Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

 The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
 A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system.

(vi) Gaming Equipment

Games players have a wide range of hardware available to them to help them drive, fly, score, and shoot
more realistically than by using a mouse. The most common are joysticks but they can also choose steering
wheels, gamepads, and headsets.

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Joystick Gamepad

2. PROCESSING DEVICES

FUNCTIONAL/LOGICAL PARTS OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer system
devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system unit.

Computer system
Communication
Devices CPU

System Unit
Control Arithmetic &
Unit Logic Unit

Input Registers (storage area) Output

Devices Devices

Main Memory
(Primary storage)

Secondary
Storage Devices

(i) Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.
(ii) The CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls and executes the
processing of instructions. The CPU produces electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant rate.
(iii)Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/ processing. Output
devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
(iv) Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by the
computer system.
(v) Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.

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(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
This is the part of the computer that processes data. Consists of the control unit and the arithmetic
and logic unit and the buses.
 Control Unit
o Controls execution of programs.
o It fetches instructions from memory, interprets and send the instructions to other
components. Instructions to the CPU are stored in memory, and the CPU functions by
following a cycle of fetching an instruction, decoding it and executing it. This process is
known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
o Maintains order and controls activity in CPU
o Directs sequence of operations
o Communicates with Input-Output devices for transfer of data/results into/from storage
o Does not process or store data.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program instructions
i.e. arithmetic and logical operations. The arithmetic/logic unit can perform four kinds of
arithmetic operations, or mathematical calculations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. As its name implies, the arithmetic/logic unit also performs logical operations. A logical
operation is usually a comparison. It also does branching on prefixed conditions.

 Registers: Temporary Storage Areas

Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data inside the CPU. They are not a part
of memory; rather they are special additional storage locations that offer the advantage of speed.
Registers work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or
data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at high speed. The control unit uses a data
storage register the way a storeowner uses a cash register-as a temporary, convenient place to
store what is used in transactions.

Computers usually assign special roles to certain registers, including these registers:

o An accumulator, which collects the result of computations.

o An address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data is
stored in memory. The memory address of an instruction is incremented with every fetch-
execute cycle so that no instruction is fetched twice. Each storage location in memory is
identified by an address, just as each house on a street has an address.
o A storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to
memory.
o A general-purpose register, which is used for several functions
 CPU Buses: these components are the information highway for the CPU. Buses are bundles of
tiny wires that carry data between components. The three most important buses are the address,
the data, and the control buses.

An address bus is a computer bus (a series of lines connecting two or more devices) that is used
to specify a physical address. When a processor or DMA-enabled device needs to read or write to
a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the address bus (the value to be read or
written is sent on the data bus).

A control bus is (part of) a computer bus, used by CPUs for communicating with other devices
within the computer. While the address bus carries the information on which device the CPU is
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 communicating with and the data bus carries the actual data being processed, the control bus
carries commands from the CPU and returns status signals from the devices.

64-bit Athlon Microprocessor by AMD

(ii) Main Memory

Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related to the CPU.
Main memory holds portions of the operating system, program instructions and data before and after
execution by the CPU. All instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is located
physically close to the CPU to reduce access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve data from
memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory access time, memory has not advanced as
quickly as processors. Memory access time is often measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a
second.

iii) CPU CACHE MEMORY

A CPU cache is a type of memory used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from
frequently used main memory locations. Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (in-built in the
processor) which is referred to as Level 1 (L1) cache. This can be supplemented by external cache memory
fitted on the motherboard and referred to as Level-2 cache memory or secondary cache.

NB/ Some computers come equipped with COPROCESSORS. A coprocessor is a special-purpose processing
unit that assists the CPU in performing certain types of operations. For example, a math coprocessor
performs mathematical computations, particularly floating-point operations. Math coprocessors are also
called numeric and floating-point coprocessors.

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Most computers come with a floating-point coprocessors built in. Note, however, that the program itself must
be written to take advantage of the coprocessor. If the program contains no coprocessor instructions, the
coprocessor will never be utilized.

In addition to math coprocessors, there are also graphics coprocessors for manipulating graphic images.
These are often called accelerator boards.

3. OUTPUT DEVICES
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in which case the
information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a monitor screen for a soft
copy information.
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer’s CPU into
meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable information into human-
readable information.

a) PUNCHED CARDS: A punched card is a piece of stiff paper that contained either commands for
controlling a computer or data for data processing applications. Both commands and data were represented
by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Characters are coded onto an 80-column card in
columns by combining punches in different locations; a special card reader reads the cards and translates
them into transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older applications. Early digital
computers also used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for
input of both computer programs and data.

b) PRINTERS
– Outputs printouts on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.
Categorized according to:

(I) Printing Capacity

- Character printers – Print one character at a time.

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 - Line printers – Print one line at a time.
- Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of Printing

- Impact Printers
- Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers create an image by using some mechanism to physically press an inked ribbon against the
page, causing the ink to be deposited on the page in the shape desired. These printers are typically loud, but
remain in use today because of their unique ability to function with multipart forms. Multipart forms are
sheets of paper with embedded carbon paper so that printing on the top sheet provides several copies
simultaneously when the multiple parts are split.

a) Dot matrix printers

Dot matrix printers which uses a print head that runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the
page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print
mechanism on a typewriter. The print head typically has 9 or 24 pins. Each character is made from a matrix
of dots. The images are relatively of poor quality since dots are visible upon close inspection. They are
inexpensive to buy compared to other types and have one of the lowest printing costs per page. They are,
however, noisy and low-end models are slow (speed varies with price).

b) Daisy-Wheel Printer

The daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in relief along the outer
edge. To print a character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a
hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on
the paper. You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.

Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing from 10 to about

29
75 characters per second. As the price of laser and ink-jet printers has declined, and the quality of dot-matrix
printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become obsolete.

A daisy wheel

Non-Impact Printers

This type of printers does not operate by striking a head against a ribbon.

a) Ink jet printers

These form images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer relatively good image quality
with so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are relatively quiet
compared to dot matrix and most can print colour images. They are the most commonly used.

b) Laser jet printers

They form images using copier technology. When a document is sent to the printer, a laser beam "draws"
the document on a selenium-coated drum using electrical charges. After the drum is charged, it is rolled in
toner, a dry powder type of ink. The toner adheres to the charged image on the drum. The toner is
transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with heat and pressure. After the document is
printed, the electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected. These printers have
excellent image quality – so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They
are quieter than ink jet printers.

c) Thermal Printers

Thermal printing produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermo-chromic paper (paper that is
coated with a chemical that changes color when exposed to heat), or thermal paper as it is commonly known,
when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated,
producing an image. It is very quiet and not widely used by home PC users. Some very expensive colour
models are available. “Ink” in these computers is wax crayons.
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C) PLOTTERS
Printers make images one line at a time and move from top to bottom during the printing process. Plotters, on
the other hand, draw the image as we would, with a pen; one shape at a time. Plotters are most often used
with CAD software to produce blueprints or technical diagrams. It would be quite expensive to make a
printer that can print on paper as wide as these drawings require. Because a plotter uses a pen (or several pens
in a holder) on a cable carrier, it is easy (and relatively inexpensive) to make a very wide plotter.

Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used to produce
charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations. They can produce high-
quality multi-colour documents or large size documents. Plotters produce documents such as blueprints or
schematics.

In the past, plotters were used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they have generally
been replaced with wide-format conventional printers.

D) MONITORS/VDU (Visual Display Unit)

Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long as the monitor’s
power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some are used on the desktop; others are
portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and clarity.

A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that
displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still or
moving pictures.

The monitor forms images from tiny dots, called pixels. Pixels are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels. There are several types of
monitors:
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CRT MONITORS
The cathode ray tube (CRT) technology uses a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source
of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate
and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors
1. Sharpness
CRT monitors produce images with softer edges that are not as sharp as an LCD at its native resolution.
Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce sharpness.

2. Interference from magnetic fields

They are affected by magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs.

3. Brightness
Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit environments.

4. Screen Shape
Some CRTs have a rounded, spherical or cylindrical shape screen which distorts images when viewed from
acute angles.. Newer CRTs are flat.

5. Emissions
CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic radiations. There is considerable controversy as to
whether any of these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields. The most authoritative scientific
studies conclude that they are not harmful but some people remain unconvinced.

6. Physical
They are large, heavy, and bulky.

7. Electricity Consumption
They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat.

TFT MONITORS

Short for thin film transistor, a type of LCD flat-panel display screen, in which each pixel is controlled by
from one to four transistors. The TFT technology provides the best resolution of all the flat-panel techniques,
but it is also the most expensive.

LCD MONITORS

Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD
displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric
current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each
crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.

LED DISPLAY

An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video display.

PLASMA DISPLAY

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A type of flat-panel display that works by sandwiching a neon/xenon gas mixture between two sealed glass
plates with parallel electrodes deposited on their surfaces. The plates are sealed so that the electrodes form
right angles, creating pixels. When a voltage pulse passes between two electrodes, the gas breaks down and
produces weakly ionized plasma, which emits UV radiation. The UV radiation activates colour phosphors
and visible light is emitted from each pixel.

F) VOICE-OUTPUT DEVICES
Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech. Voice-output devices use pre-recorded
vocalized sounds to produce output. The computer “speaks” synthesized words. Voice output is not as
difficult to create as voice input. Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and headphones.
Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit. Sound card is used to capture sound as well as
play it back.

Examples of voice output uses:

 Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
 Voice output can be used as a tool for learning: can help students study a foreign language.
 Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm purchases.
 Most powerful capability is to assist the physically challenged.

4. STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA

Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.

Types of Memory
1) Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main working area in a computer in which data
is stored for quick access by the computer's processor.

2) Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all data storage that is not currently in a computer's
primary storage or memory. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage
and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose
the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORY

(a) Unlike primary memory, secondary memory is not directly accessed through CPU.
(b) Primary memory is volatile in nature, while secondary memory is non volatile. The information that is
stored in the primary memory cannot be retained when the power is turned off.
(c) The primary memory is much faster in terms of data access time than the secondary memory.
(d) In terms of cost, the primary memory is more expensive than the secondary memory devices.
(e) The primary memory contains program and data that is currently being used by the CPU (temporary)
while secondary memory is used for bulk storage of data permanently.
(f) Primary memory is much smaller than secondary memory.

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1. PRIMARY STORAGE
a) RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as main
memory or primary storage. Its contents can be read and can be changed and is the working area for the
user. It is used to hold portions of the operating system, programs and data during processing. RAM chips
are volatile, that is, they lose their contents if power is disrupted. Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB,
64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc.
There are several types of RAM:

 DRAM – Dynamic RAM

With Dynamic RAM the memory must be constantly refreshed (reenergized) or it will lose its contents.
 EDO RAM –Extended Data Out Random Access Memory
Unlike conventional DRAM which can only access one block of data at a time, EDO RAM can start
fetching the next block of memory at the same time that it sends the previous block to the CPU.
 SRAM – Static RAM
Static RAM is faster and less volatile than dynamic RAM, but it requires more power and is more
expensive
 SDRAM – Synchronous DRAM
This is a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually
synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus and is capable of running at 133 MHz about twice as fast EDO RAM. DDR
(Double Data Rate), DDR2 and DDR3 are examples of SDRAM.

b) Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more quickly than RAM
and more expensive than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved more
quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (in-built in
the processor) which is referred to as Level 1 (L1) cache. This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted
on the motherboard and referred to as Level-2 cache memory or secondary cache.

c) ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed. ROM chips are non-
volatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM provides permanent storage for unchanging
data & instructions, such as data from the computer maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the
computer called the bootstrap program.
ROM chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the manufacturer and cannot
be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the chip.

Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using special equipment; it
can be written to, but only once. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm systems.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. A
little glass window is installed on top of the ROM package, through which you can actually see the chip that
holds the memory. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined through this window for a specified
period of time, which will erase the EPROM and allow it to be reprogrammed again. These chips are usually
34
easily identified by their small, circular windows. The windows in EPROM chips are used during the erasure
process.

Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of erasability is the EEPROM,
which can be erased under software control. This is the most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly
used for holding BIOS programs. When you hear reference to a "flash BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade by
"flashing", this refers to reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special software program. This is not a
contradiction of what "read-only" really means, but the rewriting is done maybe once a year or so, compared
to real read-write memory (RAM) where rewriting is done often many times per second. Flash memory was
derived from EEPROM.

It is very inconvenient to remove an IC every time it needs to have the software it contains upgraded.
EEPROM chips can be erased by sending a special sequence of electric signals to the chip while it is still in
the circuit. These signals then erase all or part of the chip.

NB/For the most part, PCs today use memory chips arranged on a small circuit board. These circuit boards
are called Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs) or Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs), depending
on if there are chips on on……e side of the circuit board or on both sides, respectively.

d) Non-Volatile CMOS (CMOS RAM) It was traditionally called CMOS RAM because it used a small,
low-power Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) battery when system power is off. The
battery also keeps the Real-Time Clock (RTC) going. The CMOS RAM and the real-time clock have been
integrated as a part of the Southbridge chipset and it may not be a standalone chip on modern motherboards.
The CMOS is used to store basic information about the PC’s configuration: number of hard drives, how
much memory etc. Boot order settings, date and CMOS password are also stored in the CMOS
memory.

e) Non-Volatile BIOS Memory

This is a block of Read Only Memory (ROM) which is separate from the main system memory used for
loading and running software. The Rom contains the PC’s Basic Input/Output system (BIOS)

The BIOS performs the following routines and functions:

1. When the machine is powered on, it inspects the computer to determine what hardware is fitted and
then conducts some simple tasks to see if everything is functioning normally - process known as the
Power-On Self Test (POST).

2. If any of the peripherals are plug-and-play devices, the BIOS recognizes them and assigns them
resources.

35
 3. Allows the PC’s set-up configuration to be viewed and edited.

If all the tests are passed, the ROM boots the machine. This, it does by looking at the boot sector of either a
hard disk or any other drive to find the boot loader program of the operating system. When it does find the
file, it loads the file into RAM, and then the operating system takes charge of the computer.

1. SECONDARY STORAGE
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY STORAGE

a) Internal Storage Media

Internal storage allows the data and applications to be loaded very rapidly into memory, ready for use. The
data can be accessed much faster than data which is stored on an external storage device. This is because
internal storage devices are connected directly to the motherboard and its data bus whereas external devices
are connected through a hardware interface such as USB, which means they are considerably slower to
access.
Internal storage also means that if the computer is moved around, it will still retain its most frequently used
data. The main disadvantage of internal storage is that when the hard disk fails, all the data and applications
may be lost.
This can be avoided to some extent by using more than one hard disk within the machine. Each hard disk has
a copy of all the data, so if one fails the other can carry on. This is called a RAID array. An alternative is to
use external media for backup. An example of internal storage media is an internal/fixed hard disk.

b) External Storage Media

These media are normally used for data back-ups and are not permanently fixed inside a computer. To fulfill
the large storage requirements of computers, magnetic disks such as diskettes and external hard disks, optical
disks such as CDs and DVDs and flash drives are generally used. Advantages of external storage include:
 Data can be transported easily from one place to another- portable.
 It is useful to store software and data that is not needed frequently.
 External storage also acts as data back-up.
 External storage provides additional storage other than available in the computer.

Magnetic Storage Media

How Magnetic Storage Works
•A magnetic disk's medium contains iron oxide particles, which can be polarized—given a magnetic
charge—in one of two directions.
•Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off), representing each bit of data that the CPU can
recognize.
•A disk drive uses read/write heads containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the medium. An
electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by electric current.

36
The primary types of magnetic storage Media are:
•Diskettes (floppy disks)
•Hard disks
•High-capacity floppy disks
•Disk cartridges
•Magnetic tape

1. Diskettes/Floppy disks
•Diskette drives, also known as floppy disk drives, read and write to diskettes (called floppy disks or
floppies).
•Diskettes are used to transfer files between computers, as a means for distributing software, and as a backup
medium.
•Diskettes come in two sizes: 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch.

2. Hard Disks
•Hard disks use multiple platters, stacked on a spindle. Each platter has two read/write heads, one for each
side.
•Hard disks use higher-quality media and a faster rotational speed than diskettes.
•Removable hard disks combine high capacity with the convenience of diskettes.

37
2. Disk cartridges are like small removable hard disks, and can store up to 2 GB.

Disk cartridge
3. Magnetic tapes offer very slow data access, but provide large capacities and AT low cost.

Magnetic Tape

38
 Disk Capacities
•Diskettes are available in different capacities, but the most common store 1.44 MB. High-capacity
floppy disks offer capacities up to 250 MB
•Hard disks store large amounts of data. New PCs feature hard disks with capacities of 10 GB and higher.

Advantages of Magnetic Devices

 They are very cheap for example floppy disks.
 They offer very fast data access speeds, about 1000kb/s
 Data can be read directly from any part of the hard disk
 Most of the devices store very large amounts of data e.g. hard disks.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Devices
 Data can be altered or erased by magnetic fields, dust or mechanical problems
 They gradually lose their charge over time and therefore lose data
 Hard disks eventually fail which stops the computer from working
 Regular clashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data.

b) Optical Storage Devices

•An optical disk is a high-capacity storage medium. An optical drive uses reflected light to read data.
•To store data, the disk's metal surface is covered with tiny dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which cause
light to be reflected differently.
•When an optical drive shines light into a pit, the light cannot be reflected back. This represents a bit
value of 0 (off). A land reflects light back to its source, representing a bit value of 1 (on). Laser
technology is used to record and read information from a CD’s or a DVD’s surface.

Types of Optical Storage Devices

1. CD-ROM
•In PCs, the most commonly used optical storage technology is called Compact Disk Read-Only Memory
(CD-ROM). CDs use microscopic indentations (Pits) and flat surfaces (Lands) to store information.
•A standard CD-ROM disk can store up to 650 – 700 MB of data, or about 70 minutes of audio.
•Once data is written to a standard CD-ROM disk, the data cannot be altered or overwritten.

CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable)

A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The user can write data to it just once. After data has been written
to the disk it cannot be changed. CD-Rs are often used for making permanent backups of data and
distributing software when only a small number of copies are required.
39
CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable)
CD-RW disks can be read from and written to many times

CD-ROM Speeds and Uses

•Early CD-ROM drives were called single speed, and read data at a rate of 150 KBps. (Hard disks transfer
data at rates of 5 – 15 MBps).
•CD-ROM drives now can transfer data at speeds of up to 7800 KBps. Data transfer speeds are getting faster.
•CD-ROM is typically used to store software programs. CDs can store audio and video data, as well as text
and program instructions.

2. DVD-ROM
•A variation of CD-ROM is called Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM), and is being used
in place of CD-ROM in many newer PCs. Its speed is much faster than CD and has a much higher storage
capacity. This is made possible by the reduction of the distance between the pits.
•Standard DVD disks storage capacity is 4.7GB of data—enough to store an entire movie. Dual-layer DVD
disks can store up to 17 GB.
•Dual-layer DVD disks can store so much data because both sides of the disk are used, along with
sophisticated data compression technologies.

DVD-RW
These disks can be read from and written onto many times.

Difference between DVD and CD

3. Blu-Ray Disc
Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a digital optical disc data storage format designed to supersede the DVD format. The
plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional (pre-
BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for
feature-length video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (128 GB) are available for BD-
XL re-writer drives. The name Blu-ray Disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows
information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for
DVDs. The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video material such as feature films.

The Blu-ray disc overcomes DVD-reading issues by placing the data on top of a 1.1-mm-thick
polycarbonate layer. Having the data on top prevents birefringence and therefore prevents readability
40
problems. And, with the recording layer sitting closer to the objective lens of the reading mechanism, the
problem of disc tilt is virtually eliminated. Because the data is closer to the surface, a hard coating is placed
on the outside of the disc to protect it from scratches and fingerprints.

Advantages of Using Optical Devices over Magnetic Disks

 In magnetic devices, data can be altered or erased by magnetic fields, dust or mechanical problems unlike
in optical devices where data cannot be affected by dust, magnetic fields or fingerprints.
 Magnetic devices gradually lose their charge over time and therefore lose data whereas data written on
optical devices is usually permanent.
 Hard disks, which are magnetic, eventually fail which stops the computer from working.
 Regular clashes of magnetic devices can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data.
 Optical disks are more durable and last a long time. There is a greater distance between the media and the
Read/Write element in a CD as compared to magnetic storage and therefore optical devices can be used
repeatedly without wear or data damage.
 Optical devices are more portable in that they are small and lightweight.
 They are inexpensive i.e. they are cheaper to manufacture than magnetic devices.

Flash/Electronic Memory
Flash memory and pen drives are very common today. Flash memory is also known as a solid state storage
device because there are no moving parts and therefore less susceptible to mechanical damage. They are
also small in physical size and light in weight therefore portable. Flash memory also transfers data at a
faster rate than optical and magnetic media. They are useful in devices where frequent updating of data is
required. Flash memory is usually found in digital cameras, digital camcorders and mobile phones.

Examples of flash memory include:

 Memory sticks/flash disks

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  Secure digital (SD Cards)
 MultiMedia card (MMC)
 Smart cards

Other Backup Options

 Zip drive/disk – It is a special diskettes that hold 100 MB, 250 MB or 750 MB
 SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB

SyQuest drive

 RAID - RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent or Inexpensive Disks. RAID technology
is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions are lost in the event
of disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard disks in a special controller unit and storing data
across all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction information that allows data to be
recovered if a hard disk fails.

 Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers and storage devices in a
network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area network can be quickly
retrieved and backed up. The use of storage area networks is likely to increase in the near future.
The storage devices are accessible to servers so that the devices appear like they are locally attached
to the operating system.

 Cloud Storage
This refers to saving data to an off-site storage system maintained by a third party i.e. the hosting
company. People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from the providers to store user,
organizational or application data.

 Computer Output Microfilm/Microfiche (COM) – A microfilm is a film on which printed

materials are photographed at greatly reduced size for ease of storage. Companies that must store
significant numbers of paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These devices
transfer data directly from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the intermediate step of
printing the document on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive old issues in this
42
 manner, although some are now using optical storage devices. Data written on a microfilm is read
using a microfilm reader.

Storage Capacity Abbreviations

 KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)
 MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
 GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
 TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Difference between storage media and storage devices

A storage medium (media is the plural) is the physical material on which items are kept. A storage device is
the computer hardware that records and retrieves items to and from a storage medium. Storage devices can
function as sources of input and output. When storage devices transfer items from a storage medium into
memory – a process called reading – they function as sources of input. When storage devices transfer items
from memory to a storage medium – a process called writing – they function as sources of output.
Sometimes the storage medium is removable from the device, e.g. a CD-ROM can be taken out of a CD
drive.Types of storage media include floppy disks, hard disks, compact discs, tape, PC Cards, microfilm, and
microfiche.

5. COMMUNICATION DEVICES

A communication device is a piece of equipment or hardware designed to help computers or electronic

devices communicate with each other.
 Network Interface Card/Controller (Network Interface Card, Network Adapter, LAN adapter,
Ethernet card)
In computer networking, a NIC provides the hardware interface between a computer and a network.
Network cards convert the binary data generated by the computer into electrical voltages or other
signal types the network medium uses and converts received signals to binary data for use by the
computer. Every NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address and because an NIC's
MAC address is permanent, it's often referred to as the "real," or physical, address of a computer.
NICs are built into the motherboard of most new computers integrated into the motherboard chipset
or implemented via a low-cost dedicated Ethernet chip.

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  Modem
Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone system (based on analog
technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog, sends it over the phone line, and then
another modem at the other end of the line turns the analog signal back into digital data.

 Fax modem
Basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware that enables faxing of
information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine (NOTE: a separate scanner must
be connected to the computer in order to use the fax/modem to transfer external documents) A fax
modem enables a computer to transmit and receive documents as faxes on a telephone line.

COMPUTER HARDWARE SELECTION CRITERIA

The following factors are considered when selecting hardware for use:
i) Compatibility and Industry Standards:
 Is the hardware compatible and futuristic in regard to other pieces of hardware in your technology
plan;
 Are there industry standards for similar hardware components;
 Is transfer of operating knowledge from other technologies applicable?
ii) Ease of Operation:
 Can hardware be installed and maintained by local personnel;
 Are adult and student users able to access/use hardware with minimal additional technology
competencies;
 Can hardware be serviced, maintained, and upgraded locally?
iii) Support:
 Is technical support provided by vendor at minimal cost and available in a variety of mediums;
 Are printed and electronic manuals written and understandable;
 Does the vendor have a strong Research and Development Department;
 Does the vendor have a strong commitment to the Educational Community?
iv) Cost: initial and maintenance
 Is the cost competitive within the market place for like specifications;
 Are the required/requested components included in the purchase price;
 Are detailed and renewal warranties available?
v) Reputation of the manufacturer.
 Financial stability
 Record of keeping promises
vi) Specific Considerations:
 Is there capability for and ease of using multimedia;
 Is the equipment networkable?
 Does the hardware include sound utilities, video input/output, etc;
 Is the built in memory sufficient and expandable;
 Is the hard drive storage adequate and expandable;
 Are computers and printers compatible;
 Are there adequate electronic devices available for backup and storage of data;
 Are printers adequate to handle current and future job loads;
 Are monitors and projection devices adequate for small and large groups;
 Do presentation systems have quality sound in and out capabilities
vii) Ordering/Acquisition Suggestions:
44
  Occasionally group purchases/bundles are available; investigate current or pending offers
 Hardware packages may not provide adequate memory for necessary program functions;
consideration should be given to the savings of the package vs. the cost of additional memory
upgrades.
 Consideration must be given to whether a line of equipment is being discontinued; what
implications does the discontinuance have on issues such as maintenance.
 Review the type of warranty which is provided on the hardware.
 Maintain copies of all warranties.
 When purchasing software, it is recommended that companies offering 30 day preview of software
be used whenever possible.

HOW TO AQCUIRE ICT RESOURCES – PROCEDURE

1. Conduct feasibility study: Economic, Operational, Technical etc.
2. Prepare invitation to tender
3. Receive response from suppliers
4. Shortlist best suppliers
5. Call them for interview
6. Select one and sign a contract
7. Wait for delivery

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE - INTRODUCTION
A computer software/program is a sequence of instructions (machine-readable) that tell
the computer hardware what to do.
There are two major categories of software: system and application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Systems software consists of programs that co-ordinate the activities of hardware and
other programs. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The
combination of a particular hardware configuration and operating system is called
a computer platform. These programs manage the "behind the scenes" operation of the
computer.

TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

1. Operating systems (OS) – This is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs.
Examples of operating systems include:
 DOS – Disk operating system
 Windows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME, XPLinux,Windows Server 2003
 Unix
 MAC OS X
 System 7/Mac OS 7
 Solaris

2. Utility Programs – This is system software designed to help analyze, configure and
maintain a computer. Utility programs often come installed on computer systems or
packaged with operating systems. Utilities can also be purchased individually.
Examples of utility programs include:
a. Language processors – Compilers and interpreters.
b. Disk cloning- Refers to the process of copying the contents of one computer hard
disk to another disk or to an "image" file. Unlike standard copying functions,
disk cloning involves copying hidden and in-use files, and thus presents special
challenges, as those types of files are typically not available for copying.
Examples include Disk Copy by Apple and DriveClone by Farstone Technology.
c. Disk Compression – A type of data compression that works by storing
compressed versions of files on the hard disk. A disk compression utility sits
between the operating system and the disk drive. Whenever the operating system
attempts to save a file to disk, the utility intercepts it and compresses it.
Likewise, when the operating system attempts to open a file, the disk
compression utility intercepts the file, decompresses it, and then passes it to the
operating system.
d. Antivirus software
e. Backup software
f. Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
g. Disk Defragmenter
h. Disk partitioning for dividing an individual drive into multiple logical drives
i. Disk Cleaner
j. Debuggers
k. Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old
registry keys that are no longer in use.
46
Types of Operating Systems

 Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
All mainframes and minicomputers are multi-user systems, but most personal
computers and workstations are not.
 Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU. The
system has two or more processing units (multiple processors) each sharing
the main memory and peripherals, in order to simultaneously process programs.
This is also called parallel processing and is made possible by multithreading
programs such that several threads of the same program run on the same CPU.
 Multitasking/Multiprogramming (vs. Singletasking): Allows more than one
program to run concurrently thereby ensuring that system resources are utilized
effectively. A single-tasking system has only one running program.
 Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
The technology can be applied to a single process to enable parallel execution on
a multiprocessor system. This means that a single process can have many different
"functions" executing concurrently, allowing the application to better use the
available hardware (multiple cores/processors).
 Real time: Real time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. They
typically read from and react to sensor data. The system must guarantee response
to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct performance. Real-time
responses are often understood to be in the order of milliseconds, and sometimes
microseconds. Responds to input instantly. The predictability of the system
behaviour is the most important concern in these systems. General-purpose
operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
The main characteristics of this type of real time systems include:
o Direct connection between input/output devices and the central processor.
o Fairly fast response time

Typical examples of real-time systems include Air Traffic Control Systems,

Command Control Systems.

 Distributed: A distributed operating system manages a group of independent

computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The computers are
geographically dispersed but linked by communication lines. This seamless
integration of individual nodes into a global system is referred to as transparency.
 Embedded: Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded
computer systems and dedicated to handle a particular task. An embedded system
is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or
electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. They are designed
to operate on small machines like PDAs with a limited number of resources. They
are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Examples include Windows
47
 CE and Minix 3. Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital
watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights,
factory controllers and large complex systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI,
and avionics.
 Batch operating system: these execute a series of programs ("jobs") on a
computer without human interaction. Batch jobs are set up so they can be run to
completion without human interaction i.e. programs and data are collected
together in a batch before processing starts. This is in contrast to "online" or
interactive systems which prompt the user for such input. Examples of areas
where batch processing is used include:
a. Producing bills
b. payroll
c. stock control
d. processing bank cheques
e. marking multiple choice examination papers

Spooling batch systems use the concept of spooling which is an acronym for
Simultaneous Peripheral Operations online.
Spooling refers to putting data in a buffer, a special area in memory or on a disk
where an output device such as a printer can access them when it is ready.
Spooling is useful because devices access data at much slower rates than the CPU.
The buffer provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower device
catches up.

The most common spooling application is print spooling. In print spooling,

documents are loaded into a buffer and then the printer pulls them off the buffer at
its own rate.

 Interactive/on-line: User is online with computer system and interacts with it via
an interface and the results of data processing are available immediately. It is
typically composed of many short transactions where the result of the next
transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to be short since the user
submits and waits for the result.

Functions/Features of an Operating System

The main features of an operating system can be thought of as functions of the operating
systems. They are the qualities that an operating system should strive to achieve.

i) Managing Resources – These programs coordinate all the computer’s resources

including the processor, keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, storage devices and memory.
An operating system creates a file structure on the computer hard drive where user data
can be stored and retrieved. When a file is saved, the operating system saves it, attaches a
name to it, and remembers where it put the file for future use. The way an operating
system organizes information into files is called a file system. Most operating systems
use a hierarchical file system, which organizes files into directories (folders) under a
tree structure. The beginning of the directory system is called the root directory e.g. C:\.
The figure below shows a screenshot of tree structure when using Windows Explorer.

48
 b. Providing a user interface – Users interact with application programs and
computer hardware through a user interface. The user interface controls how
you enter data or instructions and how information displays on the computer
screen.
Almost all operating systems today provide a windows-like Graphical User
Interface (GUI) in which graphic objects called icons are used to represent
commonly used features. Some operating systems, however, provide a command-
line user interface such as MS-DOS, CP/M, Unix, and Apple DOS. System
software serves as the interface between a user, the application software, and the
computer’s hardware.

Screenshot of a sample MS DOS Console

iii) Running applications – These programs load and run applications such as word
processors and spreadsheets. Most operating systems support multitasking, or the
ability to run more than one application at a time. When a user requests a
program, the operating system locates the application and loads it into the primary
memory or RAM of the computer. As more programs are loaded, the operating
system must allocate the computer resources.

iv) Support for built-in utility programs –The operating system uses utility

49
 programs for maintenance and repairs. Utility programs help identify problems,
locate lost files, repair damaged files, and backup data. The figure here shows the
progress of the Disk Defragmenter, which is found in Programs > Accessories >
System Tools.

v) Control of the computer hardware – The operating system sits between the
programs and the Basic Input Output System (BIOS). The BIOS controls the
hardware. All programs that need hardware resources must go through the
operating system. The operating system can either access the hardware
through the BIOS or through the device drivers.
vi) Security - A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies
working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of
resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to
external devices like networks via the kernel.
The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests
which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be
processed.
vii) Reporting errors during program execution

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve particular
problems using the computer or to perform specific tasks beyond the operation of the
computer itself.

50
Sources of application software

Application
Software

Proprietary Off-the-shelf

In-house Contract Customized Standard

developed package Package

In – house Contract
customized customization

Advantages of proprietary software

 You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features etc.
 Being involved in development offers a further level in control over results.
 There is more flexibility in making modifications that may be required to
counteract a new initiative by a competitor or to meet new supplier or customer
requirements. A merger with another firm or an acquisition will also necessitate
software changes to meet new business needs.

Disadvantages of proprietary software

 It can take a long time and significant resources to develop required features.
 In-house system development staff may become hard-pressed to provide the
required level of ongoing support and maintenance because of pressure to get on
to other new projects.
 The software makes the business owner too heavily dependent upon the
developer.
 It is difficult to adapt the software to changes in the marketplace.

Advantages of off-the-shelf software

 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to spread the development
costs over a large number of customers.
 There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic business needs -
you can analyze existing features and performance of the package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms have tested the
software and helped identify many of its bugs.
 Due to its wide distribution you may be able to gain help from a large number of
users especially online.
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 Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software
 An organization may have to pay for features that are not required and never
used.
 The software may lack important features, thus requiring future modifications or
customisation. This can be very expensive because users must adopt future
releases of the software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data standards.

Application software is further classified into general-purpose software and special

purpose applications. General purpose application software is a type of software that
can be used for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular function. For example
a word processor could be classed as general purpose software as it would allow a user
to write a novel, create a restaurant menu or even make a poster.
Special purpose application software, on the other hand, is a type of software created to
execute one specific task. For example a camera application on your phone will only
allow you to take and share pictures.

Functions of various General-purpose software

 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS Word, Word
Perfect, OpenOffice Writer.
 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of in-built functions for statistical, logical,
financial, database, graphics, data and time calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel,
Quattro Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data.
E.g. Access, FoxPro, dBase, Oracle, MySQL etc.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from
commercial services. E.g. America Online, CompuServe
 Communications applications- Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g. Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Eudora, Netscape’s Navigator,
Opera Browser, Torch, Google chrome.
 Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g. PaintShop,
FreeHand, Corel Draw etc.
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources
needed to complete a project according. E.g. Project for Windows, Time Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to
monitor and plan budgets. E.g. Quicken, Quick-books, Sage
 Desktop publishing - Used to create high-quality printed output including text
and graphics; various styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other
programs can also be integrated into published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
 Presentation packages like MS PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, Corel Presentations
Lotus Freelance Graphics, OpenOffice, NeoOffice, StarOffice Impress

Note: Some application software come in suites. A software suite refers to related
but independent programs and packages that have a common user interface or shared
data format, such as Microsoft Office. The programs in a software suite are designed
to be used together. In addition, the commands, the icons and procedures are the
same for all programs in the suite.

52
 CHOOSING APPROPRIATE COMPUTER SOFTWARE
There are six key software evaluation criteria that should be considered in an
organization's software decision.

(i) Functionality - Software should have the right functionality to fit your industry
specific requirements. Just because the software is well known, does not mean the
vendor has the specific functionality you need to run your business.
(ii) Technology - The software must be a match for the platform and database that you
are running and the expertise of the IT staff that you have in-house.
(iii) Software Vendor - The software vendor is a critical part of the software selection
process. You are not just buying a static software solution; you are actually buying
a relationship with that software vendor. You will be paying annual maintenance so
that they will continue to develop, enhance, and improve the product.
(iv) Value Added Reseller (VAR) – If you are acquiring software from a VAR, the
company needs to have experience with the software product that you are
implementing and the industry that you are in. You have many
VAR/Implementation Partner options available to you. Make sure you get one that
has a focus in your industry.
A Value Added Reseller is a company that adds features or services to an existing
product and then resells it usually to end-users. The added value can come in form
of integrating, customizing, consulting, training and implementation.
(v) Maintenance & Support - You can expect to pay between 18-25% of the license
cost for maintenance. This entitles you to upgrades and some level of support. You
should make sure that this investment you will be making on an annual basis will be
appropriate.
(vi) Total Cost of Ownership - You need to consider the total cost of ownership of the
software solution and not just the big discount that the vendor may be offering for
the up-front license cost. There are 3 main components of out-of-pocket cost that
should be considered. These components include the software license, software
maintenance, and implementation services. You should look at the cost for the
next 5-7 years in order to get a good idea of the long term cost to your organization.

OPERATING SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

Using an operating system

Start Button

A single click of left-hand mouse button on the Start button will invoke the Start menu.
The Start button allows a user to access his/her work or application with the least amount
of fuss in a way that is “discoverable” to the first time user. Actions such as double
clicking are not discoverable.
A single click of the right-hand mouse button will invoke a small, powerful and object
control menu containing the options Open, Explore, Search and properties.

Their functions are described as follows:

Item Function
Open Here, the contents of the Start menu can be viewed. Folders and icons can
be deleted, copied and moved using drag and drop techniques.
53
Explore It will invoke the powerful Windows XP Explorer. The Explorer displays
a hierarchical representation of the entire system and permits further
manipulation and configuration of Desktop.

Search It will invoke Windows XP file searching utility. It helps in searching a

file either by its name or by its actual content.

Properties Opens the taskbar and start menu properties. It is important in customizing
the start menu and setting the appearance of taskbar.

The Start Menu

The Start menu contains the various categories where various applications and work are
stored. You can move further into various sub-categories by positioning mouse over the
category you are interested in. It will automatically open the next sub-category. You do
not even have to click the mouse.

Tip: If you drag an object either from Desktop or from Windows Explorer and drop it
directly onto the Start button, a link to that object will automatically appear in Start
menu.

To display Start menu using a mouse, click on the Start button located at the bottom left
of a screen.

Windows compatible keyboards have two extra keys. To display the Start menu using
this keyboard, press the windows logo key. It will open the Start menu.

To close the Start menu using a mouse, point the mouse at the Desktop (not at the start
menu) and click the left mouse button.
To close the Start menu using a key, press the Esc key.

The following are the sub-menus of the Start menu:

1. All Programs

The All Programs allows one to access all sub-groups that one has created, or which
may be created automatically by application installation routines.

Note

Sub-categories can easily be added to the Programs category by initially clicking

the Start button with the right-hand mouse button and selecting the Open
command. The view will now expand to display the contents of each category as a
window. The creation of additional folders and program icons can be performed
easily whilst in this view.

Finally, when complete, close the windows and click on the Start button with the
left hand mouse button. Your newly created folders and icons will now appear

54
 within the Start menu itself.

2. Control Panel

By selecting Control Panel from the Start menu, one can directly access the Control Panel
and Printers folders. Being able to access the core system configuration utilities in this
way is particularly useful when an application is already in the foreground and you want
to make a quick change. In this case, simply press “Ctrl+Esc” or the windows logo key to
invoke the Start menu over the top of your application and click on “Settings.”

3. Search

The Search utility permits searching of all system resources. Within this category, you
can perform searches for distinct types of search which are described as follows:

i) Files or Folders

Here, you may perform a highly powerful file name and actual file content
search. By using the search program, it is possible to specify a text string
that will occur within a file even if the file is a binary file. This kind of
search has always been useful for users of the UNIX operating system and
is more commonly referred to as a GREP search. You may also search for
a particular type of file, such as searching for all wave sound files (ending
in an extension of .WAV).
To find the location of a file, follow the following procedure:
• Click on the Start button
• Click on the Search command
From the sub-menu displayed, select For Files or Folders (refer to figure 5.1)

Make sure that the Name and Location tab is selected. Follow the following
procedure:

• In the Named section, enter the name of the file you wish to locate. In this example,
we have entered “wordpad.exe”
• Ensure that the correct drive to be searched is selected, in this case it is
Drive C
• To search the whole disk, make sure “Include subfolders” box is ticked
• To start the search, click on the “Search” button. In this case, the results will
be displayed

To open the file that has been found, double click on it.

ii) On the Internet

This command will start Internet Explorer and will display a page enabling you to search
the Internet.

iii) People

This command will display the “Find People” dialog box (refer to figure 5.4). You can
use this command to search your personal address book or you can search for someone
55
on Internet by selecting one of the directory services from the “Look in” drop down list.
Figure 5.3 – Search on the internet

4. Run

Figure 5.5 Run dialog box

The Run option provides a text entry box for you to type the name and location of the file
you wish to run. Clicking on Browse will allow you to search all local and network drives
for files. This is particularly useful if you are unsure of the exact filename or path. You
can also run executable files.

Running document files will run the associated program and then display the document
within the correct program. In some cases, you may try running a document file and see
the following message. (Refer to figure 5.6)

Figure 5.6—

This indicates that Windows XP does not understand the file extension and no association
has been set up between a file name extension and a particular program.

To use the keyboard to open the Run dialog box, follow the following procedure:

• Press the “Ctrl+Esc” keys

• Release the keys and then press R

To open folders using the Run command, follow the following procedure:
a. The Run command is normally used to run programs, or to open
documents within programs. However, you can also use it to open folders.
For instance, to open the “\WINDOWS” folder and display its contents,
you would enter “C:\WINDOWS” in the Run dialog box and then click
the OK button.

56
 5. Turn off
The Turn off option allows a user to close the Windows XP operating system. It also
ensures that all running processes can halt cleanly and are given a chance to flush any
data that may be in cache memory out to the disk.

Several options are available when shutting the system down. These are summarized as
follows:
It places your computer in power saving stand by mode. To re-awaken your
computer, simply press a key or move the mouse. It should be noted that all
PCs support this feature.

a) Turn off

It flushes all unwritten data to disk and close a system.

b) Restart

It flushes all data from memory and totally restarts a system.

Creating a New File Directly From the Desktop

To create a new document icon on your Desktop, follow the following procedure:

• Right-click on an empty part of the Desktop to display the Desktop popup

menu
• Select the New command
• From the sub-menu displayed, select the type of new file you wish to
Create.
• The list will vary depending on what is installed on your PC
• In the case illustrated, clicking on “New Microsoft Document” will create
the above icon on your Desktop.
Double clicking on this icon will either switch to Microsoft Word (if it is
already running) or start Microsoft Word or create a new document
within the program.

Folder Creation

To create a new folder within the Windows XP Explorer, follow the following procedure:

• Open the Explorer by right clicking on my computer icon.

• Click on Explorer
• Click on the portion of the directory tree where you would like to create a
Subordinate folder (refer to figure 5.8).

• Click on the File drop down menu and move the mouse pointer to New
• In the sub-menu displayed, click on Folder
• The folders will appear, being given a name determined by Windows XP
• In figure 5.9, the folder names are New Folder, New Folder (2) and New
Folder
57
 (3)
- New Folder 1
- New Folder 2
- New Folder 3
-
-
-
- New Folder n

Figure 5.9-- Names of folders

To create a folder directly from the Desktop with the help of pop-up menu, follow the
following procedure:

• Click the right-hand mouse button anywhere on an empty part of the desktop
surface
• The Desktop pop-up menu will be displayed
• Move the mouse pointer to New and from the sub-menu, select Folder (refer to
Figure 5.10)

Figure 5.10-- Creating a folder form desktop

This folder can now be used to help organize your Desktop and keep it free from clutter.
There is no limit to the number of folders you create on either the Desktop or within a file
system. Every folder may contain additional folders.

58
Renaming Files or Folders

To rename files or folders using the Explorer, follow the

following procedure:
• Select the file or folder to be renamed
• From the File drop down menu, select the
Rename command, or click once using the right-
hand mouse button to display the pop-up menu and
click on the Rename command,
• Enter the new name and press Enter key to
confirm the change

Figure 5.11-- Renaming files or

folders

Another way to rename files or folders is as follows:

• Within the Explorer, click once on the file or folder to select it

• Wait a few moments and then single click on the file or folder (using the
left-hand mouse button)
• A box will appear around the file or folder allowing you to directly edit
the name.

It should be noted that there is no need to make the second click too soon after the first
click as Windows XP may interpret this as a “run this file command.”

Deleting Files or Folders

Files or folders can easily be deleted from the Windows Explorer. Many files that you
can see using the Explorer are vital to the correct functioning of Windows XP.

It should be remembered that the Explorer program in common with many Windows XP
programs has an “Undo Delete” command located under the “Edit” drop down menu.
Unlike
Word for Windows, however, this is limited to one level of undo, not 100 levels.

To delete a file or folder, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button and move the mouse pointer to Programs
• From the sub-menu displayed, click on “Windows Explorer”
• Select the file or folder that you wish to delete
• Click on the right-hand mouse button to display the pop-up menu
• From the pop-up menu, click on Delete which displays the dialog box (refer to
Figure 5.12)

59
 Figure 5.12-- Confirm file delete dialog box

• Confirm your deletion

It should be noted that all files deleted via the Windows Explorer move to the Recycle
Bin before being finally purged and so remain salvageable for quite a long time.

To physically delete a file without first being sent to the Recycle Bin, follow the
following procedure:
• Select the file you wish to completely delete from your computer system
• Press Shift+Del which will display a warning dialog box (refer to figure 5.13)

Figure 5.13-- Confirm file delete dialog box

 Click on the “Yes” button and the file will be physically removed from your
hard disk It should be noted that this dialog box does not send the file to the
Recycle Bin. It deletes the file from disk.

The Windows XP Accessories

The Accessories are a collection of useful utilities and applications included in Windows
XP.
Following are some of the accessories:

1. WordPad

The WordPad accessory is the Windows XP equivalent to the Write program found in
Windows 3.x. This new accessory offers some new features for text manipulation and
formatting which are not found in the older program as shown in Figure 5.14 in the
following page.

60
 Figure 5.14—WordPad

The Following are some of the text manipulation features:

• The ability to change the color of a given font as well as the usual font
attributes
• Full paragraph manipulation and indentation control
• The ability to define tabs
• An “insert today’s date” feature
• Full print preview
• A case-sensitive “find”

To start WordPad, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Programs and select Accessories from the sub-
menu;
• Click on WordPad

2. Paint

Paint is the Windows XP version of the Paintbrush program found in Windows 3.x. The
Paint program offers an ability to generate and manipulate graphics and pictures and store
them in a “.BMP” format (refer to figure 5.15). The program offers a rich tool selection
and all standard graphical functions, such as airbrush, freehand line draw, shapes and the
ability to zoom. Paint no longer supports “.PCX” files.

The Paint application notably differs from the older version in its following features:

• Four different levels of zooming

• Support for 24 bit (true color) encoded files
• A palette capable of accessing a 24-bit color spectrum

61
 Figure 5.15—Paint

It should be noted that if you use a 24-bit color format to store your pictures, you can end
up with very large files on your disk.

To start the Paint program, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Programs and then from the sub-menu select
Accessories
• Click on Paint

3. Calculator

The Calculator program is very useful for adding your expenses, or other vital activities.
It has a Scientific mode which, inter alia, allows you to convert from Decimal to
Hexadecimal and Binary. (Refer to figure 5.16)

There was a famous error in the Microsoft Windows 3.1 Calculator. 2.11 - 2.1 = 0.

To start the Calculator, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Program and then from the sub-menu select
Accessories
• Click on Calculator

To see what a key does in the Calculator, follow the following procedure:

• Right-click on a button within the Calculator and a “What’s This?” button is

displayed
• Click on this button and the function of the button is explained

To switch to Scientific mode, follow the following procedure:

62
 • Click on the View drop down menu and click on the Scientific command

Figure 5.16—Calculator

4. The Clock

The Clock program is not located in the Start menu.

To view the Clock, simply look at the right-hand bottom of the Windows XP Taskbar.

To view the Date, move the mouse pointer to the Clock, as displayed in the taskbar. After
a few moments, the date would be displayed.

To change the date or time, double click on the Clock which displays the Date/Time
Properties dialog box and modify the time or date.

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) is the mechanism whereby an application can hold
a link to a piece of data or object within another application.

As an example of OLE, a spreadsheet may hold a graph containing weekly sales figures,
each week new figures are input and the graph changes.

With the help of OLE, it is possible to place a link to the graph from a word processing
application which contains a weekly status report. As the figures changes, the linked
graph automatically updates itself with the new values. (Refer to figure 5.17)

63
 Figure 5.17-- OLE link

Linking vs. Embedding

To Link Data

To create an OLE link, select “Paste Special” from the Edit drop down menu. From the
dialog box, choose which data type you want to use for the object you are pasting.

When a data item is linked into an application, there is only one true copy of that piece of
data, each time it is updated. The information can be discovered via the link.

OLE links can be highly “processor intensive” as the link constantly needs to check for
updates. It is recommended that fast machines with a powerful processor be used if many
OLE links are present. Alternatively, the link may be maintained, so that updates can be
made on manual instruction only. The mechanism to do this may differ from one
application to another but is often contained under the Edit drop down menu in a
command called Links.

To Embed Data

To embed an object, simply select Paste from the Edit drop down menu. If an item is
embedded, it is merely copied and then pasted in its entirety into the target application
(such as a graphic being pasted into a word processing document). If the original data
item is updated, the update is not replicated to the embedded data item. Embedding does
not have the high performance overhead associated with linking.

Benefits of Using OLE

By using OLE, you start to move away from application-based computing and more
toward data (or document)-based computing. Most of the PC users have an interest in
data not in the individual applications used to create data in the first place.

By using OLE, you can combine the best elements from each application to produce a
desired effect. For instance, you may want to produce a report in Word for Windows and
incorporate graphs produced in Excel. (Excel has far better graph handling facilities than
Word) If an Excel graph is embedded, it can easily be manipulated and edited in Word.

You can save disk space by linking objects. It should be noted that one can use an object
in a document while it is stored in another document. This saves one’s time in duplicating
the storage space for an object.

By using OLE, you can print or transmit data without having an application that
originally created the data installed on your particular PC. You can update linked objects
dynamically.

New Features of OLE

1. In-place Activation

64
 This allows direct activation of embedded objects within an application without a
need to switch to a different application window for facilities such as editing,
displaying, recording, or playing.

2. Adaptable Links

This enables the maintenance of links between objects during certain types of
move or copy operations.

3. Drag and Drop

Objects may be dragged from one application window and drop to another.

4. Improved Disk and Memory Usage

Objects may be stored on disk and only loaded into memory when actually
required and not simply when the object is opened.

5. Logical Pagination of Objects

Unlike OLE, if an embedded object (such as an Excel spreadsheet embedded in

Word) is larger than a page, the embedded object will break at the end of the page
just as normal data would.

6. Nested Object Support

This allows direct manipulation of nested objects. Also, links may be established
to nested objects.

7. Object Conversion

This allows an object to be converted from one object type to another.

8. Storage Independent Links

This is a feature that allows a link among embedded objects that are not stored as
files on disk.

9. Version Management

Embedded objects contain information about an application that is used to create

it and its version.

Adding New Hardware Devices

To install a new hardware, follow the following procedure:

65
 • Go to Control Panel
• Click on the Add New Hardware icon
• Add New Hardware Wizard will be launched
• The Wizard can automatically detect new hardware or you may enter
the
new device from a hardware selection list

Note

When a new device is installed, Windows XP will decide how settings, such as IRQ
(interrupts), Memory regions and DMA (Direct Memory Access) etc., should be
configured.
Although the values that Windows XP chooses may be different from the current
configuration yet you should use these settings as they will be the optimum ones.

Installing New Application Programs

To add or remove programs, follow the following procedure:

• Go to Control Panel
• Click on the Add/Remove Programs

Installing an application this way has an added benefit to install an application directly
from a floppy diskette or CD-ROM. The Installer application tracks the entire installation
process and places the newly installed application into an installed program list. (Refer to
figure 5.18).From this list, applications can be removed as easily as they were added.

Figure 5.18-- Add/Remove Programs Properties dialog box

At present, many set-up and installation programs can be tracked via an installer. After
installing an application, it is possible that the program may not appear in list. As more
set-up and installation programs are written with Windows XP, the situation will change.
66
Notes

1. Following are the sub-menus of the Start menu:

• Programs
• Documents
• Settings
• Search
• Help and Support
• Run
• Turn off

1. Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) is the mechanism whereby an application

can hold a link to a piece of data or object within another application.

MANAGING DISKS
1. Disk Formatting
This is the process of preparing a data storage medium such as a hard disk drive for initial
use or storage of files. Formatting creates a file system on the disk and also makes it
visible to the operating system.
Steps
1. Connect or insert the storage media to the computer if it is external
2. Go to my computer by clicking on it on the start menu or on the desktop
3. Right click on the drive that you want to format e.g. Removable Disk E
4. On the menu, click on “Format” on the pop-up menu
5. On the format window, leave the capacity as it is
6. Choose the file system that you want the drive to be formatted e.g. FAT, FAT 32
or NFTS (NFTS is a fast system while FAT 32 maximizes the disk space within
your drive. FAT is the most basic for storing files and most compatible but is
slow.)
7. Tick the box next to the Quick format if you want a fast format that does not
check for bad sectors. A full format will take time but check for bad sectors apart
from removing files on the disk
8. Click start button at the bottom
9. Confirm your action by pressing the ok button in the warning message box.

67
WORD PROCESSING
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe how to open a word processor

b) explain how to create a document

c) discuss how to edit a document
d) describe how to format a document
e) describe how to create columns/rows
f) describe how to create tables
g) describe how to use graphics
h) explain how to use mail merge

i) explain how to print a document

How to open a word processor

Definition of Word processing
Word processing is the creation, input, editing and formatting of documents and other
text using some application software (Word processor) on a computer system. Examples
of Word processors in the market include Word perfect, OpenOffice.org Writer and
Microsoft Word. Microsoft Word is the most popularly used and therefore will be
adopted in this manual. You can use a Word processor to type letters, reports, and other
documents.

Opening a Word processor

Open Microsoft Word 2007 by clicking on the sections labeled 1 to 4 found on your
computer desktop.

Five ways of Starting Ms-Word Program

Step 1
Click the Start button. Type "word" without quotation marks into the search box. Click
"Microsoft Word 2003" in the list that appears.

Step 2
Click the Start button. Hover the mouse pointer over "All Programs." Scroll down to the
Microsoft Office folder and click it. Select "Microsoft Word 2003."

Step 3
Press the Windows key and "R" on the keyboard at the same time to bring up the Run
dialogue. Type "WinWord.exe" without quotation marks into the box and then click OK
or press Enter Key.

Step 4
Right-click on an empty area of the desktop. Hover the mouse pointer over "New" in the
menu that appears. On the sub-Menu that appears click on Microsoft Word Document to
launch the program.

68
Step 5
Open an MS Word file on your computer by double-clicking it. If you are asked to
choose an application to open the file with, select "Microsoft Word." You may close the
file you have opened if you do not want to use it now and open another one instead.

PARTS OF WORD WINDOW

Please see the picture below for a visual image of parts of an active window has:

Menu bar
This is the traditional windows style drop-down menu. When you point to any menu title
and click once with the mouse, the menu will open displaying all the commands available
under this menu. Clicking on the desired command would tell Word to execute that
command. Some commands have ellipses (…) in front of them.
These commands have further sub commands. Commands appearing in dim mode cannot
be executed unless the prerequisite functions required by that command have been
performed, e.g. you cannot use the Copy or Cut command from the Edit menu unless you
have selected a piece of text first. Many commands also have keyboard shortcuts
specified against their names.

Standard toolbar
Toolbars contain buttons, drop-down menus and other controls that help you to quickly
69
alter the appearance and arrangement of documents by executing a variety of word
commands. Toolbars are very helpful and convenient in quickly executing commands
without having to go through menus. The standard toolbar contains icons for basic
functions like opening files, saving files, printing files, cut, copy, paste etc.

Formatting toolbar
This contains icons for changing the look of your text (called “formatting” in computer
jargon); for example, there are icons for changing fonts, styles, font sizes, text alignment
etc.

Ruler
The Ruler lets you make changes to margins and indents, and helps you create
document as per dimensions required.

If your ruler is not visible, follow the steps listed here:

1. Click the View menu to choose it.

2. Select the Ruler by clicking on it.

Scroll tools
These help you travel within your document. You can go anywhere, up and down, right
and left in your document mainly by two ways: Using the horizontal and vertical scroll
bars with the help of the
mouse; Or using the keyboard to press PgUp, PgDn, Home, End and arrow keys.

Status bar
Also called the Status Area, this is the normally the last line on your screen. This gives
the following information about your work—
· Current Page
· Section Number
· Current/Total pages in the document
· Current Cursor Position (where the cursor is presently located)
· Current Line Number
· Current Column Number
· Record Macro-whether macro recording is On or not
· Track Revision-whether revisions have been made or not
· Extend Selection

Cursor
Also called the Insertion Pointer, this denotes the place where text, graphics or any other
item would be placed when you type, overwrite or insert them. This looks like a tall,
skinny toothpick and keeps blinking so that you can locate it easily.

Mouse pointer
When your mouse pointer looks like an I-beam you should be able to move it freely on
the screen. This is used for either placing the cursor at the desired place (take the mouse
pointer there and click) or choosing any command either from the menu or from toolbars.
70
The mouse pointer changes shape when in the process of doing certain tasks and the
cursor disappears.

Editing Word document

When you enter your text, you are likely to make typographical mistakes.
Typographical errors include error of omission, addition and transposition. The
correction of these mistakes is called editing. Editing involves cutting, copying,
pasting, use of AutoText, use of spell checking and use of Finding and Replacing.

Cutting and Pasting

These options will allow you to Cut or Copy a piece of text from one location and to
paste at a new location.

Use the Clipboard

As you cut or copy, Word can store the information you have cut or copied on the
Clipboard in a hierarchy. Then each time you cut or copy, the data you just cut or copied
moves to the top of the Clipboard hierarchy and the data previously at the top moves
down one level. When you choose Paste, the item at the top of the hierarchy is the item
Word pastes into your document. The Clipboard can store up to 24 items. You can paste
any item on the Clipboard into your document by placing your cursor at the insertion
point, displaying the Clipboard pane, and then clicking the item.

The Clipboard pane includes an Options button. You can click the Options button to set
the Clipboard options described in the following table.

Option Description
Show Office Clipboard Shows the Clipboard automatically when
Automatically you copy items.
Show Office Clipboard When Shows the Clipboard when you press
Ctrl+c Pressed Twice Ctrl+c twice.
Collect Without Showing Office Copies to the Clipboard without displaying
Clipboard the Clipboard pane.
Show Office Clipboard Icon on Displays the Clipboard icon on your
Taskbar system taskbar.
Show Status Near Taskbar When Displays the number of items copied on
Copying the taskbar when copying.

Place the cursor at the point at which you want to insert your text.

Choose the Home tab.

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Click the Clipboard dialog box launcher to open the Clipboard.

1. Click the item on the clipboard you want to insert into your document. Word pastes the
Clipboard item into your document at the insertion point.

Create AutoText

Cut and Copy both store information on the Clipboard. Information you store on the
Clipboard is eventually lost. If you want to store information permanently for reuse, use
AutoText. AutoText permanently stores information for future use.

Type some text e.g.

AutoText information is stored permanently

Select the text typed

On the AutoText toolbar, click on “New….”

Create AutoText dialog box appears

Give your selection a name

Click OK. The dialog box closes.

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Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.

Type the name you gave the saved AutoText anywhere.

Press F3. and your text should appear

Use Spell Check

Word checks your spelling and grammar as you type. Spelling errors display with a red
wavy line under the word. Grammar errors display with a green wavy line under the
error. In Word 2007, you can use the Review tab's Spelling & Grammar button to initiate
a spell and grammar check of your document.

Type the following:

Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town. Her daughter attends Eastern
High School.

Select: "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town. Her daughter attends
Eastern High School."

Choose the Home tab.

Click Find in the Editing group. A menu appears.

Click the Find option on the menu. The Find and Replace dialog box appears.

Insert and Overtype

While creating your document, you may find you need to insert text—place new text
between existing texts. Suppose, you type the sentence, "Zuriel bought a car." After
typing it, you decide you want to change the sentence to "Zuriel bought a blue car."

Alternatively, you may want to overtype text—replace old text with new text. For
example, suppose you type the sentence, "Zuriel bought a blue car." After typing it, you
decide you want to change the sentence to "Zuriel bought a black car." With Microsoft
Word, overtyping the word blue with the word shining is also easy. You can then use the
insert to switch between Insert and Overtype mode. When you are in Insert mode, you
can insert text. When you are in Overtype mode, you can overtype text. By default,
Microsoft Word is in the Insert mode.

Document Views

Document views are found on the right side of the status bar. In Word 2007, you can
display your document in one of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print Layout, Full
Screen Reading, or Online Layout.

Draft View

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Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view to quickly edit your
document.

Web Layout

Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would appear in a browser such
as Internet Explorer.

Print Layout

The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.

Reading Layout

Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document more
comfortable.

Outline View

Outline view displays the document in outline form. You can display headings without
the text. If you move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

Nonprinting Characters
Nonprinting characters do not print and will not appear in your printed document but do
affect your document layout. You can decide to see these characters on the screen as you
type or you can decide to have them remain invisible. The table describes most of them:

Character Denotes
A tab

. A space
¶ The end of a paragraph
Hidden text

Task 2: Creating a document

How to Create Sample Data

If you type =rand() in your Word document and then press Enter, Word creates three
paragraphs.

Type =rand().

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Press Enter. Three paragraphs appear in your document.

What is a word paragraph?

Continuous typing of text before pressing the enter key is referred as word paragraph.
The end of a paragraph is indicated by the symbol

Typing, Backspace, and Delete operations

In Microsoft Word, you create documents by typing them. For example, if you want to
create a report, you open Microsoft Word and then begin typing. You do not have to do
anything when your text reaches the end of a line and you want to move to a new line—
Microsoft Word automatically moves your text to a new line. If you want to start a new
paragraph, press Enter. Microsoft word creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new
paragraph. To capitalize, hold down the Shift key while typing the letter you want to
capitalize. If you make a mistake, you can delete what you typed and then type your
correction.

You can use the Backspace key to delete. Each time you press the Backspace key,
Microsoft Word deletes the character that precedes the insertion point. The insertion
point is the point at which your mouse pointer is located. You can also delete text by
using the Delete key. First, you select the text you want to delete; then you press the
Delete key.

Formating a document
Formatting is changing the physical appearance of the document. You can format a
document in various levels; character, word, paragraph and document formatting.

Printing a Document

Previewing and Printing Documents

In Word, You can preview your document before you print. In the Preview mode, you
can review each page, view multiple pages at the same time, zoom in on a page, and
access the Size, Orientation, and Margin options.

If you press the Zoom button while you are in Preview mode, the Zoom dialog box
appears. In the Zoom dialog box you can set the sizes of the pages that display as well as
the number of pages that display.

When you are ready to print, you use the Print dialog box. In the Print Range area, choose
All to print every page of your document, choose Current Page to print the page you are
currently on, or choose Pages to enter the specific pages you want to print. Type the
pages you want to print in the Pages field. Separate individual pages with commas (1,3,
13); specify a range by using a dash (4-9).

Go to the file menu.

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Click Print Preview. The Preview window appears, with your document in the window.

Click One Page to view one page at a time. Click Two Pages to view two pages at a time.

To view your document in normal size, click 100%.

Click the Zoom Button. The Zoom dialog box appears.

Select an option and then click OK. Perform this task for each option and note the results.

Print

Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.

Click the down arrow next to the Name field and select the printer to which you want to
print.

Choose all as the page range.

Click OK. Word prints your document.

SPREAD SHEETS
Specific objectives

By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

(a) define spreadsheet

(b) discuss areas where spreadsheets are used
(c) demonstrate worksheet layout
(d) open a spreadsheet package
(e) create a worksheet
(f) edit a worksheet
(g) format a worksheet
(h) perform calculations
(i) create charts
(j) print worksheets

Unit tasks

Task 1: defining spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a document that stores data in a grid of horizontal rows and vertical
columns. Rows are typically labeled using numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.), while columns are
labeled with letters (A, B, C, etc). Individual row/column locations, such as C3 or B12,
are referred to as cells. Each cell can each store a unique instance of data. By entering
data into a spreadsheet, information can be stored in a more structured way than using
plain text. The row/column structure also allows the data to be analyzed using formulas
and calculations.

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Typical spreadsheet packages in the market include Lotus 123, Open Office, Microsoft
Excel (MS Excel) and several packages not mentioned here. The application package
used in the instruction is MS Excel 2007.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Spreadsheets

1. Automatic recalculation of formulae when data is changed.
If the contents of a cell change, and that cell is used in a formula, the result in the
dependant cell changes
2. Ease of data sharing: Another benefit is the data can easily be shared with others.
3. Ease of data management and analysis:
Users can manipulate the data stored in spreadsheets, using dozens of functions
available at one click of the mouse: basic mathematical processes, sorting, creating
tables and charts, printing reports, and even reviewing and comparing several
spreadsheets at once.
4. Presentation capabilities
Spreadsheets allow users to easily create compelling presentations, complete with
full-colour graphs and charts. Their target audience can quickly grasp the important
themes of their report simply by reviewing the relevant data on the charts, not wading
through pages of numbers and text. Various types of charts can be created.
Furthermore, column width can be adjusted to suit data.
5. "What-If" Analysis
Perform “what-if” analyses by changing independent values in the spreadsheet to help
in decision making and planning. The user can combine figures in different ways and
immediately see the results on business.E.g.
 How will a change in the cost of a raw material affect profits?
 How changes in interest rates are going to affect repayments?
6. Support good design and accurate results
7. Program can quickly edit and format data and perform calculations
8. Formulae based on cell references, so easy to update results
9. Easy to store, retrieve and print results
10. Virtually unlimited size
11. Ability to replicate formulae
12. Ease of correction of errors

Standard Features of Spreadsheets

Columns and Rows

A spreadsheet is a grid consisting of columns and rows. Rows are labeled with numbers,
and columns are labeled with letters, giving each cell a unique address consisting of a

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number and a letter. If you are familiar with the old game "Battleship", you'll be quite
comfortable with cell addressing.

 A cell may contain labels or values. A label is a text entry, such as TOTAL, that
can not be manipulated by the spreadsheet. A value can be a number, a date, a
formula, or the answer of a formula.
 A single "grid", or page, is usually referred to as a worksheet.

Formulas: A formula is an entry performing a calculation

 Formulas are used to express mathematical relationships between cells. For

example, C1=A1+B1 would calculate and display the sum of cells A1 and B1 into
cell C1. It could also be a simple mathematical formula, such as (100 * 3) / 40.
Formulas are not displayed on spreadsheets. What you see in the cell is the result
of the formula.
 Don't forget about order of operations; anything inside parenthesis happens first,
followed by multiplication and division, followed by addition and subtraction.
When in doubt, use parenthesis to say exactly what you mean.

Functions - Functions are used as shortcuts when performing mathematical calculations.

They are pre-programmed formulae that give power and flexibility to spreadsheet
calculations. They prevent the user from having to continually enter long and
cumbersome expressions. Some examples are SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, and MIN.
Ranges A range is a block of cells. Formulas can act on single cells or be directed to act
on a range of cells. For example, the range A1:D1 includes the cell A1, B1, C1 and D1.
Any calculation performed in A1 will also be performed in B1, C1 and D1. Graphs and
charts

 Data in spreadsheets can be displayed in a graphic form. Spreadsheets allow theÊ

numerical data in the cells to be displayed as a graph or chart. These graphics,
which illustrate the meaning of the numbers in the spreadsheet in different ways,
can be used to stimulate interest and help make a point.
 There are several different types of graphs that can be made. Area graphs, bar and
column graphs, line graphs, pie charts, scatter plot diagrams and 3-D graphs are
some examples.

Relative, Absolute AND Mixed Cell References in Spreadsheets

In working with spreadsheets, you need to know about relative vs. absolute cell
references. Here is the issue: when you COPY A FORMULA that contains cell
references, what happens to the cell references?
RELATIVE CELL REFERENCE
Usually the CELL REFERENCES will CHANGE! If you copy formula 2 rows to the
right, then the cell references in the formula will shift 2 cells to the right. If you copy
formula 3 rows down and 1 row left, then the cell references in the formula will shift 3
rows down and 1 row left. These are called "relative" cell references, since they change
relative to where you copy the formula.
ABSOLUTE CELL REFERENCE

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If you do not want cell references to change when you copy a formula, then make those
cell references absolute cell references. Place a "$" before the column letter if you want
that to always stay the same. Place a "$" before a row number if you want that to always
stay the same. For example, "$C$3" refers to cell C3, and "$C$3" will work exactly the
same as "C3", expect when you copy the formula. Note: when entering formulas you can
use the F4 key right after entering a cell reference to toggle among the different
relative/absolute versions of that cell address.
Mixed references
A mixed reference has either an absolute column and relative row, or absolute row and
relative column. An absolute column reference takes the form $A1, $B1, and so on. An
absolute row reference takes the form A$1, B$1, and so on. If the position of the cell that
contains the formula changes, the relative reference is changed, and the absolute
reference does not change. If you copy the formula across rows or down columns, the
relative reference automatically adjusts, and the absolute reference does not adjust. For
example, if you copy a mixed reference from cell A2 to B3, it adjusts from =A$1 to
=B$1.
TYPES OF ERROR MESSAGES IN MS EXCEL 2003
1. ##### - Sometimes referred to as “Railroad tracks”, this error can be caused
by several conditions:
a) A number in a cell is too wide for the cell to display it.
b) The formula in the cell produces a result that is too wide for the cell.
c) There is a negative number in the cell that has been formatted for dates or times.
Dates and times in Excel must be positive values.
Solution:

a) Widen the column containing the problem cell.

b) Change the format of the problem cell to something other than a date/time
format.
c) Correct the negative number in a date/time formatted cell.

2. #REF! - Invalid Cell Reference Errors

Invalid cell reference errors occur when a spreadsheet formula contains incorrect cell
references. This happens most often when:
a) Columns or rows containing data used in the formula are accidentally deleted.
b) A formula has been moved or copied to another cell and the cell references are
incorrect.
c) Data used in a formula has been moved, leaving the function or formula with
incorrect cell references
Solutions:
a) Use the undo feature to recover lost data
b) If the data cannot be recovered, re-enter the data and adjust the cell references if
needed
c) Correct the cell references for formulas that have been copied or moved
d) Correct the cell references for formulas when the data has been moved

3. #NULL! - Null Error

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 #NULL! errors occur when the two or more cell references are separated incorrectly
in a formula. Such as:
a) If multiple cell references in a formula are separated by a space instead of
a mathematical operator such as a plus sign ( + ).
b) if the start and end points of cell ranges are not separated by a colon ( : )
Solution:
a) Separate multiple cell references correctly.
b) Use a comma is correctly used to separate cells in a function e.g. = SUM(D1,
D2, D3, D4)
c) The start and end points of a range in a function are correctly separated by a
colon ( : ) e.g. = SUM(D1:D4).
d) A mathematical operator, such as a plus or minus sign is used to separate cell
references in a formula e.g. = D1 + D2 + D3 + D4.

4. #DIV/O! - Divide by Zero Error

Divide by 0 errors occur when:
a) A formula attempts to divide by zero.
b) While dividing, a formula references a cell that is blank.

Solution:
a) Check that you have the correct data in the cells referenced in the formula.
b) Check that your data is in the correct cells.
c) Check that the correct cell references were used in the formula.

5. #NAME? Formula Error

The most common reason why you see this error is because you misspelled a formula or
named range. For example if you write =summa (a1:a10) in a cell, it would return
#NAME? error. There are few other reasons why this can happen. If you forget to close a
text in double quotes or omit the range operator:. All these examples should return
#NAME? error. =sum (range1, UNDEFIED_RANGE_NAME), =sum (a1a10)
Solution:
Make sure you have mentioned the correct formula name. In earlier versions of excel, if
you use correct formulas, they will be automatically capitalized. For example, if you type
=sum (1,2,3) in a cell and press enter, it will be changed to =SUM(1,2,3). You can use
this feedback to correct formulas.
Make sure you have defined all the named ranges you are using in the formula.

6. #NULL! Formula Error

This is rare error. When you use incorrect range operators often you get this error. For
example the formula =SUM (D30:D32 C31:C33) returns a #NULL! error because
there is no separator between range 1 and range2.
Solution
Make sure you have mentioned the ranges properly.
7. #VALUE! Formula Error
Value error is shown when you use text parameters to a function that accepts
numbers. For eg. the formula =SUM(“ab”,”cd”) returns #VALUE! error.

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 Solution
Make sure your formula parameters have correct data types. If you are using
functions that work on numbers (like sum, product etc.) then the parameters should be
numbers.

Task 2: discussing areas where spreadsheets are used

Spreadsheets are commonly used to automate financial statements, business
forecasts, transaction registers, inventory control, and preparation of accounts.
The package provides statistical, analytical and scientific functions. In
engineering environments, it is used to analyze numerical data and present
findings.

Using Common Functions.

The AVERAGE Function.
Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments provided. The arguments must be
numbers or names, arrays, or references that contain numbers.
For instance, you may want to calculate the average marks for students for all the subjects
they have done.

1. Position your cell pointer where the average is to be inserted.

2. Click the Paste Function button.
3. In the Function category select Statistical and then choose AVERAGE under
Function name.

4. Select the range of figures to be averaged by clicking on to temporarily hide the

dialog box, select the range and then click on
To get back to the dialog box.
5. Click OK.

Notes
1. Using the AVERAGE function, you can find the average for upto 30 numeric
arguments.
2. When averaging cells, keep in mind the difference between empty cells and those
containing the value zero.
Empty cells are not counted, but zero values are.
The MIN Function.

This function finds the smallest number in a selected range.

Select the cell where you want to enter the function.
Click the Paste Function button.
Select the Statistical category and then select MIN function.
The MIN function requires that you specify the arguments that are numbers, empty cells,
logical values, or text that can be translated into numbers.
Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers cause
errors.
Select the range of figures to represent the argument by clicking on to temporarily
hide the dialog box, select the range and then click on again.

81
 If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are used.
Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If the arguments
contain no numbers, MIN returns 0.
Click on OK in the next screen.
You can use the MIN function for upto 30 numbers.
The MAX Function.

This function finds the maximum value in a selected range. It is similar to MIN.

1. Select the cell where you want to enter the function.

2. Click the Paste Function button.
3. Select the Statistical category and then select MAX function.
The MAX function requires that you specify the arguments that are numbers, empty cells,
logical values, or text that can be translated into numbers.
Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers cause
errors.
4. Select the range of figures to represent the argument by clicking on to temporarily
hide the dialog box, select the range and then click on again.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are
used. Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If the
arguments contain no numbers, MAX returns 0 (zero).
5. Click on OK in the next screen.
6. You can use the MAX function for upto 30 numbers.

The IF Function.

IF evaluates a condition and returns one of two values, depending on the result of the
evaluation. If the condition is true, IF returns one value, if the condition is false, it returns
the other value. The IF function has the following format: =IF(Condition, Action-to-be-
taken-when-condition-is-true, Action-to-be-taken-when-condition-is-false).
The condition is usually a logical formula. However, you can use any formula, number,
or address of a cell as a condition. Excel evaluates any condition that does not equal zero
as true and any condition that is equal to zero as false.
The arguments can be values, text enclosed in quotation marks, or the addresses or names
of cells that contain values or labels.
Example:
Suppose the formula =IF(Balance>=0,Balance,"Overdrawn") is entered in cell B5. Then
B5 will contain the value in the cell named Balance when the value in Balance is 0 or
positive; Otherwise, it will contain the text “Overdrawn” (when the value in Balance is
negative).

The PMT Function.

PMT calculates the payment on a loan (principal) at a given interest rate for a specified
number of payment periods (term). Principal and term are values. Interest is a decimal or
percentage value greater than
-1. The PMT function has the following format: =PMT(Principal-Amount, Interest-Rate,
Term).Example:
You are considering taking out a KShs. 800,000 loan for 4 years at an annual Interest
Rate of 26%, compounded monthly. Payments are due on the last day of each month and
you would like to determine your monthly payment.
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PMT(800000,0.26/12,48) = 26973.85 is the monthly installment.

Note: The Interest is divided by 12 in order to get the monthly rate, and term in years is
also multiplied by 12 to convert it into months.
The LOWER, UPPER, PROPER Functions
Converts text to lower, UPPER and Title Case respectively.
Example:
=LOWER(A1:A23) converts the contents of the range A1 to A23 to lower case
=UPPER(A1:A23) converts the contents of the range A1 to A23 to upper case
=PROPER(A1:A23) Capitalizes the first letter in each word of text value in the range A1
to A23

Task 10: printing worksheets

The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu
that appears, and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document
pane. Dotted lines appear on your screen, and your document prints. The dotted
lines indicate the right, left, top, and bottom edges of your printed pages.

You can also use the Print Preview option to print. When using Print Preview, you
can see onscreen how your printed document will look when you print it. If you
click the Page Setup button while in Print Preview mode, you can set page
settings such as centering your data on the page.

If your document is several pages long, you can use the Next Page and Previous
Page buttons to move forward and backward through your document. If you
check the Show Margins check box, you will see margin lines on your document.
You can click and drag the margin markers to increase or decrease the size of
your margins. To return to Excel, click the Close Print Preview button.

You click the Print button when you are ready to print. The Print dialog box
appears. You can choose to print the entire worksheet or specific pages. If you
want to print specific pages, enter the page numbers in the From and To fields.
You can enter the number of copies you want to print in the Number of Copies
field.

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Highlight Print. The Preview and Print The Document pane appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview window appears, with your
document in the center.

Center Your Document

1. Click the Page Setup button in the Print group. The Page Setup dialog box
appears.
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 2. Choose the Margins tab.
3. Click the Horizontally check box. Excel centers your data horizontally.
4. Click the vertically check box. Excel centers your data vertically.
5. Click OK. The Page Setup dialog box closes.

Print

1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.

2. Click the down arrow next to the name field and select the printer to which
you want to print.
3. Click OK. Excel sends your worksheet to the printer.

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 BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING
Definition of a Computer Network
A computer network refers to a group of two or more computers or other hardware devices
connected/linked together for purposes of sharing resources, such as files, programs, printers etc. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Computers on a network use protocols which define a common set of rules and signals to communicate.
NB/ Computers that are not connected to one another are known as stand-alone computers.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

i) Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via e-
mail, chat rooms, telephony, video telephone calls, and videoconferencing.
ii) Sharing resources and reducing costs. In a networked environment, each computer on a network can
access and use hardware and software on the network. If several computers and a printer are connected to
a network, each user can access the printer on the network, as they need it instead of buying as many
printers. Other resources include files, applications and disk storage.
Network resources include:
 Printers and other peripherals
 Files, data and information
 Applications/programs
 Disk Storage

iii) It enables distributed processing which allows a user at one computer to use a program on another
computer as a “back end” to process and store the information. The user’s computer is the “front end,”
performing the data entry.
iv) Centralized data administration and support. Data from all the user systems can be stored on one
machine where it can be managed in an easy and more secure way.
v) Users can store more information, because they can now store data on other computers on the network.
vi) They allow users to use programs that would otherwise be too large for their computer to run by itself.
DISADVANTAGES
i. The cost of hardware, software and cabling might be quite high
ii. Complexity of many LANs means that it is often necessary to employ someone to look after the
network and solve problems relating to the system.
iii. Security of data may be a problem if adequate procedures are not adopted.
iv. Any failure in the system often means that it becomes impossible for users to work.

85
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Categorization can be based on the following criteria:
• Based on transmission media: Wired (Guided media) and Wireless (Unguided medium)
For guided media, there is a physical path such as a cable for signal propagation, while in unguided
media; the electromagnetic wave is transmitted through air.
• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and MAN)
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server
• Based on topology (layout): Bus, Star, Ring …

Networks based Size

i) Local Area Networks (LANs)
The smallest and simplest networks are called local area networks (LANs), which extend over only a
small area, typically within a single office, building or a part thereof. In addition to operating in a
limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and
Token Ring.
A home network is a type of LAN that is contained within a user's residence.
ii) Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Wide area networks (WANs) can extend over a large geographic area e.g. across metropolitan,
regional, national or continental boundaries and are connected via the telephone network or radio
waves. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router
connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN
address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned
by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management.
iii) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) / Campus Area Network (CAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to serve a town or city, and a campus area network
is designed to serve a university, military base or an educational institution.
A metropolitan area spans a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a
city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or large
corporation.
iv) Intranet
An intranet is a private network within an organization that uses the same communications
protocols as the Internet (internet protocol). It is sometimes contrasted to extranets. An Intranet is
used strictly within the confines of a company, university, or organization and is based on the internet
standards (HTML, HTTP & TCP/IP protocols). An intranet's Web sites look and acts just like any
other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access.
v) Extranet
This is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for specific business or
educational purposes. It uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners,

86
 customers, or other businesses. An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include
firewall server management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means of user
authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel
through the public network.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)?
A virtual private network (VPN) is a network that uses a public telecommunication infrastructure,
such as the Internet, to provide remote offices or individual users with secure access to their
organization's network. A virtual private network can be contrasted with an expensive system of
owned or leased lines that can only be used by one organization. The goal of a VPN is to provide the
organization with the same capabilities, but at a much lower cost
vi) internet/internetwork
An internet (spelt with a lower case i) is a network that is composed of a number of smaller computer
networks.
vii) The Internet
The Internet (spelled with an upper case I) is the world-wide network of interconnected internets that
operates using a standardized set of communications protocols called TCP/IP (transmission control
protocol/Internet protocol), or the Internet protocol suite. This ultimate internet is vastly larger than
any other internet and connects thousands of networks and hundreds of millions of computers
throughout the world. The Internet is, therefore, an internet.

TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. From lowest to highest, the layers are the link
layer, containing communication technologies for a single network segment (link), the internet
layer, connecting hosts across independent networks, thus establishing internetworking, the
transport layer handling host-to-host communication, and the application layer, which provides
process-to-process application data exchange e.g. HTTP, SMTP, FTP.

Types of Networks based on management method:

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS
Peer-to-peer networks are also called workgroups and there exists no hierarchy among computers; all
computers are equal. No administrator is usually responsible for the network. Peer-to-peer networks are
appropriate for small, simple, and inexpensive networks. This type of network is appropriate where:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future

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 Advantages of peer-to-peer networks/workgroups
• Low cost of implementation
• Simple to configure
• User has full access to computer resources

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks

• May have duplication in resources

• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading – unequal distribution of tasks among the workstations

SERVER-BASED NETWORKS (CLIENT/SERVER MODEL)

A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub to which many
less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected. The clients run programs
and access data that are stored on the server. Network Clients (Workstations) computers request network
resources or services while the network Servers provide network resources and services to clients.
A server usually has more processing power, memory and hard disk space than clients and run Network
Operating System that can manage not only data, but also users, groups, security, and applications on
the network. Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance and reliability.
Server-based networks use a dedicated, centralized server. All administrative functions and resource
sharing are performed from this point. This makes it easier to share resources, perform backups, and
support an almost unlimited number of users. It also offers better security. However, it does need more
hardware than that used by the typical workstation/server computer in a peer-to-peer resource model.
A good example of a server based network is a domain which refers to a group of computers and devices on
a network that are administered as a unit with common rules and procedures. Domain-based networks are
composed of any number of computers and at least one Domain Controller (DC). The workstations could be
used by employees and users in the organization, while the Domain Controller, known as a Server, is capable
of managing the user workstations in many different respects.

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 Peer-to-Peer Networks vs Client/Server Networks
Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks
1. Easy to set up More difficult to set up
2. Less expensive to install More expensive to install
3. Can be implemented on a wide range A variety of OSs can be supported on the client
of operating systems machines, but the server needs to run an Operating
System that supports networking i.e NOS.
4. More time consuming to maintain Less time consuming to maintain the software being
the software being used (as used (as most of the maintenance is managed from
computers must be managed the server)
individually)
5. Very low levels of security High levels of security are supported, all of which
supported or none at all. are controlled from the server including access to
individual workstations. Such measures prevent the
deletion of essential system files or changing of
settings.
6. Ideal for networks with less than 10 No limit to the number of computers that can be
computers supported by the network

7. Does not require a server Requires a server running a network operating

system
8. Demands a moderate level of skill to Demands that the network administrator has a high
administer the network level of IT skills with a good working knowledge of
a server operating system

NETWORK COMPONENTS
(a) Networking Cables
The two most popular types of network cabling are the 10BaseT (also known as twisted pair or Cat5),
10Base5 (also known as Thicknet) and thin coax (also known as 10Base2 or Thinnet). The “10” in
10Base5 stands for the 10 Mbps transmission rates while the “5” stands.. The pairs are twisted
together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources
10BaseT cabling looks like ordinary telephone wire, except that it has 8 wires inside instead of 4,
transmits at 10Mbps, with a maximum distance of 100 meters and physical star topology with a
logical bus topology. There are basically two types of twisted-pair cabling: unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). UTP is simply twisted-pair cabling that is unshielded. In
STP cables, each of the pair or collection of pair of wires that are twisted together are coated with an
insulating coating that functions as a ground for the wires which protects the transmission line
from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable.

Thin coax looks like the copper coaxial cabling that's often used to connect an aerial antenna to a TV
set. The 10baseT/Cat5 cables have connectors that resemble a phone cord connector, only larger.
These are called RJ-45 connectors. Coaxial cables are connected using BNC connectors.

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 10Base5 Cable and BNC Connector

10BaseT cable, RJ45 Connectors and their ports

Fiber Optic Cables– signals are converted to light form and fired by laser or LEDs in bursts through
insulated, thin glass or plastic fiber. Light bounces back and forth along the core. The pulses of light
represent the ‘on’ state in electronic data representation. An optical fiber consists of a core (denser material)
and a cladding (less dense material).

It provides transmission speeds from 100Mbps up to 1Gbps and a maximum distance of several miles. A
small fiber-optic cable can support large amounts of voice conversation at the same time.
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 Fiber Optic cable
Advantages of Fiber
 Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket.
 Less signal attenuation ― a signal can run for miles without regeneration (currently, the lowest
measured loss is about 4% or 0.16dB per km).
 Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come from the signal generation/reception
technology, not the fiber itself.
 Completely immune from wiretapping.

Disadvantages
 Cost - Optical fibers are expensive.
 Installation/maintenance - any crack in the core will degrade the signal, and all connections must be
perfectly aligned.

Wireless Technology
i. Microwave Communications
Information is converted to a microwave signal, sent through the air to a receiver, and recovered.
They use line-of-sight devices which must be placed in relatively high locations. Microwaves are
electromagnetic waves which are "small" compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting, in
that they have shorter wavelengths.

ii. Satellite Transmission

Communications satellites are relay stations that receive signals from one earth station and
rebroadcast them to another
They use microwave signals

iii. Infrared transmission

Involves sending signals through the air via light waves and requires line-of-sight and short distances
(a few hundred yards). It is used to connect various computing devices. Infrared waves are
electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light.
iv. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a specification (IEEE 802.15.1) for the use of low-power radio communications to link
phones, computers and other network devices over short distances without wires.

Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless networking of personal
consumer devices and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless headsets. Wireless
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 signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30 feet (10 meters).
Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps.

(b) Hub
The central connecting device is called a hub. A hub is a box that is used to gather groups of PCs
together at a central location using cables. A hub simply passes all the information it receives so that
all the devices connected to its ports receive the information. Hubs are mostly used in a small network
(usually less than 30 hosts). Hubs connect LANs of similar technology or to extend the distance of
one LAN. They can be called repeaters or amplifiers.
Advantages of using Hubs
i. They are inexpensive
ii. Easy to install
iii. Can connect different media
iv. Very little delay
Disadvantages
i. Limited distance between devices
ii. No protocol or rate conversion
iii. No error detection
iv. Does not filter packets

(c) SWITCH
The Switch is a more advanced unit over the basic hub. Unlike a hub, a switch will forward
information/packets to the appropriate machine or port according to the address information on a
particular packet. Switches are used on large networks in order to cut down the amount of
unnecessary traffic being generated. They can use the same or different types of cable.
Advantages
i. Can convert protocols
ii. They enhance network performance
iii. Can be configured
iv. Enhances security- only destined device receives the packet.
Disadvantages
i. More expensive than hubs
ii. Higher maintenance demands
iii. It does filter packets
iv. Does error detection

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(d) Router

Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and determine the best
path for sending data. They can route packets across multiple networks and use routing tables to
store network addresses to determine the best destination.

They can segment large networks and can filter out noise. However, they are a bit slow because
they are intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing packet-forwarding delays.
Because of this intelligence, they are also more expensive.

Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another. Typically, when a WAN is set up, there
will be at least two routers used.

Routing moves data on a hop-by-hop basis, what is often called 'hot potato' routing. If a set of routers
ends up passing the data around in a circle, without reaching the destination, it's called a ‘routing
loop'. Packets get tossed around the loop until they die of old age: their 'Time To Live' counter in the
IP datagram is decremented as it passes through each router and eventually it reaches zero and is
discarded.

(e) Network Adapter Card

A computer is connected to the network through a network interface card, (also called a "NIC",
"nick", or network adapter). Network cards convert the binary data generated by the computer into
electrical voltages or optical signals in the case of fiber optic NICs and converts received signals to
binary data for use by the computer.

(f) Servers
A sever is a computer system that provides essential services across a network, to private users inside
a large organization or to public users in the internet. They typically are configured with additional
processing, memory and storage capacity to handle the load of servicing clients.

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 Servers offer networks the capability of centralizing the control of resources and can thus reduce
administrative difficulties. Servers perform several tasks. For example, servers that provide files to
the users on the network are called file servers. Likewise, servers that host printing services for users
are called print servers.
Servers can be multi-purpose or single-purpose. If they are multi-purpose, they can be, for example,
both a file server and a print server at the same time. If the server is a single-purpose server, it is a file
server only or print server only.
Another distinction we use in categorizing in categorizing servers is whether they are dedicated or
non-dedicated. Dedicated Servers are assigned to provide specific applications or services for the
network, and nothing else. Non-dedicated Servers are assigned to provide one or more network
services and local access.

(g) Network Operating Systems (NOSs)

PCs use a disk operating system that controls the file system and how the applications communicate
with the hard disk. Networks use a network operating system (NOS) to control the communication
with resources and the flow of data across the network. The NOS runs on the server. Some of the
more popular network operating systems at this time include Unix, Novell’s NetWare, and
Microsoft’s Windows NT Server (or Windows 2000).

(h) Gateways: A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols. Broadly, a
gateway is any connection point or node on a network that provides access to a larger one and
therefore a router is a gateway. They translate one network protocol and data formats to another. They
can translate from network-to-network, system-to-network and system-to-system. Another example of
gateway is a bridge.
(i) Workstations or Client Computers
Workstations are the computers that the users on a network do their work on, performing activities
such as word processing, database design, graphic design, e-mail, and other office or personal tasks.
Workstations are basically nothing more than an everyday computer, except for the fact that they are
connected to a network that offers additional resources. Workstations can range from a diskless
computer system to a desktop system. In network terms, workstations are also known as client
computers.

(j)Terminal
This is the hardware, usually made up of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc, used to enter,
retrieve and display electronic data from a computer/server through a network.

(k) Repeaters
These are network devices used to regenerate or replicate a signal distorted by transmission loss.
They allow a cabling system to extend beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the
network voltages so they travel farther. Repeaters are amplifiers and, as such, are inexpensive.
Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between similar network segments.
(l) Bridges
A bridge is a hardware device for linking two networks that work with the same protocol. Unlike
a repeater, which works at the physical level, a bridge works at both the physical and the logical

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 levels (on layer 2 in the OSI model), which means that it can filter frames so that it only lets past data
whose destination address corresponds to a machine located on the other side of the bridge.

How to configure a computer to work in a network.

1. First attach the RJ-45 connector to the Ethernet network port on your PC.
2. Go to Start Button, Control Panel, Network and Internet and then Network and Sharing Center.
3. Click on Change Adapter Settings on the left panel which will display several network connection icons
e.g. Local Area Connection or Wireless Network Connection
4. Right click on the appropriate adapter, choose Properties to display Connection Properties window.
5. For most LANs, select the Internet Protocol 4 (TCP/IPv4). Highlight the protocol and choose
Properties.
6. Select Obtain IP address and Obtain DNS Server Address both Automatically or enter the settings
manually by clicking the radio button for Use the Following IP Address and enter the IP Address,
Subnet Mask, and Default Gateway settings. You will also need to enter in your DNS server addresses as
well.
7. Click on Ok button to apply the settings.
NOTE: Internet protocol 6 (TCP/IPv6) is also available in Windows Vista/7.

Internet Protocol address (IP Addresses)

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer,
printer, router) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IP
addresses are binary numbers, but they are usually stored in text files and displayed in human-readable dotted
decimal notations, such as 172.16.254.1
An IP address has two components, the network address and the host address. For example, consider the IP
address 150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first two numbers (150.215)
represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (017.009) identify a particular
host/device on this network.
Subnetting
Organizations have multiple networks which are independently managed and each is allocate a separate
network address. Therefore, the host number portion of an IP address is split into a subnet number and a
(smaller) host number. This result is a 3-layer hierarchy

network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

BASIC NETWORK COMMANDS

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1. Ping:
Ping sends an ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host responds, you get an ICMP
packet back which means the machine is up and connected to the network. You can “ping” an IP address
to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something is wrong. E.g.
C:\>ping xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx e.g. ping 192.168.1.10
Allows you to ping another computer (the x's represent the IP address of the computer you are attempting to
ping). If this is not able to complete, this should relay back an unsuccessful message, which could be an
indication of cable issues, network card issues, hub issue, etc
C:\>ping localhost
Pings the local host, this will allow you to see if the computer is able to send information out and receive the
information back. Note that this does not send information over a network but may allow you to see if the
card is being seen.
2. IPCONFIG
Ipconfig displays the network settings currently assigned and given by a network such as IP address, subnet
mask and default gateway for each adapter bound to TCP/IP. This command can be utilized to verify a
network connection as well as to verify your network settings.
To get all local network information for your computer use the /all switch as shown below, followed by the
results that would be seen when using this command.
C:\>ipconfig /all
3. Pathping/Tracert
Pathping is designed for environments in which one or more routers exist between hosts. It sends a series of
packets to each router that’s in the path to the destination host in an effort to determine whether the router is
performing slowly or dropping packets.
E.g. pathping 192.168.1.10

Example Results might be:

1 3ms 1ms 1ms 192.168.0.1 (to the router)
2 4ms 1ms 1ms 192.168.1.10 (to the proxy server)

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The devices on a network are referred to as nodes. Nodes can be connected using any of the various types of
media, including twisted pair copper wire cable, optical fiber cable, coaxial cable and radio waves. The nodes
in a network can be arranged according to several basic topologies (i.e., layouts).
A network topology can be physical or logical. Physical Topology is the actual layout of a network and its
connections. Logical Topology is the way in which data accesses the medium and packets are transmitted/
travel.

Physical Topologies
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There are several physical network topologies:
Star Topology

The most commonly used topology in LANs is the star topology. All the nodes in a star topology are
connected to a central device like a hub, a switch or a router with a point-to-point connection. The hub acts as
a signal repeater. The hub or switch manages and controls all functions of the network. Star topologies can be
implemented at home, offices or even in a building.

Advantages
 The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement.
 The failure of a node or cable in a star network will not take down the entire network as
compared to the Bus topology.
 Signals do not get transmitted to all the workstations if a switch is used and therefore better
performance.
 It is also easier to monitor due to the centralized management. Centralization allows
inspection of the traffic through the network which makes detection of suspicious behaviour
on the network easy.
 It is very easy to add additional nodes.
 It is easy to troubleshoot (detect faults) and to remove parts.
 Data is safer as the packets only move through three points; originator-central device-
destination.
Disadvantages
 The network is highly dependent on the central connecting device. If the central connecting
device such as a hub, a switch or a router fails due to any reason, then ultimately the whole
network can come down or collapse.
 As compared to the bus topology, a star network requires more devices & cables to complete a
network.
 The performance as well as the number of nodes that can be added in such a topology depends
on the capacity of the central device.

Physical Bus Topology

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Bus topology uses a common backbone/trunk to connect all the network devices in a network in a
linear layout. A single cable functions as the shared communication medium for all the devices
attached to this cable with an interface connector or T-connector. The device, which wants to
communicate, sends the message/signal to all the devices attached to the shared cable but only the
intended recipient actually accepts the message. A terminator is added at both ends of the central
cable, to prevent bouncing of signals.
10Base-2 and 10BaseT are two popular types of the Ethernet cables used in the Bus topology.

Advantages
 Bus topologies are easy to implement
 It is easy to extend the network
 They are inexpensive to install and do not require much cabling.
Disadvantages
 Bus networks work with very limited devices. Performance issues are likely to occur in the
Bus topology if more than 12-15 computers are added in a Bus Network.
 Dependency on the central cable is risky. If the Backbone cable fails then the whole network
becomes useless and communication fails among all the computers.
 It is difficult to detect faults at individual station and addition of new devices can be difficult
 Data can be transmitted only in one direction and is then destroyed when it reaches the end of
the line else it will lead to repetition.
 Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal.
 Because the bus network is just a collection of cable, connectors, and terminators, there is no
amplification of the signal as it travels on the wire. This means that the size of the network
will be limited by the maximum distance the cable type can actually move the signal that
holds the data.

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Physical Tree Topology

Tree topologies are comprised of multiple star topologies on a bus i.e. it is a bus/star hybrid topology.
Only the hub devices can connect directly with the tree bus and each hub functions as the root of a tree
for the network devices. The concentrator hub is a communications device that multiplexes (combines)
several signals for transmission over a single medium.
Advantages
 This bus/star hybrid combination supports future expandability of the computer networks,
much better than a bus or star.
 The fact that the network is divided into segments makes the network more manageable hence
easier fault identification and isolation (maintenance).
 If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
 The hybrid system overcomes the limitations of both the star and the bus topology. It doesn’t have
the limitation of hub connection points that a star has and also does not have the limitations of the
broadcast traffic and overall dependency on a single bus of the bus topology.
Disadvantages
 Maintenance and management of the network may be an issue when the network spans a great
area.
 Since it is a variation of the bus topology, if the backbone fails, the various star networks will not
be able to communicate
Mesh Topology

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This is a type of network in which devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between network nodes such as computers, routers and switches. Every node not only sends its own
signals but also relays data from other nodes i.e. must collaborate to propagate the data in the
network. Mesh topologies work on the concept of routes. The message sent to the destination can take
any possible, shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. Mesh networks are typically wireless.
Routers work in finding the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their destinations. The
topology in which every device connects to every other device is called a full Mesh topology unlike
in a hybrid/partial mesh in which some nodes are connected to all the others, but some of the nodes
are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
Advantages
 A mesh network is reliable and offers redundancy. If one node can no longer operate, all the
rest can still communicate with each other, directly or through one or more intermediate
nodes.
 The network can withstand high traffic and data can be transmitted from different devices
simultaneously.
 Expansion and modification can be done without disrupting existing nodes.
 Point-to-point connections make identification and isolation of faults easy.
 Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient and therefore
privacy and security are thus enhanced.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive to implement due to the amount of cabling and the number of hardware ports it
will require in order to ensure the redundancy. It is therefore mostly used in wireless
networks.
 Setup and maintenance is very difficult.

Physical Ring Topology

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 In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected to each other in such a way that they make a closed
loop/ring. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side and it communicates
with these two adjacent neighbours. Data travels around the network in one direction and sending and
receiving of data takes place by the help of a Token. A token contains a piece of information which is
sent along with the data by the source computer. Once a node receives a packet, it sends a
confirmation to the source machine. Each node gets to send data when it receives an empty token.
NB: Token Ring Networks

Advantages
 The topology is very organized and eliminates chances of collision since only one token is
usually in circulation.
 Additional nodes on the network do not affect the performance of the network.
 Each computer has equal access to network resources.
 It is easy to add devices to the network due to the point-to-point line configuration.
 It is easy to identify and isolate faults due to the point-to-point line configuration.
Disadvantages
 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. It is
therefore slower than a star topology.
 If one workstation goes down, the entire network gets affected.
Logical Topologies
There are three logical topologies (bus, ring, and switching) which are usually implemented as a physical
star.

Logical Bus Topology

Modern Ethernet networks are Star Topologies (physically) but logically they are bus topologies. The Hub is
at the centre, and defines a Star Topology.
In any network, computers communicate by sending information across the media as a series of signals. In a
logical bus topology, the signals travel along the length of the cable in all directions until they weaken
enough so as not to be detectable or until they encounter a device that absorbs them. This traveling across the
medium is called signal propagation

When a computer has data to send, it addresses that data, breaks it into manageable chunks, and sends it
across the network as electronic signals
 All computers on a logical bus receive them
 Only the destination computer accepts the data
 All users must share the available amount of transmission time, implying network performance is
reduced
 Collisions are bound to occur since all nodes are sharing same bus.

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Logical Ring Topology
Data in a logical ring topology travels from one computer to the next computer until the data reaches its
destination. Token passing is one method for sending data around a ring
Token is a small packet which passes around the ring to each computer in turn.
If a computer (sender) has packets to send, it modifies the token, adds address and data, and sends it around
the ring. The receiver returns an acknowledgement packet to the sender.
Upon receiving the acknowledgement packet, the sender releases the token and sends it around the ring for
another sender to use.
Logical ring can be implemented on a physical star. Modern logical ring topologies use smart hubs that
recognize a computer‘s failure and remove the computer from the ring automatically. One advantage of the
ring topology lies in its capability to share network resources fairly.

Switching
A switch takes a signal coming from a device connected and builds a circuit on the fly to forward the signal
to the intended destination computer
Switching is superior to other logical topologies because unlike bus and ring, multiple computers can
communicate simultaneously without affecting each other. Switching is the dominant logical topology in
LAN design.

NB: Advantages and disadvantages of a certain topology depend on the following factors:
Ease of management, Performance, Troubleshooting (maintenance), ease of design and implementation,
safety of data, cost , expandability and robustness.
NB: The BASE is for baseband operation. Baseband is an adjective that describes signals and systems whose
range of frequencies is measured from close to 0 hertz to a cut-off frequency (a maximum bandwidth or
highest signal frequency); it is sometimes used as a noun for a band of frequencies starting close to zero.

INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the Internet
b) Explain the applications of the Internet
c) Explain the challenges in the use of the Internet in the business environment
d) Explain the need for Internet security
e) Open the browser
f) Surf the net
g) Create e-mail accounts
h) Use e-mail
i) Use search engines
j) Print documents

Task 1 Defining the Internet and applications

Definition of the Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol
Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a
broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information

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resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW)
and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

History of the Internet

In the 1960s, one of MIT’s projects Mac was funded by ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) of the
department of defense. During one of its conferences, ARPA rolled out the blueprints for networking the
main computers of about a dozen ARPA-funded universities institutions. They were to be connected with
communication lines at then-stunning 56 Kbps. Shortly after the conference, ARPA proceeded to implement
the ARPAnet, the predecessor of today’s Internet.

Things worked out differently from what was originally planned. Rather than the primary benefit of
researchers sharing each other’s computer, it rapidly became clear that enabling the researchers to
communicate among themselves via electronic mail (e-mail) was the key benefit of ARPAnet. One of the
primary goals for ARPAnet was to allow multiple users to send and receive information simultaneously over
the same communication paths. The network operated with a technique called packet switching, in which
digital data was sent in small packages called packets. The packets contained data addresses, error control
and sequencing information. The address information allowed packets to be routed to destinations. The
sequencing information helped reassemble the packets into their original order for presentation to the
recipient since they could arrive out of order.
The protocols for communicating over the ARPAnet became known as TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol). TCP ensured that messages were properly routed from sender to receiver and that those messages
arrived intact. As the internet evolved, organizations worldwide were implementing their own networks for
both intra-organization and inter-organization communications. A wide variety of networking hardware and
software appeared. One challenge was to get these networks to communicate. ARPA accomplished this with
the development of IP – the Internetworking Protocol, truly creating a network of networks, the current
architecture of the Internet. The combined set of protocols is now referred to as TCP/IP.

The history of the TCP/IP protocol suite can be traced back to one of the first WANs consisting of computers
from different manufacturers running different operating systems. Before ARPAnet, most computer networks
were homogeneous, consisting of computers from the same hardware manufacturer running the same
operating system.

The ARPAnet’s popularity became apparent, and in 1975, it was converted from an experimental research
network into a fully operational network. Research into network protocols continued and the Internet
Protocol Suite resulted. The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military Standards in 1983, and all computers
connected to the ARPAnet were required to adopt the new protocol. The ARPAnet was then split into two
networks: the MILNET, used for military communications, and the new, much smaller ARPAnet, used for
further research. MILnet and ARPAnet together became known as the Internet. Initially, Internet use was
limited to the universities, research institutions and the military, but eventually with time Internet has
incorporated commercial applications.

The term internet (notice the lower case i) is now used to refer to any collection of physically separate
networks that share the same communication protocols (not necessarily TCP/IP) to appear as a single logical
network. The term Internet (notice the upper case I) is used to refer to the worldwide collection of
interconnected computer networks that run the TCP/IP protocols.

Internetworking evolved as a solution to three key problems which are as follows:

i) Isolated LANs
It made electronic communication between different offices or departments impossible.

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 ii) Duplication of Resources
The same hardware and software had to be supplied to each office or department, as did separate
support staff.
iii) Lack of Network Management
No centralized method of managing and troubleshooting networks existed.

Web related terminologies

• Web browsers

Web browsers are software applications that are used to retrieve web pages from the Internet onto your PC.
They let you surf (or browse) through information on the Web. Information on the Web is structured into
pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to locate and access information on that page.
The three browsers that particularly dominate the Internet market are:
- Microsoft’s Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Netscape’s Navigator

• Modem (Modulator / Demodulator)

On the Internet, computers exchange information via telephone lines. A modem is a device that enables you
to connect to the Internet and access information. As a transmitting modem, it translates computer
information into a form that can transmit over telephone lines (this is the process of modulation).
As a receiving modem, it translates the information in a form that your computer can understand (this is the
process of demodulation).
A fast modem is essential. It will reduce the amount of time spent waiting for web pages, files, or messages
from the Internet. Modem speeds are quoted in ‘bps’ (bits per second).
Typical speeds are 9600 bps, 4.4 Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8
Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.

• Internet Service Provider (ISP)

This is a commercial organization that provides Internet connections, along with a set of support services for
a fee.
Most people and organizations get a connection to the Internet over a telephone line through an ISP, though
some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own internet connections.

An ISP will usually have a number of host computers. These hosts will typically provide storage space for
electronic mail messages for their users, users’ own web sites and a set of related facilities such as advice,
support software and appropriate security.
Examples of local ISPs include Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya and Inter-Connect.
When you open an account with an ISP you will be provided with a user name and a password:
Username - Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on the Internet.
Password - This is needed for security purposes. This ensures that your Internet account is secure.
NB: ISPs charge for the services rendered.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3. The Web is a part of the Internet.

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The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked web pages published on the Internet. This huge collection of
documents is stored on computers, called hosts, around the world. The documents may contain text, pictures,
sounds, small programs or forms to be completed by a user.

Web Page
Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals interested in putting themselves on the
Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.
Each web page has an address on the Internet. This address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language.

Web Site
A collection of web pages belonging to an organization or individual is called a website. These organizations
or individuals maintain the website.

Hyperlinks
All web pages have hyperlinks. These links connect:
1: One web page to another part of the same web page. This is useful if it is a really large
page.
2: One web page to another website somewhere on the Web.
3: A page to a file, such as a sound clip, video, a spreadsheet or a Word document.

These links to other pages can be links to objects stored anywhere on the Internet. Hypertext links are
indicated by underlined text highlighted in blue (usually).
Hyperlinks are also represented by buttons, graphics or pictures.
An example of hyperlinks
To find hyperlinks on a page, move your mouse pointer over the page and where there is a hyperlink the
mouse pointer will change into a hand with a pointing finger.
As you surf around the web, Internet Explorer stores the sites and pages that you visit. You will notice that
the hyperlinks you previously selected are colored differently. Internet Explorer does this to remind you that
you have already visited the page identified by this link.

Web Hosting
A World Wide Web server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents from clients
(browsers) over the Internet. Files containing web sites are placed on these servers also known as host
computers. A host computer is any computer connected to the Internet and has stored information that has
been made available to the Web.

Home Page
The Home page is the web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started i.e. when you access the Web.
You can set any web page as your home page.
The home page is also the first page of a company or an individual’s website on the Web.
Note: Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the websites you visit. Your home page is set
through Internet Explorer.
The home page of a website is the introductory page for the site.
If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a web page, you will jump to the website’s home page, not yours.
To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.

Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator (URL))

Each web page has a unique address or location, called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
You can instantly display any Web page if you know its URL. For example, http://www.compaq.com

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You can include wildcards in a URL in cases when you may not know the full path. For example:
http://www.mars.superlink.net/~zorro/humor.com
The wild card (~) is used to represent character(s). In the above example, sites that have Azorro, Thezorro etc
instead of ~Zorro will be displayed.
A wrongly entered character can result in an invalid URL, e.g. a comma instead of a full stop or a dash
instead of an underscore.

Search Engines/Search Services.

A search engine is software that helps you locate information in the Web. There are several search engines
such as Google search engine, Yahoo, Infoseek, Lycos, Web Crawler, and Excite that offer different kinds of
searching capabilities.

Spam
Unwanted internet mail and ads.

Applications of the Internet

Once you’re connected to the Internet, there are limitless possibilities. You can send messages to users in
other countries, join a chat group, or try out new games. Some of the services offered on the Internet include
the following:
1. Electronic Mail (e-mail)
Email is a system for transmitting messages between computers. Exchanging electronic mail is the
most popular feature on the Internet. With Internet email you can send messages to people all over the
world including friends, customers and even people you meet on the Internet. Electronic mail is faster
than ordinary mail, easy to manage, inexpensive and saves paper.
2. Information
The Internet gives you information on virtually any subject. This is because of the World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web (www) is a global system of linked web pages containing information - text,
pictures, sound and video.
You can review newspapers, magazines, academic papers and much more. Governments, colleges,
universities, companies and individuals all offer free information on the Internet. For example, you
can inquire about universities in Britain or America.

3. Programs
Thousands of programs are available on the Internet. These programs include word processors,
spreadsheets, electronic cards and much more. You can look for the latest software over the Internet.
For example, you can get the latest Anti-Virus software available and in addition, retrieve a free trial
issue.

4. Entertainment
Hundreds of simple games are available on the Internet, including racing cars, chess, poker, football
and much more. The Internet also lets you review current movies and hear television theme songs.

5. Discussion Groups (Chat groups/Rooms)

You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with similar
interests. IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is a chatting system on the Internet that lets you chat privately or
in groups. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read interesting stories. There are many
discussion groups on various topics.

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6. Online Shopping/trading and advertising
You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. For example, you can
view a catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in an online order form.

7. Newsgroups
These are discussions on a range of topics from recreational activities to scientific research. Any
Internet surfer can access some of these newsgroups, while others will need subscription. You can
read any articles or write articles and post them.
8. Social Networking
By far the most popular and fastest growing communication method made possible by broadband
Internet service, social networking started out as a way for people to find old friends, stay in touch
with current ones, and meet new ones. It has now grown into a prolific communication tool for both
personal and business use. You can organize groups, notify people of events, send mass email
messages, chat, and so much more. Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace are currently the most popular
social networking sites, and have attracted billions of users. Many businesses have used social
networking for advertising and marketing purposes and seen great results.
9. As a research tool
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer opinions.

The challenges in the use of the Internet in a business environment

Explaining the need for Internet security

With the number of businesses that are connecting to the Internet and using cable modems, DSL lines, and
T1 circuits, the need to secure their connections is not only necessary but also simply due diligence on the
part of the company. Businesses rely on their Internet connection to send credit card payments through, to
run their VoIP phones, and even to host their webpage. If Internet connectivity is disrupted then business can
not operate as usual.
In order to insure that the connection to the Internet is secure there are some basic methods that can be
utilized that are fairly cheap and will more than pay for themselves with the increased security and uptime of
the Internet connection. A business does not need to make sure their network is as tight as an Army base;
they just need to make sure they are more secure than others so that attackers will target the easier sites and
leave theirs alone.
The very first thing that needs to be put in place at each and every Internet connection is a firewall. All
businesses should have a hardware firewall that protects and separates their business from the Internet. A
cable modem with built-in firewall may be adequate for a household, but a business should look at a
commercially available firewall such as a Juniper firewall 5 series, a SonicWall firewall, or even a Cisco
SOHO. These are all inexpensive and are easy to manage and configure. A firewall is the first step of
protection that keeps out those who do not need to have access to the internal business network. Essentially
installing a firewall is similar to installing locks on a house. Only those with the proper keys can access the
house just as only those who have been specifically granted access can access the network behind the
firewall.
Once a firewall has been installed, configured, and is working properly a business is going to want to look at
the computers themselves. There are two things that need to be done on all the machines that will insure that
the machines stay up and operational longer than those that are left unprotected. The two things are necessary
are: patching the machines for the latest updates for both the operating system (OS) and the applications, and
then installing antivirus software.
The patching of the systems will insure that the vulnerabilities that virus/worm writers are using to exploit
and take over machines will not be effective against a patched machine. By patching the machine the entry

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door is closed and the worm will not be able to gain access. Application patches update their tools and
software being used on the machine. With the latest patches this too will make it more difficult for attackers
to exploit machines and gain entry to them.
Antivirus software is an absolute necessity on machines. System administrators and users can become
annoyed with it as it is a resource hog but that is because the software is tasked with protecting the system
and they continually scan the system for infections. When used in “real-time” mode each file is scanned
before downloading, uploading, or being saved to the disk. This is important when reading emails, sending
emails, or even surfing on the Internet.
There are many other steps that can be taken to give a business a stricter security posture. However, by taking
the above steps a business can rest assured that they have taken the due diligence and installed the most basic
security measures in their business that will make it difficult for an attacker to gain unauthorized access to a
business’s network.

Task 4 Opening the browser and surfing the internet

There are several ways to start Internet Explorer.

1. To start Internet Explorer from the Windows desktop, double-click the Internet
Explorer icon.
OR
1. On the Windows taskbar, click Start.
2. Select the Programs menu item.
3. From the submenu displayed, select Internet Explorer from the Internet Explorer group.
You may be required to make a connection through your ISP in order to log on to the Internet.
4. Click in the User name: box and enter your user name.
5. Type in your password in the Password box.
The password appears in asterisk format (*) for added privacy and security.
6. Click Connect to access the Internet.
Note: The Dial-up Connection dialog box will not be displayed if you are connected to the ISP via a
proxy server. A proxy server allows several users to access the Internet account using a single
account.

Upon successful logging on, the Internet Explorer displays the ‘home page’ and a Connection Indicator
appears on the Taskbar to indicate that you are online.

NB: All the time you are connected, you incur a local telephone charge to the local phone company and
access time to the ISP.
Connection indicator
You can find out at what speed you are receiving data, how much time you have spent online etc., by double-
clicking the Connection Indicator.
Other browsers have a similar procedure for opening.

CUSTOMIZING THE WEB BROWSER.

Purpose.
Moving from site to site can be slow if the ISP or Internet lines are busy, if the host server (the server storing
the site you are trying to access) is busy or if you are using a slow modem.
The volume of traffic is also growing on the Internet and so web designers are constantly looking for ways in
which they can make their pages load faster.

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If a site contains graphics (or other multimedia content like video, audio etc) you can prevent the graphics
from downloading so as to speed up browsing.

Step-by-Step.
1. From the View menu, select Internet Options….
2. Click the Advanced tab.
3. Scroll down to the Multimedia section.
4. Deselect the options or content that you want turned off e.g Show
Pictures, Play Animations or Play Videos.
5. Click OK.

NB: If the Show pictures check box is cleared, you can still view an individual picture on a web page
by right-clicking its icon and then clicking Show Picture.
Information and Communication Page 8

ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)

One of the common services provided by the Internet is electronic mail, also known as e-mail. This is a
worldwide system for sending and receiving electronic messages from one computer to another.
E-mail is a much faster, economical and convenient way of sending messages to family, friends and
colleagues than the old fashioned mail called “snail mail”. With “snail mail” a message or letter is sent to the
recipient through the post office and takes days or weeks before reaching the destination. An e-mail message
can travel around the world in minutes.
For one to be able to communicate using email, the following components are needed:
1. A computer where you will send or receive the e-mail messages.
2. Your e-mail address and that of the receiver.
3. An ISP company who will deliver your message to the receiver.
4. An e-mail program that lets you send, receive and manage your e-mail messages, e.g.
Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, Lotus Notes, Eudora.
Once you send a letter, it travels from your computer, through a modem, which connects your computer to
the Internet via the telephone network. The mail travels through various computers, until it reaches the final
destination.

Components of an e-mail address:

An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol.
If your e-mail address is drg@tropicalheat.com:
i) The first part refers to the person’s identity or log-in name, e.g.
“drg”
ii) The second part following the “@” symbol is usually made up of
two to three sub-parts to further identify the individual,
organization or ISP. In this case:
• ‘Tropical heat’ identifies the business.
• ‘. com’ is the extension and this identifies the type of the
organization.
The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -

Extension Represents
.org non-profit making organization
.edu an educational institution/organization
.ac an academic institution

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.com a commercial organization
.net network
.mil military
.gov government

Sometimes the name of the country is included in the e-mail address

e.g. skynews@sky.co.uk or nation@africaonline.co.ke. Here ‘.co.uk’ refers to a company in the United
Kingdom whilst ‘.co.ke’ refers to one in Kenya.
Examples of E-mail Addresses:
Smith@compuserve.com
Iat@africaonline.co.ke
Were@ku.ac.ke
Hr-manager@kplc.org
Bridge@arcc.or.ke
Tim@yahoo.com (free e-mail address)
Douglas@hotmail.com (free e-mail address)

Advantages of emails over Traditional Paper-Based Mail

 Emails are fast. They are delivered at once around the world. No other form of written
communication is as fast as an email.
 When you reply to an email you can attach the original message so that when you answer the
recipient knows what you are talking about. This is important if you get hundreds of emails a day.
 It is possible to send automated emails with a certain text. In such a way it is possible to tell the
sender that you are on vacation. These emails are called auto responders.
 Emails are easy to use. You can organize your daily correspondence, send and receive electronic
messages and save them on computers.
 Emails do not use paper. They are environment friendly and save a lot of trees from being cut down.
 Emails can also have pictures in them. You can send birthday cards or newsletters as emails.
 Products can be advertised with emails. Companies can reach a lot of people and inform them in a
short time.
 It is possible to tell whether an email has been delivered or not.

Disadvantages of emails
 Emails may carry viruses. These are small programs that harm your computer system. They can read
out your email address book and send themselves to a number of people around the world.
 Many people send unwanted emails to others. These are called spam mails. It takes a lot of time to
filter out the unwanted emails from those that are really important.
 Emails cannot really be used for official business documents. They may be lost and you cannot sign
them.
 Your mailbox may get flooded with emails after a certain time so you have to empty it from time to
time.

EMAIL SYSTEMS
1. POP3
Its full name is Post Office Protocol 3. With a POP3 email service, email messages are downloaded to the
computer and then usually deleted from the central email server.

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If one uses POP3 to receive business email, they are usually restricted to using one computer for the email.
(Each person can have their own email account, but everyone will be restricted to their own computer.)

Most email addresses that come as part of the internet connection package are POP3 accounts.

2. IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It’s an alternative to POP3 which keeps messages stored
on a central business email server, along with information about whether each message has been read or
replied to.

With IMAP, you can log in from any computer and see your whole inbox, complete with the status of
messages – so you can see which you’ve read, which you’ve replied to, and so on.

IMAP is a good way to add extra flexibility to your business email. It’s a well-established technology and
you’ll find many entry-level email services (like those from web hosting companies) will include IMAP as
standard.

3. Microsoft Exchange
The majority of companies use Exchange Server to store email and Outlook as the client. Like IMAP,
Exchange stores messages centrally, so you can log in from different places. But it also offers lots of extra
functions, including centrally stored calendars, task and contact lists.
Exchange and Outlook integrate well with Windows, but make less sense in a mixed environment with many
Apple desktops and iPhone / Android mobile users. Often used to create a closed email environment out of
security concerns, where it can be hard to get your email to outside systems.

4. Webmail or HTTP

As the name suggests, webmail services require you to use a web browser (like Internet Explorer or Firefox)
to log in and access your business email. Some people call them HTTP email services.

Many free business email services – including Hotmail, Yahoo Mail and Google Mail – are webmail
services.

To send or receive email, you visit a specific website and log in with your username and password.

Webmail is convenient because you can log in from anywhere. However, it’s useless unless you’re connected
to the internet, meaning most companies prefer to use another business email service which also offers
webmail as an option.

For instance, Microsoft Exchange includes a webmail interface, so you can check your business email if
you’re not at your own computer. So do many of the IMAP and POP3-based services available.

Reading e-mail messages.

Once an e-mail message that has been sent to you arrives at your computer, to read the contents you must
open it using the program you have installed for sending e-mail, e.g. Microsoft Outlook.
Step-by-Step.
1. Launch the e-mail program Microsoft Outlook from the Start menu or a shortcut on the desktop.

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2. Enter the password if prompted and click OK.
Alternatively, you may need to select your profile from the Choose
Profile dialog box that appears.
3. In this case, select your profile by clicking the down arrow key of the Profile Name dialog box and
click OK.
NB: A User Profile is a group of settings that define how Outlook is set up for a particular user. It
also defines through the information services how a user can send, store, and receive messages.
4. The Inbox is where all incoming messages are stored when you connect to Outlook. Displayed are
the e-mail messages that you have received.
Unopened mail
Opened mail
A list of e-mail messages
5. To open and read e-mail messages in the Inbox, choose the message that you want to read. Then,
double click on it to open it.

Message
The lower grid of your screen will have the full message. As you read the items in your Inbox, you
can reply to, forward, or file them in other folders that you create.
When you have finished reading a message, you can close the window by selecting the File menu,
then choosing Close. This will take you back to the Outlook window.
When you do not need to use any other e-mail services, you can exit the Outlook program by
selecting the File menu, then choosing Close.
If there are any e-mail messages in the Outbox that have not been sent, a message will appear
prompting you to send the e-mail(s) at that particular time or you can choose to send it later.

Reply to e-mail messages.

If you have read a message, you may want to send a reply to the original sender.
If the original message that you are replying to was also copied to a number of other people, you may want to
send a reply to all of them.

Step-by-Step.
When replying to a mail message, you can choose to reply with or without the original message insertion.
The original message, sometimes referred to as the history, appears in the body of the message. This is just
for reference purposes and can be removed by selecting the text and pressing the Delete key or setting
options in the
Options dialog box.

Reply and include the original message

1. If the message you want to reply is not open, select it and open it.
2. Click the Reply button in the Mail window. The Reply message window appears. This window contains
the message you are replying to at the bottom.
The Reply button
History/Original
Message part
3. Type the reply where the insertion point is.
4. When you have finished typing and editing the reply, click the Send button if you are on-line to send the
message. Send button
NB: If you click the Send button while you are offline, the mail will be placed in the Outbox folder and will
automatically be sent the moment you go online.

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Reply without including the original message
1. From the Tools menu, click Options.
2. Click the Preferences tab, and then click Email Options.3. In the On replies and forwards section, click the
down arrow key under When replying to a message box.
4. Select Do not include original message.
5. Click OK.
6. Open the mail message you want to reply to.
Information and Communication Page 45
7. Click the Reply button in the Mail window. The Reply message window appears. This
window does not contain the message you are replying to at the bottom.
8. Type the reply where the insertion point is.
9. When you have finished typing and editing the reply, click the Send button.
Notes:
Working Off-line Connection to the Internet usually means that you are using telephone lines, and therefore
incurring telephone charges and usage on your ISP account. Once you have launched the Mail program, it is
not necessary for you to be connected directly so that you can read and write your e-mail messages. You may
choose to work offline to save on costs and when you are ready to send your messages you can connect and
send them all at once.
1. On the Task bar, click on the Status button.
2. Choose Disconnect.
Connection Indicator
3. The Connection Indicator disappears from the Taskbar showing that you are now working off-line. Some
services like Internet, Usenet, newsroom, or shopping will not be available when you are off-line.
To use these services, you need to re-establish the connection.

Sending an e-mail message.

1. To communicate with another user who has an e-mail address. This is cheaper than sending fax or using
the telephone especially for long distance calls.
2. It is also faster to send e-mail than to post a letter.
For example, to send a letter around the world using e-mail is just a matter of minutes as compared to the
weeks ordinary mail takes.
For this reason, most Internet users refer to ordinary mail as ‘snail mail’.

Step-by-Step.
1. From the Outlook window, click the New Mail Message button.
The New Mail Message button
The message composition window is displayed:
Subject box
Message area
2. In the To… box, type the e-mail address (or select one from the address book by
clicking on the To… button) of the recipient of your e-mail.
3. If you want copies of the message to be sent to other people, type in their e-mail
addresses in the Cc… box. Be sure to separate each address with a semi-colon.
You can also send a Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc). Here, the recipients entered receive the message but
their names are hidden from other recipients of the message. To add a Bcc field, click the View menu
and select Bcc field.
Cc: stands for "carbon copy". Anyone listed in the Cc: field of a message will receive a copy of that
message when you send it. All other recipients of that message will be able to see that the person you
designated as a Cc: recipient has received a copy of the message. The Cc: field is useful in instances

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 when you wish to share a message with someone but are not requesting that they reply or take any
direct action in response.
Bcc: stands for "blind carbon copy". This is similar to the Cc: feature, except that Bcc: recipients are
invisible to all of the other recipients of the message (including other Bcc: recipients). For example, if
you send a message To: johndoe@yahoo.com and Bcc: janedoe@yahoo.com, then johndoe will see
himself as the message's only recipient, while janedoe will see that you have also sent the message to
johndoe. The Bcc: field is useful in instances when you don't wish to share your recipients' email
addresses with everyone who receives your message.
To send a message, you must always specify at least one recipient in the To: field. If you don't, an
error message will appear when you attempt to send the message.
4. Type the subject or topic in the Subject box.
5. In the lower grid of the message composition window, type in the message that you want to send as
seen in the illustration above.
You can format the email message using the formatting tools like
Bold, Font size, Underline etc.

When you have finished typing the message, editing, and spellchecked it, click the Send button.

NB: A message that returns to the sender because it cannot reach its destination is referred to as a bounced
message.

To display the Formatting toolbar

If the formatting toolbar is not visible, you will need to display it.
1. Click the View menu from the menu bar, highlight Toolbars then click the Formatting option.
Formatting toolbar
• You can add Smiley/Smilies to your messages. These are special symbols used to express emotions in
messages. These characters resemble human faces if you turn them sideways as shown in the table below:
Smiley Represents
: `-(Cry
:-( Frown
:-I Indifferent
:-o Surprise
:-) Smile

Spell-Checking Mail Messages.

Before sending a mail message you can spell check it to correct any spelling mistakes in the mail.
1. From the Tools menu click Spelling.
2. The Spelling dialog box appears as shown below. The misspell words are highlighted and shown in this
dialog box. Choose the correct word
by selecting it and clicking the Change button.
3. If the word or phrase is correct but is not in the dictionary, click
Ignore.
4. Once the spell check is complete, click OK.

Set up view options.

To make the Microsoft Outlook screen comfortable and convenient to your individual preferences. For
example, if you usually receive a lot of mail you may prefer to see the mail grouped by sender’s name, or you
can preview the contents of an e-mail message before opening it.

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Step-by-Step.
1. Load Microsoft Outlook.
2. From the View menu highlight Current View.
The submenu displays the various view options that can be selected:
3. As an example, highlight the By Sender option and click.
Grouped messages

4. The mail messages are then grouped by the sender. To display the contents of a group click the plus button
of the group.

To remove folder listing.

The folder list is displayed by default. However if you do not want to view the folder list you can remove it,
by selecting Folder List from the View menu.
To redisplay the folder list, repeat the same step outlined above.

Using the Address Book.

The Address Book is a directory of personal details, including email

addresses, for the people to whom you send messages (called contacts).
You can store such addresses in the Address Book so as to address mail more easily i.e. each time you want
to send email messages you simply select the names from the list of addresses.
This will save the time used to enter lists of email addresses as well as help maintain their accuracy.
For example, the email address ‘njiiri.mworia@mit.edu.uk’ can be
difficult to remember. Besides, one can easily make a typing error
when typing it in. If you store this address accurately in the Address
Book then you will not worry about remembering it or typing it wrongly.

Step-by-Step.
To Add a Contact to the Address Book
1. To open the Address Book, click on the Address Book button.
Address Book button
There may be several types of address books in the Address Book dialog box including the
Personal Address Book and other Address
Books created by the administrator.
2. Select the type of address book that you want to use in the Show names from the:
box.
The Personal Address Book is the address book used to store personal distribution lists you
frequently address messages to, such as a list of your friends.
The Global Address List (or other listed address books) is the address book that contains all e-mail
addresses for users, groups, and distribution lists in your organization that you can address messages
to. It is the network administrator who creates and maintains this address book.
3. Click on the New Entry button.
New Entry button
4. Specify the entry type of the contact i.e. whether it is a Private
Address Book Mail Recipient or an entry for a Distribution List.
5. Type in the names for the contact as well as the full email address.
6. Complete the dialog box with the rest of the contact details using
the other tabs e.g. Work or Home information.
7. Click on OK.

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 The contact or address is added to the Address Book.

To Edit a Contact in the Address Book

You may want to edit a contact’s details. You can do this from the
Address Book.
1. Open the Address Book.
2. Select the contact that you want to edit.
3. From the File menu, select Properties.
4. Make the necessary changes to the information and click OK.

To Create a Contact from a Mail Message

When you receive a mail message, you can add the sender’s details (name and email address) to your
Address Book in these steps.
1. Open the e-mail message that contains the name you want to add to your contact list.
2. In the From field, right-click the name you want to make into a contact, and then click Add to Contacts
on the shortcut menu.
Or from the shortcut menu, select Add sender to Address
Book.

To Delete a Contact from the Address Book

1. Open the Address Book and select the address that you want to remove.
2. Click on the Delete button.
Delete button
3. Click Yes to confirm that you want to delete the name or entry.

To Create a Distribution List

If you send mail to the same group of people frequently, you can create
a group address list. When you address a message to that group, each individual in the group receives it.
Group address lists are known as distribution lists.
You must have a Personal Address Book set up in order to be able to create a personal distribution list.

1. On the File menu, point to New, and then click Distribution List.
2. In the Name box, type a name.
The distribution list is saved in your Contacts folder by the name you give it.
3. Click Select Members.
In the Show names from the list, click the address book that contains the e-mail addresses you want in
your distribution list.
4. In the Type name or select from list box, type a name you want to include. In the list
below, select the name, and then click Add.
To add members who are not on the address books, click on Add
New and type in the details and click OK.
The list of members in the distribution list is displayed.
5. Click on Save and Close to exit.
There is another method of creating a distribution list. In this method, you use the New Entry button.
6. Then select the entry type box, click Private Address Book
Distribution List and then click OK.
7. In the Distribution List Name box, type a name for the group and click OK.
The limitation with this method is that you have to involve the administrator when adding names to
the group.
8. Once this is done, the contact is copied to the Private Address Book

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 Distribution List box.
Repeat this process until you have all the names you want in your group in the Personal Distribution
List.
9. Click OK.
The group or distribution list is now listed in the Address Book.
A group icon showing a distribution list

To Send a Message using the Address Book or Distribution List

1. In Outlook, select the New Mail Message option from the File menu.
2. Click on the To… button to open the Address Book.
3. Select the contact names from the list or select the distribution list and click on To ->.
NB: To see the full email addresses select the name of the person from the list and click on Properties
button.
4. Click OK to return back to the Message Composition dialog box.
5. Type out the rest of the message and click on Send.

Attaching files to email messages.

You can attach any type of file such as a document, spreadsheet, graphic image or presentation to your email
messages.
When you attach a file, you're actually attaching a copy of the file, so the original is not affected.

Step-by-Step.
1. Click the New Message button.
2. In the Message Composition dialog box enter the email address and type in the
message to be sent. Then click where you want the file attachment to appear.
3. Click on the Insert File button.
Insert File button
4. The Insert File dialog box is displayed. Locate the file’s folder and then select the file.
You can select multiple files by pressing the
CTRL key while clicking once on the file names.
However, when attaching several files take care not to attach too many large files or they will take a
long time to send and receive.
5. Click OK.
The attached file is displayed as an icon in the body of the message.
The icon indicates the file type and name. For example, shown below is an icon for an Excel
workbook file attachment:
6. Click on Send.

To Open or View an Attachment

Documents that contain file attachments display a paper clip image in the
view or folder next to the document title.
Once the document is open, Outlook displays an icon representing the attachment.
1. In the Inbox, select the message that contains the attachment and open it.
2. Double-click the icon that represents the attachment.

You must have the application in which the attachment was composed in order to open it. The MIME
(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension) type of file enables Internet browsers to access an Internet mail file
without prompting the user to specify the program used to create the attached file.

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As a precaution, do not open file attachments unless you are sure you know where they came from. There
have been several cases of entire hard disks getting damaged due to viruses sent via e-mails. Examples of
email viruses are ‘Melissa’, ‘Bugbear’, ’Sasser’ etc.

Deleting an Attachment
1. Open the message that has the attachment you want to delete.
2. Select the file (attachment) icon and press the Delete key.

Organizing e-mail messages.

You can use Outlook to organize your incoming messages and make it easy to send mail.
There are some messages that you would like to keep for future reference. Instead of letting them clutter the
Inbox, you can make them easier to find by storing them in folders you create.
Step-by-Step.
Organizing the Inbox
You can organize the messages in your Inbox quickly by sorting them.
To quickly sort messages by subject, sender or the date received, click on the respective column header.
For example, to sort your messages in alphabetical order by sender, you can click on From in the column
header.

To Create a Mail Folder

1. From the File menu, choose New then Folder.
2. Enter the name of the folder in the Name box, e.g. Personal Stuff.
3. Select the Inbox folder so that the mail folder created will become a subfolder of the
Inbox.
4. Click OK.

To Move Messages
1. Select the message(s) you want to move.
2. Using the drag and drop method move the mail into the new folder created.
3. In the pop-up menu, select Move.
OR
From the Edit menu, select the Move to Folder option then select the folder you want to move the message
to.
4. Click OK.

Task 6 Using search engines

SEARCHING THE WEB.

1. If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web but you do not
know where to find it, you can use a search engine or service to locate sites that contain that information.
2. Locate particular information in a web site, e.g. you can load a web site like http://www.cnn.com/ and
wish to read the sports news.
You can use a search engine within that site to locate information on sports.

How Search Engines find Web Pages.

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Hundreds of thousands of new web pages are created each day, it is almost impossible for a search engine to
catalog every new page on the
Web. There are two ways that search engines use to locate web pages:
a) Spiders / Robots
Automated robots called spiders travel around the Web looking for new pages, creating links to them.
b) Submissions
These are derived from people who have created new web pages and then submit information about pages
they have created.

Step-by-Step.
1. Select a search engine, e.g. Yahoo, and type its address in the Address box, i.e.
http://www.yahoo.com. Once the search engine home page appears, type a keyword
or phrase in the Search box, e.g. Kenya, then click the Search button. The steps may
vary depending on the search engine you are using.
2. As soon as the search is completed, you will be presented with a list of sites that
contain the keyword or phrase you are looking for. Select a site whose description
comes closest to the information you desire and click on its link.
3. If there are many sites, not all links will be displayed. However there will be an option
that allows you to view the next 10 or so matches. Click on this if necessary to view
the next set of links. Information and Communication Page 24
NB: If there are too many matches you may want to use an additional keyword to
narrow down the search. Type the additional key word in the search box e.g. “Kenya
AND Economy” to narrow down to sites that contain information about the economy
in Kenya.
4. Click Search.
5. From the search results, select the links that may help you get the information you
require. You may need to click on a number of links to get your exact requirement.
Information and Communication Page 25

Locate information within a website.

Once you access a website, you can search for specific text or information on that site or page. Unlike search
engines like Yahoo,
Infoseek, Lycos, Web Crawler, and Excite that present you with the
URLs or links of sites that hold information you are looking for, search engines within a web page locate
information within that web page.

Step-by-Step.
1. Load the web page to browse. In the example below, the following website is used:
http://www.carleton.ca.
NB: The steps involved in searching are not standard, they differ from one web page to another.
2. Position the cursor within the Search box and type a keyword(s), e.g. International AND Student.
NB: When typing in a keyword you can use logical words or operators like AND (when you want to display
results that meet both criteria) and OR (when you want to display results that meet one of the two criteria).
3. Click the go button to begin the search.
4. From the Search Results screen, click on a link that is closest to your requirements.

Task 7 Printing documents

PRINTING WEB PAGES.

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To obtain a hard copy of the information that you have researched on and collected, for the purposes of
reviewing later or filing.

Step-by-Step.
Setting Page Setup options.
Before printing a web page it is advisable to check the settings in the
Page Setup dialog box. This will ensure that the right paper size, margins and orientation of the page are set
correctly. You can also add headers and footers to a web page.
1. From the File menu click Page Setup….
2. In the Margins boxes, type the margin measurements.
3. In the Orientation area, select either Portrait or Landscape.
4. In the Headers & Footers section, specify the information to be printed.
5. Click OK.

Printing the web page.

1. From the File menu select Print.
2. The Print dialog box appears.
3. Set the print options if necessary and click Print.

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DATA PROCESSING
DATA AND DATA PROCESSING
Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures relating to business activity.
Data by itself has no meaning until when related data are brought together. Example is the no of items sold,
name of individual and many others.
Information is obtained by assembling data items into meaningful form for example the payroll, an invoice,
financial statement, or a report.
Data processing is the process of collecting and manipulating data items to produce meaningful
information.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages;
1. Data collection
2. Data input
3. Data processing and storage
4. Data output

1. DATA COLLECTION
There are several data-collection techniques that allow us to systematically collect data and include the
following:
 Using available information
Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not
necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating these sources and retrieving the information is
a good starting point in any data collection effort.
 Observing
This is being part of the system where the person collecting data systematically selects, watches and
records specific situation or type of situations.
 Interviewing (face-to-face)
An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either
individually or as a group.
Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either
during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by recording the responses, or by a
combination of both.
 Administering written questionnaires
A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data collection tool in
which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.
A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:
 Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and asking for
mailed responses;
 Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written instructions,
and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or
 Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.
The questions can be either open-ended or closed (with pre-categorised answers).
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  Focus group discussions
A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject with
the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.

2. DATA INPUT
It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form that the computer can
understand. It is a very important step because correct output result totally depends on the input data. In
this stage, the following activities are to be performed.
i) Verification
The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as required. If errors occur in collected
data, data is corrected or it is collected again.

ii) Coding
The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can be processed
through computer.

iii) Storing
The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on the storage media will be
given to the program as input for processing.

3. DATA PROCESSING AND STORAGE

The main purpose of data processing is to get the required result. In this stage, the following activities can
be performed in a systematic manner. Some of the important activities are:
i) Classification
The data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that each group or sub-group of data can
be handled separately.
ii) Storing
The data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very quickly as and when required.
iii) Calculations
The arithmetic operations are performed on the numeric data to get the required results. For example,
total marks of each student are calculated.
iv) Summarising
The data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. Summary of data is often prepared for top
management. For example, the summary of the data of students is prepared to show the percentage of
pass and fail student examination etc.

4. DATA OUTPUT
Mostly, the output is stored on the storage media for later user. In output step, the following activities can
be performed.
i) Retrieval
Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time and for different purposes.
ii) Conversion

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 The generated output can be converted into different forms. For example, it can be represented into
graphical form.
iii) Communication
The generated output is sent to different places. For example, weather forecast is prepared and sent to
different agencies and newspapers etc. where it is required.

DATA PROCESSING MODES

 Interactive computing or Interactive processing:- refers to software which accepts input from
humans — for example, data or commands. Interactive software includes most popular programs,
such as word processors or spreadsheet applications. By comparison, non-interactive programs
operate without human contact; examples of these include compilers and batch processing
applications. If the response is complex enough it is said that the system is conducting social
interaction and some systems try to achieve this through the implementation of social interfaces.
 Transaction Processing:- is information processing that is divided into individual, indivisible
operations, called transactions. Each transaction must succeed or fail as a complete unit; it cannot
remain in an intermediate state.
 Batch Processing:- is execution of a series of programs ("jobs") on a computer without human
interaction. Batch jobs are set up so they can be run to completion without human interaction i.e.
programs and data are collected together in a batch before processing starts. This is in contrast to
"online" or interactive programs which prompt the user for such input. Spooling batch systems use
the concept of spooling which is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling
refers to putting jobs in a buffer, a special area in memory or on a disk where a device can access
them when it is ready.
Spooling is useful because device access data that different rates. The buffer provides a waiting
station where data can rest while the slower device catches up.

The most common spooling application is print spooling. In print spooling, documents are loaded into
a buffer and then the printer pulls them off the buffer at its own rate.

 Real time processing

Data processing that appears to take place, or actually takes place, instantaneously upon data entry or
receipt of a command
 Off-line and Interactive processing
Off-line is when the input/output devices are not in direct communication with the CPU.
 Time sharing system
This involves accessing of one central computer by many users in which case the processor time is
divided into small units of time-slices, with each computer user being allocated a time-slice

ELEMENTS OF DATA HIERARCHY

Data Hierarchy refers to the systematic organization of data, often in a hierarchical form. Data organization
involves databases, fields, records, files, bytes and bits.
Computers process all data items as combinations of zeros and ones
 A bit is smallest data item on a computer, can have values 0 or 1
 A byte is made of 8 bits

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  A character is a larger data item which can consists of decimal digits, letters and special symbol
 A data field holds a single fact or attribute of an entity. Consider a date field, e.g. "September 19,
2004". This can be treated as a single date field (e.g. birthdate), or 3 fields, namely, month, day of
month and year.
 A record is a collection of related fields. An Employee record may contain a name field(s), address
fields, birthdate field and so on.
 A file is a collection of related records. If there are 100 employees, then each employee would have a
record (e.g. called Employee Personal Details record) and the collection of 100 such records would
constitute a file (in this case, called Employee Personal Details file).
 Database – a group of related files
Files are integrated into a database. This is done using a Database Management System.

FILE ORGANIZATION AND ACCESS METHODS

There are a large number of ways records can be organised on disk or tape. The main methods of file
organisation used for files are:
Serial
Sequential
Indexed Sequential
Random (or Direct)

a) Serial Organization
Serial files are stored in chronological order, which is as each record is received it is stored in the next

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available storage position. In general it is only used on a serial medium such as Magnetic tape. This type of
file organization means that the records are in no particular order and therefore to retrieve a single record the
whole file needs to be read from the begging to end. Serial organization is usually the method used for
creating Transaction files (unsorted), Work and Dump files.

b) Sequential Organization
Sequential files are serial files whose records are sorted and stored in an ascending or descending order on a
particular key field. The physical order of the records on the disk is not necessarily sequential, as most
manufacturers support an organization where certain records (inserted after the file has been set up) are held
in a logical sequence but are physically placed into an overflow area. They are no longer physically
contiguous with the preceding and following logical records, but they can be retrieved in sequence.

c) Indexed Sequential Organization

Indexed Sequential file organization is logically the same as sequential organization, but an index is built
indicating the block containing the record with a given value for the Key field.
This method combines the advantages of a sequential file with the possibility of direct access using the
Primary Key (the primary Key is the field that is used to control the sequence of the records). These days
manufacturers providing Indexed Sequential Software allow for the building of indexes using fields other
than the primary Key. These additional fields on which indexes are built are called Secondary Keys.
There are three major types of indexes used:

d) Random (or Direct)

A randomly organised file contains records arranged physically without regard to the sequence of the primary
key. Records are loaded to disk by establishing a direct relationship between the Key of the record and its
address on the file, normally by use of a formula (or algorithm) that converts the primary Key to a physical
disk address. This
relationship is also used for retrieval.
The use of a formula (or algorithm) is known as 'Key Transformation' and there are several techniques that
can be used:

Division Taking Quotient

Division Taking Remainder
Truncation
Folding
Squaring
Radix Conversion

These methods are often mixed to produce a unique address (or location) for each record (key).

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DATA SECURITY
THREATS AND HAZARDS TO DATA
The following are among the threats to data security:
1. Data may get lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting
the hard disk
2. It can be corrupted as a result of faulty disks, disk drives, or power failures
3. It can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files
4. It can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses
5. It can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered
6. It can be destroyed by natural disasters, acts of terrorism, or war
7. It can be deleted or altered by employees wishing to make money or take revenge
on their employer

METHODS OF SECURING DATA

Data security refers to protecting data from destructive forces and unwanted actions of
unauthorized users. Data needs to be protected from loss through accidental or malicious
deletion, virus attacks hard disk or system failures, unauthorized access etc. Methods of
protecting data include:
i) Use of passwords (Access Authentication): A password is a secret word
or string of characters that is used for user authentication/verification before
the user can gain access to data. The password should be kept secret from
those not allowed access. Passwords are used together with usernames by
users in a log-in process that controls access to protected system data.
ii) Right of Access refers to the authorization you have to access different data
files. Right of access helps determines who has the right to do what in relation
to certain data or information. For example, database administrators may be
able to remove, edit and add data while a general user may not have the right
to do the same. Right of access in an organization is usually given/ specified
by the system or database administrators.
iii) Logs and Audit trails: An audit trail is a record showing who has accessed a
computer system, when and what operations he or she has performed during a
given period of time. An audit trail can also maintain a record of activity by
the system itself. Audit trails are useful both for maintaining data security and
for recovering lost transactions.
iv) Anti-virus programs are software used to prevent, detect and remove
malicious software such as viruses which can interfere with or lead to the loss
of data stored on a computer. A virus or a malware in general is software used
or programmed by attackers to disrupt computer operations or gain access to
private computer systems in order to steal or destroy sensitive information of
personal, financial or business importance. Examples of anti-virus software
include Norton, AVG, Kaspersky etc.
v) Encryption: This is the process of encoding (convert into a coded form)
information stored on a device especially where the data is stored on a
portable device or transmitted over a public network. The key to decrypt the
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 data should be kept securely.
vi) Firewalls: A firewall is a software or hardware-based network security
system that prevents unauthorized access to or from a private network. Such a
system is very important where there is any external connectivity, either to
other networks or to the internet.
vii) Physical Security: This includes locking of offices and use of alarms,
keeping computers or database servers in strong-rooms, use of security
cameras and employing security guards where necessary.
viii) Data Protection Act
This refers to an Act of Parliament enacted to regulate the collection,
processing, storage/keeping, use and misuse and disclosure of information
relating to individuals that is processed automatically. The Act created a
Commission-Freedom of Information Commission of Kenya-with the
mandate of ensuring the implementation of the Act, to receive complaints
regarding violations of the Act, institute legal proceedings and settlement
concerning such violations. The Act, however, only applies to personal
information held by public authorities and excludes private bodies.

ix) Data Back-up refers to the copying and archiving of computer data in a secure
location so that it may be used to restore the original data after a data loss
event occasioned by either accidental or malicious deletion, system failure,
virus attack, data corruption or natural disasters.

Methods of Data Back-up

i) Disk Mirroring/ RAID A technique in which data is written to two duplicate
disks concurrently to ensure continuous availability. This means installing two
disk drives and an equal number of drive controllers such that when the
computer writes data on one drive, it automatically writes that data to the
other drives and therefore offers synchronized copies on several drives. If one
drive fails, the system swaps the failed drive for a new one, ensuring
continuity. The problem with mirroring is that if a deletion occurs in one disk,
the same will be deleted in the mirror back-up. The disks can be installed on
the same machine or over long distance.
ii) Disk Copy copies the contents of a disk in the source drive to a disk in the
destination drive or to an image file. Disk copy works only with removable
disks. Disk copy or imaging has a disadvantage in that it takes a lot of time to
do because the image is usually very big.
iii) Remote/Online data back-up: some companies offer services for online data
storage also known as cloud services. The main advantage to this method is
that since the data is not in your physical location, if there is a natural disaster,
your data will be safe. The data is also encrypted and so kept very safe.

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HARDWARE SAFETY
Hardware safety protects the machine and peripheral hardware from theft and from
electronic intrusion and damage. Hardware safety can be ensured through:

a) Safety Against Theft

Computers are very valuable and relatively portable they and can easily be stolen which
would be made worse by the loss of the valuable data stored on them. Physical safety
should be put in place such as locking the rooms, installing alarm systems and Closed
Circuit Television Cameras (CCTV) where they are kept to prevent theft. The computers
can also be bolted to benches or cabinets in order to make theft difficult.

b) Protection from Power Interruptions

The power delivered to computers should be stable and constant but sometimes
fluctuations in power supply occur. For example, voltage surges and spikes, a blackout or
brownout can cause a computer to shut down abruptly. Information that is stored only in
short-term memory will be lost. As well, the fluctuation can physically damage computer
components such as the power supply unit. Computer systems can be protected from such
interruptions through:

i) Use of uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

A UPS is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time
after the primary power source is lost. The device also provides protection against
power surges and drops.

ii) Use of power surge protectors/suppressors

A surge protector or suppressor is an appliance designed to protect electrical devices

from voltage spikes caused by events like lightning strikes and short circuits. Voltage
spikes might damage a computer’s electronic parts, melting plastic and metal parts or
even corrupting the data stored on the computer. Surge protectors limit the voltage
supplied to a device by either blocking the unwanted voltages or by shorting the
voltages to ground.

c) Environmental Safety

Computers also require the right balance of physical and environmental conditions to
operate properly. Measures should be put in place to protect computers from fire, smoke,
dust, excessive temperatures, high levels of humidity and electrical noise such as from
motors. Such measures include installation of climate control systems and dehumidifiers,
fire fighting systems etc.

d) Other physical measures include the disabling of USB ports or CD ROM Drives,
installation of drive locks and case intrusion detection. This will help in protecting
against unauthorized copying and transfer of data as well as preventing infection of
the computer with viruses through portable storage devices such as pen drives.

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SOFTWARE SAFETY
Logical/Software Safety consists of software safeguards for a system, including
user identification mechanisms and safety software. These measures ensure that
only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a
network or a workstation.

Elements of logical safety include:

a) Biometric authentication

Biometric authentication is the use of a user’s physiological features to confirm their

identity before they are allowed access to a computer system. These features include
software that verify user identification through fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice
patterns, facial bone structure etc.

b) Token authentication

Token authentication comprises safety tokens which are small devices that authorized
users of computer systems or networks carry to assist in identifying them as they log into
the system. They include smart cards or small USB drives with built-in code generators
and are inserted to the computer through USB ports.

c) Password authentication

This method uses secret data e.g. strings of character to control access to a system and is
normally used together with usernames. The passwords are either created by the user or
assigned by system administrators. Usually, limitations to password creation include
length restrictions, a requirement of number characters, uppercase letters or special
characters. The system may also force a user to change their passwords after a given
amount of time.

d) Access Rights
e) Audit Trails

f) Use of Safety Software

Safety software refers to any computer program whose purpose is to help
secure a computer system or a computer network. Types of safety software
include Antivirus software, Anti-key loggers, Anti-Spam software, Firewall
systems etc

These software systems protect computers and the data they hold from various
threats. The threats include, among others, industrial espionage, loss of data to
hackers (people who exploit weaknesses in a computer system to gain access
and motivated by reasons like profit/theft of data, protest or challenge) and
attacks from malicious code such as:

o viruses
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 A virus is a malicious program that replicates itself and spreads from one
computer to another. They attach themselves to existing programs in order
to spread. Viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted
computer.

o Trojan horses
This is a type of malware (malicious software) that gains privileged access
to a computer system while appearing to perform a desirable function but
instead installs a malicious code that allows unauthorized access to the
target computer. They usually come as free software offers in some
websites which users download and install on their machines.

Trojans do not self-replicate. Distribution channels include e-mail,

malicious or hacked Web pages, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), peer-to-peer
networks etc.

o Worms
Worms are malware that spread themselves to other computers using
computer networks and do not need to attach themselves to existing
software. They harm networks by consuming bandwidth (by increasing
network traffic etc) but do not attempt to change the systems they pass
through.

o Rootkits
A rootkit is a type of malicious software that is activated each time your
system boots up. Rootkits are difficult to detect because they are activated
before the Operating System has completely booted up. A rootkit often
allows the installation of hidden files, processes, hidden user accounts, and
more in the systems OS. They are also able to intercept data from
terminals, network connections, and the keyboard.

o Keyloggers
This is a type of malware that records (or logs) the keys struck on a
keyboard, usually in a covert manner so that the person using the keyboard
is unaware that their actions are being monitored and then the information
is transmitted to the originators.

Anti-virus software include Norton, AVG, Kaspersky, MacAfee, Avast etc. These
software programs are meant to prevent, detect and remove malicious software from
computer systems.

The software come with a database of all known or identified malware against which they
protect the systems they are installed on. The databases and the software themselves
need to be updated regularly to ensure continued protection for the system. Once
installed on a machine, the anti-virus software always runs in the background watching
out for suspicious activity that could be initiated by a virus and if it makes detection, it
warns the computer user and provides a solution to the threat.

A virus scan involves the examining of the content of the computer’s memory (RAM
and boot sectors) and the files stored on fixed and removable drives and comparing those
files against the database of known viruses.
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Anti-virus software should be registered in order to be used even if they are offered free
of charge. Software registration is a means of providing the End-User with a license
from the developer which makes the use of the software legal. It also makes it possible
for the End-User to update the software for continued protection.

Firewalls
A firewall is software or hardware-based network safety system that controls the
incoming and outgoing network traffic by analyzing the data packets and determining
whether they should be allowed through or not, based on set rules.

COMPUTER CRIMES
Breaches of Physical Security
Dumpster Diving
Dumpster diving, or trashing, is a name given to a very simple type of security attack-
scavenging through materials that have been thrown away, as shown in. This type of
attack isn't illegal in any obvious way. If papers are thrown away, nobody wants them--
right? Dumpster diving also isn't unique to computer facilities. All kinds of sensitive
information turns up in the trash, and industrial spies through the years have used this
method to get information about their competitors.
Around the offices and in the trash, crackers can find used disks and tapes, discarded
printouts, and handwritten notes of all kinds. They may also retrieve printouts, computer
manuals, and other documents from which they extract information needed to crack the
system. In the system itself are files that have been deleted, but that haven't actually been
erased from the system. Computers
Wiretapping
There are a number of ways that physical methods can breach networks and
communications. Criminals sometimes use wiretapping methods to eavesdrop on
communications.
Eavesdropping on Emanations
Computer equipment, like every other type of electrical equipment from hairdryers to
stereos, emits electromagnetic impulses. Whenever you strike a computer key, an
electronic impulse is sent into the immediate area. Foreign intelligence services,
commercial enterprises, and sometimes even teenage crackers may take advantage of
these electronic emanations by monitoring, intercepting, and decoding them.
Because of the emanation threat, government computers that are used to store and process
classified information require special physical shielding.

Denial or Degradation of Service

In security terms, availability means that the computer facility, the computer itself, and
the software and data users need are all working and available for use. Someone who
shuts down service or slows it to a snail's pace is committing an offense known as denial
of service or degradation of service. There are many ways to disrupt service, including
such physical means as arson or explosions; shutting off power, air conditioning, or water
(needed by air conditioning systems); or performing various kinds of electromagnetic
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disturbances.
Turning off power or sending messages to system software telling it to stop processing
are examples of the first type of attack--a classic denial of service.
The other type of attack, known as flooding (or sometimes wedging or spamming) is the
type employed by the Internet worm. As the worm spread across systems and networks, it
kept creating new processes that so clogged the affected systems that other work couldn't
get done.

Breaches of Personnel Security

Masquerading
Masquerading occurs when one person uses the identity of another to gain access to a
computer. This may be done in person or remotely. There are both physical and
electronic forms of masquerading. In person, a criminal may use an authorized user's
identity or access card to get into restricted areas where he will have access to computers
and data. This may be as simple as signing someone else's name to a sign-in sheet at the
door of a building. It may be as complex as playing back a voice recording of someone
else to gain entry via a voice recognition system.
A related attack, sometimes called piggybacking, involves following an authorized
person into a restricted area--a building or a computer room.
People are very likely to pick passwords that can be easily guessed by intruders or can be
cracked by password cracking or dictionary programs. They pick the names of their
spouses, children, or pets, their birthdates or license plates or astrological signs, or the
names of sports teams or fictional characters.

Harassment
A particularly nasty kind of personnel breach we've seen lately is harassment on the
Internet. Sending threatening email messages and slandering people on bulletin board
systems and newsgroups is all too common.
These kinds of attacks are not new, and personally threatening remarks can as easily be
sent by letter or posted on a wall, as they can be sent over the Internet. But the electronic
audience is a much larger one, and such messages, sent out from an organization's
network domain, may damage the reputation of the organization as well as that of the
particular perpetrator.
Software Piracy
Software piracy is an issue that spans the category boundaries and may be enforced in
some organizations and not in others. Pirated computer programs are big business.
Copying and selling off-the-shelf application programs in violation of the copyrights
costs software vendors many millions of dollars. The problem is an international one,
reaching epidemic proportions in some countries.
Employees need to be educated about the legalities, ethics, and company policies relating
to software piracy and other forms of unauthorized copying of information. Some
breaches really come down to policy and policy enforcement. What might be considered
a crime in some organizations might be a minor infraction, or even legitimate, in another.
For example, does an organization allow employees to carry sensitive data outside the
office? Can the employee use company software and databases from a home computer?

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Breaches of Communications and Data Security
In this category attacks include those on computer software and on the data itself. The
other categories discussed above are more focused on physical equipment, people, and
procedures.
Data Attacks
There are many types of attacks on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
Confidentiality keeps data secret from those not authorized to see it. Integrity keeps data
safe from modification by those not authorized to change it. Availability, as we discussed
under "Denial or Degradation of Service" above, keeps data available for use.
The theft, or unauthorized copying, of confidential data is an obvious attack that falls into
this category. Espionage agents steal national defense information. Industrial spies steal
their competitors' product information. Crackers steal passwords or other kinds of
information on breaking into systems.
Two terms you'll hear in the context of data attacks are inference and leakage. With
inference, a user legitimately views a number of small pieces of data, but by putting those
small pieces together is able to deduce some piece of non-obvious and secret data. With
leakage, a user gains access to a flow of data via an unauthorized access route (e.g.,
through eavesdropping).
Unauthorized Copying of Data
Preventing and detecting this type of attack requires coordinated policies among the
different categories of computer security. In terms of personnel security, user education is
vital. In terms of operations security, automated logging and auditing software can play a
part as well.
Traffic Analysis
Sometimes, the attacks on data might not be so obvious. Even data that appears quite
ordinary may be valuable to a foreign or industrial spy. For example, travel itineraries for
generals and other dignitaries help terrorists plan attacks against their victims.
Accounts payable files tell outsiders what an organization has been purchasing and
suggest what its future plans for expansion may be. Even the fact that two people are
communicating--never mind what they are saying to each other--may give away a secret.
Traffic analysis is the name given to this type of analysis of communications.

Software Attacks
Trap Doors
One classic software attack is the trap door or back door. A trap door is a quick way into
a program; it allows program developers to bypass all of the security built into the
program now or in the future.
To a programmer, trap doors make sense. If a programmer needs to modify the program
sometime in the future, he can use the trap door instead of having to go through all of the
normal, customer-directed protocols just to make the change. Trap doors of course should
be closed or eliminated in the final version of the program after all testing is complete,
but, intentionally or unintentionally, some are left in place. Other trap doors may be
introduced by error and only later discovered by crackers who are roaming around,
looking for a way into system programs and files. Typical trap doors use such system
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features as debugging tools, program exits that transfer control to privileged areas of
memory, undocumented application calls and parameters, and many others.
Tunneling
Technically sophisticated tunneling attacks fall into this category as well. Tunneling uses
one data transfer method to carry data for another method. Tunneling is an often
legitimate way to transfer data over incompatible networks, but it is illegitimate when it
is used to carry unauthorized data in legitimate data packets.
Trojan Horses
A Trojan horse is a method for inserting instructions in a program so that program
performs an unauthorized function while apparently performing a useful one. Trojan
horses are a common technique for planting other problems in computers, including
viruses, worms, logic bombs, and salami attacks (more about these later). Trojan horses
are a commonly used method for committing computer-based fraud and are very hard to
detect.
Botnets
A botnet is a network of hijacked home computers, typically controlled by a criminal
gang. A bot refers to one of the individual computers in a botnet. Bots are also called
drones or zombies.
Ransomware
Malware which once in control demands a fee to unlock the computer.
Viruses and Worms
In a computer, a virus is a program which modifies other programs so they replicate the
virus. In other words, the healthy living cell becomes the original program, and the virus
affects the way the program operates. It inserts a copy of itself in the code. Thus, when
the program runs, it makes a copy of the virus. This happens only on a single system.
(Viruses don't infect networks in the way worms do, as we'll explain below.) However, if
a virus infects a program which is copied to a disk and transferred to another computer, it
could also infect programs on that computer. This is how a computer virus spreads.
Unlike a virus, a worm is a standalone program in its own right. It exists independently of
any other programs. To run, it does not need other programs. A worm simply replicates
itself on one computer and tries to infect other computers that may be attached to the
same network.
A worm operates over a network, but in order to infect a machine, a virus must be
physically copied.

Salamis
The Trojan horse is also a technique for creating an automated form of computer abuse
called the salami attack, which works on financial data. This technique causes small
amounts of assets to be removed from a larger pool. The stolen assets are removed one
slice at a time (hence the name salami). Usually, the amount stolen each time is so small
that the victim of the salami fraud never even notices.
A clever thief can use a Trojan horse to hide a salami program that puts all of the rounded
off values into his account. A tiny percentage of pennies may not sound like much until
you add up thousands of accounts, month after month.
Logic Bombs
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Logic bombs may also find their way into computer systems by way of Trojan horses. A
typical logic bomb tells the computer to execute a set of instructions at a certain date and
time or under certain specified conditions. The instructions may tell the computer to
display a message on the screen, or it may tell the entire system to start erasing itself.
Logic bombs often work in tandem with viruses. Whereas a simple virus infects a
program and then replicates when the program starts to run, the logic bomb does not
replicate - it merely waits for some pre-specified event or time to do its damage.
Some bombs do their damage after a particular program is run a certain number of times.
Trojan horses present a major threat to computer systems, not just because of the damage
they themselves can do, but because they provide a technique to facilitate more
devastating crimes.

Breaches of Operations Security

Because operations security includes the setting up of procedures to prevent and detect all
type of attacks on systems and personnel. Here are a few special kinds of breaches of
operations security.
Data Diddling
Data diddling, sometimes called false data entry, involves modifying data before or after
it is entered into the computer. Consider situations in which employees are able to falsify
time cards before the data contained on the cards is entered into the computer for payroll
computation.
IP Spoofing
A method of masquerading that are in use in various Internet attacks today is known as IP
spoofing (IP stands for Internet Protocol, one of the communications protocols that
underlies the Internet). Certain UNIX programs grant access based on IP addresses;
essentially, the system running the program is authenticated, rather than the individual
user. The attacker forges the addresses on the data packets he sends so they look as if
they came from inside a network on which systems trust each other. Because the
attacker's system looks like an inside system, he is never asked for a password or any
other type of authentication.

Password Sniffing
Password sniffers are able to monitor all traffic on areas of a network. Crackers have
installed them on networks used by systems that they especially want to penetrate, like
telephone systems and network providers. Password sniffers are programs that simply
collect the first 128 or more bytes of each network connection on the network that's being
monitored. When a user types in a user name and a password--as required when using
certain common Internet services like FTP (which is used to transfer files from one
machine to another) or Telnet (which lets the user log in remotely to another machine)--
the sniffer collects that information. Additional programs sift through the collected
information, pull out the important pieces (e.g., the user names and passwords), and cover
up the existence of the sniffers in an automated way. Best estimates are that in 1994 as
many as 100,000 sites were affected by sniffer attacks.
Excess Privileges
If a cracker breaks into one user's account, he can compromise and damage that user's
files, but he can't ordinarily get beyond the boundaries of the user's account to damage
the rest of the system. Too often, users in a system have excess privileges--more
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privileges than they ought to have. An ordinary user on an ordinary system doesn't need
to be able to modify all of the files on that system. And yet, in many systems, a user has
the system privileges that entitle him to do just that. The user may never actually want to
change anyone else's files--he may not even know that he is allowed to--but nevertheless
the privileges are there. If an intruder gets access to the system through the user's
account, he can exploit this weakness.

Ways of Detecting Common Attacks

This section provides a quick summary of how you might be able to anticipate or detect
the most common types of attacks we've discussed in this chapter.
This section briefly summarizes:
 Potential offenders--what type of individual (e.g., a programmer, a spy)
might commit a crime of this type.
 Methods of detection--how such crimes are found out (e.g., tracing
equipment of various kinds, analyzing log files).
 Evidence--trails that might be left by the intruders and that might help in
detection (e.g., system logs, telephone company records).
Dumpster Diving
Potential Offenders
 System users.
 Anyone able to access the trash area.
 Anyone who has access to computer areas or areas used to store backups.
Methods of Detection
 Tracing proprietary information back to its source (e.g., memos with
company names or logos).
 Observation (guards may actually see intruders in action).
 Testing an operating system to discover data left over after job execution.
Evidence
 Computer output media (e.g., may contain vendor name or identifying
page numbers).
 Similar information produced in suspected ways in the same form.
 Characteristics of printout or other media (e.g., type fonts or logos).
Wiretapping and Eavesdropping
Potential Offenders
 Communications technicians and engineers.
 Agents for competitors.
 Communications employees, former employees, vendors, and contractors.
 Agents for foreign intelligence services.
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Methods of Detection
 Voice wiretapping methods.
 Tracing where the equipment used in the crime came from (e.g.,
monitoring equipment).
 Tracing computer output (e.g., disks and tapes) to their source.
 Observation.
 Discovery of stolen information.
Evidence
 Voice wiretapping as evidence.
 Computer output forms.
 Computer audit logs.
 Computer storage media.
 Characteristics of printout or other media (e.g., type fonts or logos).
 Manual after-hours signin/signout sheets.
Masquerading
Potential Offenders
 Potentially everyone.
Methods of Detection
 Analysis of audit logs and journals (e.g., a log shows that an authorized
user apparently logged in, but it is known that the person was away at that
time).
 Observation (e.g., an eyewitness saw an intruder at an authorized user's
terminal).
 Password violations (e.g., a log shows repeated failed attempts to use an
invalid password).
 Report by the person who has been impersonated (e.g., the authorized
person logs in, and the system tells him that he has had six unsuccessful
logins since the last time he knows he actually logged in).
Evidence
 Backups.
 System audit logs.
 Telephone company records (pen register and dialed number recorder
(DNR) records).
 Violation reports from access control packages.
 Notes and documents found in the possession of suspects.
 Witnesses.
 Excessively large phone bills (excessive message units may indicate that
someone is using resources).

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Software Piracy
Potential Offenders
 Purchasers and users of commercial software.
 Software pirates.
 Employees who steal proprietary software.
Methods of Detection
 Observation.
 Testimony of legitimate purchasers of software.
 Search of users' facilities and computers.
Evidence
 Pictures of computer screens where pirated software is being executed.
 The contents of memory in computers containing pirated software.
 Copies of media on which pirated software is found.
 Printouts produced by pirated software.
Trap Doors
Potential Offenders
 Systems programmers.
 Applications programmers.
Methods of Detection
 Exhaustive testing.
 Specific testing based on evidence.
 Comparison of specifications to performance.
Evidence
 Programs that perform tasks not specified for them.
 Output reports that indicate that programs are performing tasks not
specified for them.
Timing Attacks
Potential Offenders
 Advanced system analysts.
 Advanced computer programmers.
Methods of Detection
 System testing of suspected attack methods.
 Complaints from system users that their jobs are not being performed
efficiently.
 Repeat execution of a job under normal and safe conditions.
Evidence
 Output that deviates from normally expected output of logs.
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  Computer operations logs.
Trojan Horses, Viruses, Worms, Salamis, and Logic Bombs
Potential Offenders
 Programmers who have detailed knowledge of a program.
 Employees or former employees.
 Vendor or contractor programmers.
 Financial system programmers.
 Computer users.
 Computer operators.
 Crackers.
Methods of Detection
 Comparison of program code with backup copies of the program.
 Tracing of unexpected events of possible gain from the act to suspected
perpetrators.
 Detailed data analysis, including analysis of program code (e.g., you may
detect a virus because a file increases in size when it is modified or
because disk space decreases).
 Observation of financial activities of possible suspects (especially for
salami attacks).
 Testing of suspect programs.
 Examination of computer audit logs for suspicious programs or pertinent
entries (e.g., log entries that show that many programs were updated at the
same time) (especially for viruses).
 Transaction audits.
Evidence
 Output reports.
 Unexpected results of running programs.
 Computer usage and file request journals.
 Undocumented transactions.
 Analysis test program results.
 Audit logs.
Data Diddling
Potential Offenders
 Participants in transactions being entered or updated.
 Suppliers of source data.
 Preparers of data.
 Nonparticipants with access.
Methods of Detection
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  Comparison of data.
 Manual controls.
 Analysis of computer validation reports.
 Integrity tests.
 Validation of documents.
 Analysis of audit logs.
 Analysis of computer output.
Evidence
 Data documents for source data, transactions, etc.
 Manual logs, audit logs, journals, etc.
 Backups and other computer media (e.g., tapes and disks).
 Incorrect computer output control violation alarms.
Scanning
Potential Offenders
 Malicious intruders.
 Spies attempting to access systems for targeted data.
 Criminals intent on committing fraud.
Methods of Detection
 Computer logs that show when telephone calls were received by the
computer and when attempts were made.
 Loss of data or transfer of funds or other assets.
 Telephone company records.
Evidence
 Telephone company records (pen register and dialed number recorder
(DNR) records).
 Possession of war dialing programs.
 Computer logs.
 Possession of information compromised as a result of scanning, including
lists of telephone numbers.
Excess Privileges
Potential Offenders
 Programmers with access to Superzap-type programs.
 Computer operations staff.
Methods of Detection
 Comparison of files with historical copies.
 Examination of computer usage logs.
 Discrepancies noted by those who receive reports.
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Evidence
 Discrepancies in output reports.
 Computer usage and file request journals.
 Undocumented transactions.

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HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES IN A
COMPUTER
ENVIRONMENT (ERGONOMICS)
Ergonomics is the science of matching workplace conditions and job demands to the
capabilities of the working population. An effective and successful match assures high
productivity, avoidance of illness and injury, and increased satisfaction among the
workforce.

Ergonomics, further, refers to assessing those work-related factors that may pose a risk of
musculoskeletal disorders and recommendations to alleviate them. Common examples of
ergonomic risk factors are found in jobs requiring repetitive, forceful, or prolonged
exertions of the hands, prolonged awkward postures etc.

Ergonomic stress areas in computing environments include:

1. Eyes
2. Neck
3. Shoulders
4. Elbow
5. Wrist
6. Hand
7. Back/Spine

Resulting injuries are called Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD) or Repetitive Strain
Injuries (RSI) or Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD).

EXAMPLES OF MSDs

1. REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURIES WHICH INCLUDE:

 CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME- Irritation of the median nerve, which runs
through a bony channel in the wrist called the carpal tunnel. Usually results
from excessive flexing or twisting of the wrist.
 TRIGGER FINGER SYNDROME- Tendons in the fingers become inflamed,
causing pain, swelling, and a loss of dexterity.
 HAND/ARM VIBRATION SYNDROME- Stinging, numbness, paleness, loss
of dexterity in the hand/arm. It is related to a condition caused by repeated and
frequent use of hand-held vibrating tools.
 TENDONITIS- An inflammation of the tendon. Typically occurs in the
shoulder, wrist, hands, or elbow.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

o Adjust keyboard height so that shoulders can relax and allow arms to rest at the
sides.
o The keyboard should be close to the user to avoid extended reaching.
o Forearms should be parallel to the floor (approximately 90 degree angle at
elbow).
o Mouse should be placed adjacent to the keyboard and at the same height as the
keyboard (use articulating keyboard tray if necessary).

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 o Do not rest the hand on the mouse when you are not using it. Rest hands in your
lap when not entering data.

2. EYE STRAIN
The eyes become strained as a result of poor lighting, glare or viewing from
uncomfortable positions. Focusing on the screen at close range and for long
periods can cause eyestrain, headaches, and double vision.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
o Take a 15-minute break every hour or two
o Minimize reflected glare on the screen by keeping the screen away from
windows and other sources of bright light or tilted at right angles from
windows.
o Purchase an antiglare screen/shield for your screen
o The screen should be three or four times brighter than the room light.
o Bigger monitors cause less eyestrain than small ones.
o Clean the screen regularly.
o Position the monitor directly in front of user to avoid excessive twisting of the
neck.
o Position the monitor approx. 20-26 inches (arm's length) from user.
o Tilt the top of the monitor back 10 to 20 degrees
o The top of the viewing screen should be at eye level when the user is sitting in
an upright position.

3. BACK AND NECK PAIN

Sitting for long periods of time can cause increased pressure on the intervertebral
discs. Sitting is also hard on the feet and legs. Gravity tends to pool blood in the legs
and feet and create a sluggish return to the heart.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
o The monitor should be able to tilt and swivel
o The keyboard should be detachable such that you can sometimes place it on your
lap.
o Don't stay in one static position for extended periods of time i.e. "Dynamic
sitting".
o Adjust height of backrest to support the natural inward curvature of the lower
back.
o Adjust height of chair such that the feet rest flat on the floor.
o Sit upright in the chair with the lower back against the backrest.

EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Video display terminals generate electromagnetic fields (EMF) emissions, which can
pass through the human body.
MEASURES
Use low-emission monitors especially the modern screens
SYMPTOMS OF MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS

 Muscle fatigue or pain

 Aching
 Burning
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 Numbness
 Stiffness
 Tingling/stinging

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EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ICT
1. E-LEARNING
Refers to the use of electronic media and information and communication technologies
(ICT) in education.
(a) Uses of e-learning include engaging learners to use the web as:

 A source of materials in a wide range of formats. E-learning provides interactive

materials and activities such as text, graphics, animations, and, assessments, and
feedback. Online interaction may include tools like e-mail, bulletin/discussion
boards, chat rooms, and instant messaging.
 Online materials can contain voice, data, and video, and are available to the
students at any time from any place.
 Students can follow links to different references and to subject experts in order to
enhance their learning experience.
 Online discussion groups and message boards enable a student to collaborate with
the instructor, with other students in the class, or even with students across the
world.

(b) Introduction of Online Courses which provide online course materials, online
interaction between lecturers and students as well as online assessment. Online
courses:
a. Offer education to large numbers of students i.e. makes education more
accessible to people with limited financial resources.
b. Offer education at lower costs (travel, instructor fees, accommodation etc)
c. Offer shorter courses
Online courses, however, require large commitment to technology by the colleges
offering the courses. There is also lack of face-to-face contact between students and
instructors.
Online distance learning has removed geographic barriers and improved student
opportunity.

2. E-COMMERCE
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, is a type of
industry where the buying and selling of products or services is conducted over electronic
systems such as the Internet and other computer networks.
Technology can help throughout the process including promotion, searching, selecting,
negotiating, delivery, and support.
ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
 Increases the speed and accuracy with which businesses can exchange
information
 Electronic payments (tax refunds, paychecks, etc.) cost less to issue and are more
secure
 Enables people to conduct business from home
 Makes promotion easier for smaller firms
 Marketing campaigns can be designed and implemented to target specific
customer segments for example based on their search behaviour on the internet.
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DISADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE

• Some business processes are not suited to e-commerce, even with improvements
in technology
• Many products and services require a critical mass of potential buyers (e.g. online
grocers)
• Cultural impediments: People are reluctant to change in order to integrate new
technology
• The legal environment is uncertain. Laws covering some areas of e-commerce do
not exist and in some other areas, the judicial officers lack the relevant capacity
and training.

3. DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS OF ICT

Advances in ICT have also allowed it’s application in many areas of our lives including
homes where most of the domestic appliances now contain an embedded computer
system to carry out their control functions.
For example a modern washing machine has a computer system to handle all the complex
washing cycles. It ensures that the correct amount of water is used for the programme
selected and that the water is heated to the correct temperature.
Other examples of embedded computer systems in the home:

 central heating systems

 burglar alarm systems
 fire alarm systems
 microwaves
 dishwashers
 TVs

ADVANTAGES
(a) The appliances do not need direct human control because they have timers. This
means the user can leave them to complete their tasks so they have more leisure
time.
(b) The appliances are safer to use as they have safety checks built in. In a way,
computers systems such as these are 'invisible' to the user and are called
embedded systems.
(c) Computers linked to the Internet have greatly reduced the need for people to leave
the home in order to acquire goods and services for example:

 Entertainment - music and games can be downloaded. Movies can be

downloaded and this, along with Interactive digital television, means there is
no need to go to the cinema or video rental shop.
 Goods - these can be easily ordered from online stores and delivered to the
home.
 Food - takeaway food and groceries can be ordered online and delivered
directly to the door.
 Services - banking, ordering insurance and many other services can be carried
out over the Internet.

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4. E-GOVERNMENT
a. E-government services can be implemented using ICT to promote transparency in
public administrations and democratic processes, improving efficiency and
strengthening relations with citizens. Such services include Tax filing and revenue
collection, electronic voting, registration of persons and businesses etc.
b. Services, at all levels, can be adapted to the needs of citizens and business, to achieve
a more efficient allocation of resources and public goods.

5. E-HEALTH
a. The adoption of ICTs can be used to improve and extend health care and health
information systems to remote and underserved areas and vulnerable populations. For
instance interaction between a patient and a doctor who are miles apart can be made
possible through ICT.
b. ICTs can be used to alert, monitor and control the spread of communicable diseases,
through the improvement of common information systems.
c. ICT can be used for the exchange of health data, taking due account of privacy
concerns.
d. ICT can be used to promote continuous medical training, education, and research for
health-care providers in their areas of work without the need for institutionalized
training.
e.

6. E-EMPLOYMENT
a. ICT can used to promote teleworking to allow citizens, particularly in the developing
countries and small economies, to live in their societies and work anywhere.
b. ICT can be used to increase employment opportunities for those with disabilities.
c. Promote new ways of organizing work and business with the aim of raising
productivity, growth and well-being through investment in ICTs and human resources
for example in automating business processes to make the more efficient and cheaper.

7. E-ENVIRONMENT
a. ICT can be used to establish monitoring systems, to forecast and monitor the impact
of natural and man-made disasters, particularly in developing countries
b. Governments, in cooperation with other stakeholders are encouraged to use and
promote ICTs as an instrument for environmental protection and the sustainable use
of natural resources.
c. Government and the private should implement programmes for sustainable
production and consumption and the environmentally safe disposal and recycling of
discarded hardware and components used in ICTs.
d. E-Waste can be reduced:
i. From the manufacturing phase through:
a. Designing for easy disassembly and recycling
b. Avoiding use of heavy pollutants
c. Minimization on the use of resources
d. Regulations and standards
ii. During the life of equipment:
a. Prolonging its lifetime
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 b. Designing for reuse/multiple use
iii. At end of life:
a. E-waste conscious management

8. E-AGRICULTURE
a. ICT can be used to ensure the systematic dissemination of information on agriculture,
animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry and food, in order to provide ready access to
comprehensive, up-to-date and detailed knowledge and information, particularly in
rural areas.
b. ICTs can be used to market and sell agricultural products for example linking the
producers and potential buyers thereby reducing loss for the farmers and ensuring
proper distribution of food in the country.
c. Automation of farming technology e.g. computerized irrigation system which reduces
human error and wastage of water.

EMERGING ISSUES IN ICT

1. ICT has brought about the emergence of Cyber crimes such as pornography,
Electronic fraud, cyber stalking, terrorism etc
2. Wrong use of ICT leads to Internet and other types of computer addiction
3. Emergence of health and other safety issues related to computer use e.g.
Muscular-skeletal disorders such as tendonitis, backache and eyestrain.
4. Erosion of social and inter-personal skills

9. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Technology Transfer, also called Transfer of Technology (TOT) and Technology
Commercialization, is the process of transferring skills, knowledge, technologies and
facilities among governments or universities and other institutions to ensure that
scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users who
can then further develop and exploit the technology into new products, processes,
applications, materials or services.

Types of Technology Transfer:

o Cooperative research and development
o Licensing or sale of intellectual property
 Either across firms or to a startup spin-off firm
o Technical assistance
o Public exchange of information
 E.g. conferences, publications, networking

The Internet is an excellent example of a technology initially developed with government

support diffusing to have a broader commercial impact. The government through the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded construction of the
Internet but later made the network available for use by the general public.

Institutions for Technology Transfer

 Technology transfer can involve firms, governments, and universities.
 Research joint ventures (RJV)
 Industry-university collaborations

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